Journal of Advertising

ISSN: 0091-3367 (Print) 1557-7805 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ujoa20

Gender Roles

Martin Eisend

To cite this article: Martin Eisend (2019) Gender Roles, Journal of Advertising, 48:1, 72-80, DOI:
10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103

Published online: 01 Mar 2019.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 1671

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ujoa20
Journal of Advertising, 48: 72–80
Copyright # 2019, American Academy of Advertising
ISSN: 0091-3367 print / 1557-7805 online
DOI: 10.1080/00913367.2019.1566103
Gender Roles
Martin Eisend
European University Viadrina, Frankfurt (Oder), Germany
Research on gender roles in advertising revolves around three
main topics: the assessment and occurrence of gender roles, the
advertising effectiveness of gender roles, and the social effects of
gender roles on consumers and society. The current knowledge of
each topic reveals several gaps. To fill these gaps and increase the
general knowledge regarding gender roles, future research should
address several points. The first point includes the improvement of
assessing gender roles in advertising. Here, researchers should use
a broader concept of gender, explore new ways to characterize
and operationalize gender roles, develop a meaningful standard of
comparison to decide about stereotyping, and explore differences
in gender roles across media and advertising formats. Regarding
advertising effects, researchers should investigate moderators to
determine how negative effects of advertising with gender roles
can be avoided. As for social effects on consumers and society,
researchers should investigate the relationship between social and
brand-related effects of gender roles. Finally, future research
should develop an overarching framework for stereotype-prone
portrayals in advertising and discuss the responsibility of adver-
tisers who use stereotype portrayals.
Advertisers frequently use gender roles to promote
products. Research has shown a strong interest in study-
ing the portrayals of men and women in advertisements,
which was initiated by the assumption that advertise-
ments typically present a male viewpoint of the world,
leading to positive and negative consequences for market-
ers, consumers, and society. On one hand, using gender
roles in advertising can improve brand evaluations and
sales (Windels 2016). On the other hand, such representa-
tions of men and women can create or reinforce gender
stereotypes, causing a disadvantage for women or pro-
moting idealized standards (e.g., beauty ideals) that are
impossible for consumers to achieve (Pounders 2018;
Tuncay and Coleman 2015). These ambiguous effects are
not only challenging for advertisers who use gender roles
Address correspondence to Martin Eisend, European
University Viadrina, Grosse Scharrnstr. 59, 15230 Frankfurt
(Oder), Germany. E-mail: eisend@europa-uni.de
Martin Eisend (PhD, Free University Berlin) is a professor
of marketing, European University Viadrina.
72
but also leave researchers with several unanswered ques-
tions concerning gender roles in advertising. In this art-
icle, I identify various research gaps in the research
literature about gender roles in advertising, and I suggest
specific research directions for future research.
BACKGROUND AND KEY LITERATURE
Research on gender roles in advertising can be divided
into three main topics: the assessment and occurrence of
gender roles, the advertising effectiveness of gender roles,
and the social effects of gender roles on consumers
and society.
Assessment and Occurrence of Gender Roles
Advertising research often uses the terms gender roles
and gender stereotypes to describe the same phenomenon:
the belief that certain attributes differentiate men and
women (Ashmore and Del Boca 1981). These attributes
may be trait descriptors (e.g., self-assertion, concern for
others), physical characteristics (e.g., body height, hair
length), role behaviors (e.g., taking care of children, being
a leader), or occupational statuses (e.g., truck driver,
homemaker) (Deaux and Lewis 1984). Each attribute has
a masculine version and a feminine version that is signifi-
cantly more often associated with men or women,
respectively.
Several coding schemes have been developed to assess
the attributes of men and women through content analy-
ses (Courtney and Lockeretz 1971; Goffman 1979;
McArthur and Resko 1975). The attributes used in these
coding schemes apply to both men and women, and the
comparison across genders reveals various stereotypes
(e.g., whether men or women are depicted at home or at
work). Studies focusing on attributes which are idiosyn-
cratic for one gender and for which a counterpart does
not reveal a stereotype for the other (e.g., men’s muscular
body) are rare.
To determine whether gender stereotyping in advertis-
ing occurs, researchers require a comparison standard
 GENDER ROLES
that refers to the ideal of nonstereotyping. Multiple stud-
ies implicitly or explicitly refer to equality as a standard,
which is the equal representation of both genders based
on various attributes (Eisend 2010; Knoll, Eisend, and
Steinhagen 2011). Accordingly, stereotyping in advertis-
ing occurs when gender-role depictions deviate from
equality. This occurs, for instance, when more men than
women are depicted at work. However, not all attributes
can be compared to an equality standard, such as the
physical attributes of men and women (e.g., body height
or body weight), because men and women do not possess
equal physical attributes, nor would equality be a desir-
able or meaningful standard for these attributes. As an
alternative, the occurrence of certain characteristics in
real life (e.g., the actual or average body height and
weight of men and women) can serve as a standard.
When using either comparison standard, the findings
of content-analysis studies provide significant evidence
that gender in advertising is stereotyped and that the
extent of stereotyping seems to have decreased over time
(for an overview, see Eisend 2010; Furnham and Mak
1999; Furnham and Paltzer 2010; Grau and Zotos 2016).
Furthermore, the degree of gender stereotyping differs
among countries that vary regarding gender equality,
women empowerment, and gender-related values (Ford
et al. 1998; Milner and Collins 2000; Shaw, Eisend, and
Tan 2014). However, the differences among countries
seem to have become smaller over time (Eisend 2010;
Matthes, Prieler, and Adam 2016).
Advertising Effectiveness of Gender Roles
The findings describing advertising effectiveness of
gender roles are mixed. Positive advertising effects occur
when consumers perceive gender portrayals as congruent
with their existing social and cognitive schemata and
when they are in line with the consumers’ gender-role
expectations (Jaffe and Berger 1994; Orth and Holancova
2004; Putrevu 2004). Hence, stereotypical portrayals lead
to more positive ad and brand responses by consumers
holding more stereotypical views, while nontraditional or
counterstereotypical portrayals are better evaluated by
consumers with a nontraditional gender-role ideology
(Baxter, Kulczynski, and Ilicic 2016). Slight deviations
from schemas and expectations, as provided by some
counterstereotypical depictions, can also lead to favorable
advertising outcomes because they are more surprising
and elicit more positive feelings (Chu, Lee, and Kim
2016; Orth and Holancova 2003).
Whether stereotypical portrayals are more or less con-
gruent with consumers’ schemata and expectations and
lead to either positive or negative evaluations depends on
several factors. First, gender roles in society, including
73
evaluations of them in advertising, change over time.
Marketers are increasingly more likely to alienate con-
sumers by using traditional gender-role portrayals
(Pounders 2018; Windels 2016). Second, gender roles
change at different speeds in different societies; therefore,
the responses to traditional gender-role portrayals vary
by culture (De Meulenaer et al. 2017). Third, traditional
gender-role portrayals lead to more favorable responses
among men, while nonstereotypical or counterstereotypi-
cal depictions are more favored by women (Eisend,
Plagemann, and Sollwedel 2014; Whipple and Courtney
1985). These moderating variables are exogenous to
advertisers and cannot be influenced by them.
Social Effects of Gender Roles
The media influence a wide array of their users’ per-
ceptions, attitudes, values, and behavior. Hence, gender
roles in advertising (as a part of media) not only influence
brand-related attitudes and behavior of consumers but
can also contribute to non-brand-related and social
effects. Research shows that activation or reinforcement
of gender stereotypes through advertising reduces wom-
en’s professional performance, achievement aspirations,
and positive self-perceptions and thus challenges the pro-
vision of equal opportunities for both genders in society
(Davies et al. 2002; Davies, Spencer, and Steele 2005;
Yoder, Christopher, and Holmes 2008). Furthermore,
stereotyping of physical characteristics, such as idealized
body portrayals (e.g., slim female bodies, muscular male
bodies), was found to correlate with reduced body satis-
faction and self-esteem (Baird and Grieve 2006; Dens, De
Pelsmacker, and Janssens 2009; Grabe, Ward, and
Hyde 2008).
Two opposing positions argue whether advertising is
responsible for these negative social consequences: the
mirror argument versus the mold argument (Holbrook
1987; Pollay 1986, 1987). The mirror argument states that
advertising reflects values that already exist in society
(Holbrook 1987). Gender roles in advertising correspond
to cultural expectations toward gender, and advertisers
“mirror” the conventions and wishes of the society
(Tuncay and Coleman 2015; Windels 2016). The mirror
argument is usually bolstered by the fact that, given the
many factors that influence the value system of a society,
the impact of advertising is almost negligible. Advertisers
are aware of this negligible impact and use existing values
to promote brands rather than trying to alter these values
(Holbrook 1987). The mold argument supports the view
that gender roles in advertising create, shape, and
reinforce gender-stereotypical beliefs and values (Pollay
1986, 1987). This argument states that advertising culti-
vates the perceptions and beliefs of consumers to be more

Research Topic
Concept of gender
Gender-role attributes
Comparison standards
Occurrence of gender roles
Advertising effects
Relationship between gender roles
and values
Relationship between brand-related
and social effects
TABLE 1
Directions for Future Research on Gender Roles in Advertising
Research Gap
Prior research has emphasized a sex-binary
concept of gender but has neglected various
consumers outside of the binary.
Prior research has applied established coding
schemes with gender-role attributes devel-
oped by researchers but has neglected the
perspectives of consumers.
Prior research has focused on attributes that
apply to both men and women and stereo-
type women negatively but has neglected
other attributes and negative stereotyping
of men.
Prior research has mostly applied an equality
standard but has not discussed the appro-
priateness of different standards.
Prior research has explained variations in
portrayals over time and across cultures
but has neglected other explanatory factors.
Prior research has focused on time, culture,
and gender as moderators of advertising
effects but has neglected factors that are
not exogenous to advertisers.
Prior research has compared stereotypes ver-
sus nonstereotypes but has neglected differ-
ent degrees and categories of
stereotypicality.
Prior research has not provided sufficient evi-
dence to support either the mold or mirror
argument across different types of values
and gender-role attributes.
Prior research has neglected the relationship
between non-brand-related and brand-
related advertising effects.
74
Research Directions
Investigate the whole diversity of portrayals of persons
who do not fit the binary gender concept (e.g., trans-
gender, bisexuals).
Explore how consumers develop a stereotype judgment
and which attributes they use.
Consider and investigate gender-idiosyncratic attributes
that apply to only one gender or otherwise distinctive
attributes and consider attributes that negatively
stereotype men.
Discuss the appropriateness of different standards of
comparison for different attributes (“ideal-world”
equality or “real-world” distribution); apply and com-
pare these standards to evaluate research findings.
Investigate and compare gender-role portrayals in differ-
ent media and advertising formats, using appropriate
sampling procedures and coding schemes for online
M. EISEND
advertising, which considers its idiosyncrasies (e.g.,
personalization).
Explore moderators which could avoid negative effects
of stereotyping and which are under the control of
advertisers (e.g., humor, music, implicitly versus expli-
citly coded representations).
Develop and test different categories and degrees of gen-
der stereotyping. Identify the degree of stereotyping
that maximizes advertising effectiveness.
Collect longitudinal data on several gender-related values
in society and gender-role attributes in advertising and
identify the potential causal relationship. Include
appropriate control variables in the analysis to address
alternative explanations.
Specify and investigate the relationship between brand-
related and non-brand-related advertising effects of
gender roles.
(Continued)
 GENDER ROLES 75

consistent with the world presented in advertising than

Discuss more the responsibility of advertisers when refer-

mechanisms that apply to all portrayals in advertising

ring to appropriate comparison standards and define

with the real world (Gerbner et al. 2002). Individual

useful goals for gender portrayals that consider the

changes in gender-related attitudes, values, and behaviors
Develop an overarching framework, including basic

interests of consumers, advertisers, and society.

could be a result of (repeated) exposure to gender por-
trayals in advertising. This learning argument is import-
prone to stereotyping and discrimination. ant for the discussion about gender roles in advertising
for children, as research provides evidence that gender
Research Directions

stereotyping occurs and influences children’s perceptions

of and beliefs about gender (Browne 1998; Kolbe and
Muehling 1995; Maher and Childs 2003). While both
arguments are valid, they are still a subject of discussion
to conclude which one is most appropriate.
While the social effects of advertising have been dis-
cussed in neighboring research fields, only 1% of adver-
tising research articles published from 1980 to 2010
studied them (Kim et al. 2014). In addition, because
research in neighboring research fields does not study
brand-related advertising effects, there is little informa-
tion regarding the relationship between brand-related
effects and social effects of gender roles. These effects are
likely dependent on each other; the awareness of negative
social effects might harm the brand, but the same could
be true vice versa (Eisend 2016).
the responsibility of advertisers is unclear.
applied its knowledge to other portrayals

ambiguous concepts of stereotyping and

Policy implications have been based on
Prior research on gender roles has not
(Continued).
TABLE 1

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

After investigating the key literature on gender roles in
that are prone to stereotyping.

advertising, I found several gaps in advertising research

Research Gap

that require further study. Table 1 provides an overview

of the major research gaps and future research directions
and is further discussed in this section.

Extending the Concept of Gender

Research on gender roles focuses on a sex-binary con-
cept of gender and fails to capture the diversity of gender
identities. This is because the narrow view contradicts the
idea of a gender spectrum that goes beyond the trad-
itional female and male binary. It excludes many individ-
uals who exist outside this norm. In contrast, countries
worldwide (e.g., Australia, Canada, Germany, India)
have legally recognized gender indeterminacy, including
nonbinary and third-sex classifications for intersex and
Input for policy implications

transgender people (Dickens 2018). If advertising is to

Transfer of knowledge to

contribute to an equal opportunity policy and to repre-

sent all consumer groups, advertisers should think of
ways to include and depict individuals who do not fit the
other portrayals

binary gender concept. For this reason, researchers

Research Topic

should investigate how the inclusion of individuals out-

side of the female and male binary relates to advertising’s
brand-related and social effects. The research needs to go
beyond studies of advertising with homosexual imagery
(e.g., Åkestam, Rosengren, and Dahlen 2017; Hooten,
76 M. EISEND
Noeva, and Hammonds 2009) and consider additional
gender identity categories (e.g., transgender, bisexual).
Creating appropriate advertising stimuli that depict
endorsers and imagery beyond a sex-binary concept of
gender requires a mix of imagery, plots, iconography, and
appeals that represent the diversity of gender concepts
(e.g., Tsai 2010).
New Gender-Role Attributes
Researchers have developed and applied coding schemes
to assess gender roles in advertising based on conceptual
considerations and literature reviews. While the established
coding schemes are valuable, they primarily reflect the per-
spectives of researchers and not of consumers. Consumers
might use different attributes than researchers for their eval-
uations of gender roles. Even if consumers apply the coding
schemes developed by researchers, consumers might inter-
pret portrayals differently than researchers do (Åkestam
2017). To overcome a gap in the use of gender-role attrib-
utes and in coding results between researchers and consum-
ers, more qualitative research is required to identify how
consumers assess stereotypes and which attributes they con-
sider for their evaluation.
Research has been focusing on gender attributes such
as certain role behaviors (e.g., being a leader) or occupa-
tional statuses (e.g., homemaker) that apply to and com-
pare men and women, with the assumption that women
are disadvantaged but men are unaffected. Very few stud-
ies have focused on the role of men (e.g., Skelly and
Lundstrom 1981). Research has largely neglected that the
role of men has changed and that gender roles can nega-
tively affect them as well. Men today are more often care-
givers and less often the traditional providers. However,
advertisers do not seem to challenge the traditional roles
of paternal masculinity sufficiently (Baxter, Kulczynski,
and Ilicic 2016; Fowler and Thomas 2015; Marshall et al.
2014). Instead, they continue to portray men from a very
traditional masculine perspective, while neglecting the
reality of the “new man” (Patterson and Elliot 2002), for
instance, their current roles as fathers within families. The
cultural ideals of masculinity that are held up by trad-
itional gender stereotypes in advertising marginalize men
by forcing them into confined roles and expecting them
to living up to the masculine ideal (Holt and Thompson
2004). By supporting the status quo of a very traditional
male gender norm, advertising can increase male anxiety,
lead to problems with men’s self-confidence, and even
cause health problems (Gentry and Harrison 2010).
Several attributes are idiosyncratic for one gender or dis-
tinctive for both genders, because the counterpart of one
gender’s stereotype does not reveal a stereotype for the
other. For instance, advertising portrayals regularly feature
women of a slim body type and men of an athletic body
type (Gulas and McKeage 2000; Halliwell and Dittmar
2004). The counterpart of a slim body or a muscular body,
however, would not constitute a stereotype for men or
women, respectively. Similar to some other attributes, body
type is an attribute that refers to distinct aspects that stereo-
type either men or women. By focusing on such distinct
attributes, future research can enhance our understanding
when not only women but also men are stereotyped in a
negative way when there are, for example, unrealistic
expectations regarding muscular bodies or achievements in
life. Together, this information will provide important
insights into femininity or masculinity in advertising and
under which conditions they lead to negative consequences
for men and women (Gentry and Harrison 2010). In par-
ticular, the accumulation of stereotype attributes can lead to
very unrealistic expectations (e.g., men with muscular bodies
and successful careers) that increase the negative outcomes
for consumers and society.
Appropriate Comparison Standards
Research requires a meaningful standard of comparison
to decide whether gender stereotyping occurs and to what
degree. Currently, the most used standard is the equality
standard, which relates to occupation or role behavior and
describes the ideal of equal representation of both genders.
Using the actual occurrence of attributes in the real world
as a comparison standard leads to a different assessment.
For instance, women still occupy fewer leading positions in
the workplace. Thus, showing more men than women in
leading positions in advertisements corresponds to real-
world figures and would not be considered stereotyped
when using a real-world comparison standard, while it
would be considered stereotyped according to the equality
standard. Future research has to specify the “real world” as
it either relates to society as a whole (e.g., percentage of
leading positions held by women in a society) or to the par-
ticular advertisement’s target group (e.g., percentage of
leading positions held by women in a particular target
group, such as consumers between ages 18 and 39). It also
needs a conceptual discussion to determine an appropriate
comparison standard, asking questions such as “appropriate
for whom?” and “for what purpose?” Future research
should also focus on substantial comparisons of the differ-
ent standards: Research findings should be evaluated, com-
pared, and discussed in light of both standards.
Explain Variations in the Occurrence of Gender
Stereotypes
Content-analysis studies help researchers monitor the
development of gender roles over time and its variation
 GENDER ROLES
among different societies. Further research is required to
continue monitoring and to provide input for longitudinal
studies and integrative reviews that assess developments
in gender roles in advertising against the background of
changing gender roles in different societies.
Gender-role portrayals have been primarily investi-
gated in print and television advertising, while research
on gender-role portrayals in online platforms is rare (An
and Kim 2007; Plakoyiannaki et al. 2008). Online adver-
tising applies a variety of novel formats that differ along
several dimensions from traditional advertising formats.
These differences can contribute to explaining the vari-
ation in the occurrence and effects of gender stereotyping.
For instance, consumers expect personalized advertising
in social media, and any schema-incongruent portrayal in
social media advertisements might be considered more
offensive than nonpersonalized ones from traditional
media. For future content-analytical research with online
advertising formats, existing coding schemes should be
modified and extended to address the idiosyncrasies (e.g.,
personalization, interactivity) of online advertising for-
mats and their consumers. Furthermore, sampling proce-
dures that lead to representative samples of online
content that is not publicly accessible, such as social
media advertising, are difficult to implement, but the
methodology literature develops quickly and provides
some feasible suggestions (Hurwitz et al. 2018; Pi~ na-
Garcıa, Gershenson, and Siqueiros-Garcıa 2016).
Explain Variations in Advertising Effects of
Gender Roles
Whether consumers react positively or negatively to
gender roles in advertising depends on consumers’ sche-
mata and expectations. Culture, time, and gender are var-
iables that can explain variations in schemata and
expectations and have been investigated as moderators to
explain whether gender-role effects are positive or nega-
tive. These moderators are exogenous to advertisers and
therefore unimportant from a managerial point of view.
Advertising research has rarely looked at features that
advertisers can actively apply to avoid negative effects
caused by gender roles. For example, humor could help
reduce the negative effects of gender roles and to promote
counterstereotypes as it places consumers in a less critical
mode (Eisend, Plagemann, and Sollwedel 2014). Other
advertisement features that can distract from critically
evaluated content, such as music or colors (Fraser and
Bradford 2013), could also be moderators and could help
advertisers steer stereotype effects in the desired direction.
Another potential approach to promote counterstereo-
types without alienating consumers with traditional views
might be the application of more implicit and coded
77
representations of gender roles as previously done in the
context of “gay window advertising” (Oakenfull,
McCarthy, and Greenlee 2008).
An intriguing question is whether advertisers need ster-
eotypes at all to promote their products. For example, in
a study by Antioco, Smeesters, and Boedec (2012), results
showed that nonstereotyped portrayals—regarding female
body size—led to positive advertising effects. The ques-
tion arises regarding what “nonstereotyping” actually
refers to when considering the different comparison
standards of stereotyping: Is it the equality standard (e.g.,
women should be depicted as homeworkers as often as
men) or the actual occurrence of attributes (e.g., women
should be depicted more often as homemakers than men,
because more women than men manage household affairs
and do housework)? As an alternative, future research
might refrain from using a simple dichotomy (e.g., non-
stereotypical versus stereotypical depictions) but differen-
tiate between different degrees and categories of
stereotyping. These degrees must be pretested carefully to
address the current gender-role perspectives of consumers
in society and how they assess and evaluate stereotypes.
Referring to the example of homemakers, a woman pre-
paring food for her husband would be considered very
stereotypical in many Western societies, while a woman
at work at an office job would be considered less stereo-
typical. A woman who manages a company would be
considered even less stereotypical, and a woman astro-
naut would be considered almost counterstereotypical.
These categories are sorted along the actual occurrences
of stereotype attributes in society (i.e., from high to low
occurrences of women in a particular category). At the
same time, the categories address the aspect of an equality
standard, as the order indicates which depictions should
be used less or more to provide depictions that comply
with a gender equality standard. Knowledge about the
influence of different degrees or levels of stereotyping
might help identify an optimal gender-role portrayal that
maximizes advertising effects.
Explain the Relationship between Gender Roles
and Values
Whether gender roles in advertising activate and
reinforce stereotypical values and beliefs in society that
disadvantage women or whether such values and beliefs
motivate advertisers to use stereotypical gender roles has
been investigated based on meta-analytic data by Eisend
(2010), but the question needs further longitudinal studies
that take into account a broader set of gender-role attrib-
utes (including, among others, male attributes such as
muscular bodies) and societal values and beliefs (e.g.,
regarding career opportunities or beauty ideals of men
78 M. EISEND
and women). Because they use repeated observations, lon-
gitudinal studies can address the temporal order of
events, which is a crucial condition for establishing a
causal relationship (Rindfleisch et al. 2008). Such studies
would require careful considerations of control variables
in the respective analytical models to ensure coherence,
that is, to analyze whether the relationship between gen-
der roles and gender-related values conforms to expecta-
tions and is not subject to alternative explanations. For
instance, several countries have introduced at different
times anti-discrimination laws or parental allowance for
fathers who take a leave of absence. These events provide
alternative explanations for changes of both gender-role
depictions in advertising and gender-related values over
time and across countries.
Connect Brand-Related and Non-Brand-Related
Advertising Effects
Research that brings together brand-related and social
advertising effects of gender roles is scarce, although the
effects are likely to be connected. The common explan-
ation is that positive or negative social effects (e.g.,
acceptance or rejection of gender-role portrayals in adver-
tising) lead to corresponding positive or negative brand-
related effects via cognitive priming or reactance
(Åkestam 2017). However, the relationship is not neces-
sarily unidirectional. Brand-related effects could have an
impact on social effects (e.g., purchasing brands that
reflect particular gender stereotypes, such as sport cars,
might strengthen gender-related values); social effects
could have an impact on brand-related effects; or they
could influence each other. Further research that meas-
ures both brand-related and non-brand-related dependent
variables at different points in time can help disentangle
both effects of gender roles.
Transfer the Knowledge to Other Stereotype-Prone
Portrayals
The knowledge about how to assess gender roles in
advertising and how gender roles influence consumers
and society can be used for other portrayals in advertising
that are prone to stereotyping and discrimination. These
include ethnic groups (e.g., R€ oßner, K€ammerer, and
Eisend 2017), religious minorities and majority groups
(e.g., Schlegelmilch, Khan, and Hair 2016), and por-
trayals of groups with different sexual orientations (e.g.,
Read, Driel, and Potter 2018). The general concept of
value and belief congruency that covers similar or related
theoretical concepts of identity building, in-group and
out-group formation, similarity, or targetedness (Aaker,
Brumbaugh, and Grier 2000; Grier and Brumbaugh 1999)
should be applied to all of these portrayals, as well as to
most of the suggested moderators. Such a comprehensive
theoretical diversity framework that explains how stereo-
typed portrayals in advertising influence consumers could
identify the similarities and differences between these dif-
ferent types of portrayals and their effects on consumers
and society. This framework could also consider overlaps
between different portrayals and different consumer char-
acteristics and therefore investigate various dimensions
and degrees of diversity (e.g., women who belong to an
ethnic minority group).
Provide Input for Policy Implications
Gender roles have a social and political dimension,
raising additional questions: What is the responsibility of
advertisers using gender roles? Do advertisers need to
reflect the world in terms of gender equality as it is or as
it should be? Does the responsibility of advertisers differ
across consumer groups who might be differently affected
by gender stereotypes (e.g., children versus adults)? While
these questions have been addressed by policymakers and
advertising associations, the discussion is led by some
ambiguous conceptualizations and different comparison
standards to assess stereotyping. The discussion can be
fruitful only when it uses relevant and rigorous research
evidence to evaluate ethical, political, and societal consid-
erations. Policy implications need to consider the interests
of different stakeholder groups that might not be easily
aligned. Consumers do not want to see the gray of daily
life in advertising. Therefore, advertisers need to appeal
to consumers’ dreams to sell their products, while society
might benefit from realistic or ideal gender-role depictions
(e.g., gender empowerment), which might contradict the
interests of both consumers and advertisers.
REFERENCES
Aaker, Jennifer L., Anne M. Brumbaugh, and Sonya A. Grier (2000),
“Nontarget Markets and Viewer Distinctiveness: The Impact of
Target Marketing on Advertising Attitudes,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 9 (3), 127–40.
Åkestam, Nina (2017), “Understanding Advertising Stereotypes: Social
and Brand-Related Effects of Stereotyped versus Non-Stereotyped
Portrayals in Advertising,” unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Stockholm School of Economics.
———, Sara Rosengren, and Micael Dahlen (2017), “Think About It—
Can Portrayals of Homosexuality in Advertising Prime Consumer-
Perceived Social Connectedness and Empathy?,” European Journal of
Marketing, 51 (1), 82–98.
An, Daechun, and Sanghoon Kim (2007), “Relating Hofstede’s
Masculinity Dimension to Gender Role Portrayals in Advertising: A
Cross-Cultural Comparison of Web-Advertisements,” International
Marketing Review, 24 (2), 181–207.
Antioco, Michael, Dirk Smeesters, and Aline Le Boedec (2012), “Take
Your Pick: Kate Moss or the Girl Next Door? The Effectiveness of
 GENDER ROLES
Cosmetics Advertising,” Journal of Advertising Research, 52 (1),
15–30.
Ashmore, Richard D., and Frances K. Del Boca (1981), “Conceptual
Approaches to Stereotypes and Stereotyping,” in Cognitive Processes
in Stereotyping and Intergroup Behavior, David L. Hamilton, ed.,
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1–35.
Baird, A.L., and F.G. Grieve (2006), “Exposure to Male Models in
Advertisements Leads to a Decrease in Men’s Body Satisfaction,”
North American Journal of Psychology, 8 (1), 115–21.
Baxter, Stacey M., Alicia Kulczynski, and Jasmina Ilicic (2016), “Ads
Aimed at Dads: Exploring Consumers’ Reactions towards
Advertising That Conforms and Challenges Traditional Gender Role
Ideologies,” International Journal of Advertising, 35 (6), 970–82.
Browne, Beverly A. (1998), “Gender Stereotypes in Advertising on
Children’s Television in the 1990s: A Cross-National Analysis,”
Journal of Advertising, 27 (1), 83–96.
Chu, Kyounghee, Doo-Hee Lee, and Ji Yoon Kim (2016), “The Effect
of Non-Stereotypical Gender Role Advertising on Consumer
Evaluation,” International Journal of Advertising, 35 (1), 106–34.
Courtney, Alice E., and Sarah W. Lockeretz (1971), “A Woman’s Place:
An Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine
Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research, 8 (1), 92–95.
Davies, Paul G., Steven J. Spencer, Diane M. Quinn, and Rebecca
Gerhardstein (2002), “Consuming Images: How Television
Commercials That Elicit Stereotype Threat Can Restrain Women
Academically and Professionally,” Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 28 (12), 1615–28.
———, ———, and Claude M. Steele (2005), “Clearing the Air: Identity
Safety Moderates the Effects of Stereotype Threat on Women’s
Leadership Aspirations,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 88 (2), 276–87.
Deaux, Kay, and Laurie L. Lewis (1984), “Structure of Gender
Stereotypes: Interrelationships among Components and Gender
Label,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46 (5),
991–1004.
De Meulenaer, Sarah, Nathalie Dens, Patrick De Pelsmacker, and
Martin Eisend (2017), “How Consumers’ Values Influence
Responses to Male and Female Gender Role Stereotyping in
Advertising,” International Journal of Advertising, published electron-
ically August 4,
Dens, Nathalie, Patrick De Pelsmacker, and Wim Janssens (2009),
“Effects of Scarcely Dressed Models in Advertising on Body Esteem
for Belgian Men and Women,” Sex Roles, 60 (5–6), 366–78.
Dickens, Bernhard M. (2018), “Management of Intersex Newborns:
Legal and Ethical Developments,” International Journal of
Gynecology and Obstetrics, 143 (2), 255–59.
Eisend, Martin (2010), “A Meta-Analysis of Gender Roles in
Advertising,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38 (4),
418–40.
——— (2016), “Comment: Advertising, Communication, and Brands,”
Journal of Advertising, 45 (3), 353–55.
———, Julia Plagemann, and Julia Sollwedel (2014), “Gender Roles and
Humor in Advertising: The Occurrence of Stereotyping in Humorous
and Nonhumorous Advertising and Its Consequences for
Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Advertising, 43 (3), 256–73.
Ford, John B., Patricia Kramer Voli, Earl D. Honeycutt, and Susan L.
Casey (1998), “Gender Role Portrayals in Japanese Advertising: A
Magazine Content Analysis,” Journal of Advertising, 27 (1), 113–24.
Fowler, Kendra, and Veronica Thomas (2015), “A Content Analysis of
Male Roles in Television Advertising: Do Traditional Roles Still
Hold?,” Journal of Marketing Communications, 21 (5), 356–71.
Fraser, Cynthia, and J. Andrew Bradford (2013), “Music to Your Brain:
Background Music Changes Are Processed First, Reducing Ad
Message Recall,” Psychology and Marketing, 30 (1), 62–75.
79
Furnham, Adrian, and Twiggy Mak (1999), “Sex-Role Stereotyping in
Television Commercials: A Review and Comparison of Fourteen
Studies Done on Five Continents over 25 Years,” Sex Roles, 41 (5/
6), 413–37.
———, and S. Paltzer (2010), “The Portrayal of Men and Women in
Television Advertisements: An Updated Review of 30 Studies
Published Since 2000,” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 51 (3),
216–36.
Gentry, James, and Robert Harrison (2010), “Is Advertising a Barrier to
Male Movement toward Gender Change?,” Marketing Theory, 10
(1), 74–96.
Gerbner, George, Larry Gross, Michael Morgan, Nancy Signorielli, and
James Shanahan (2002), “Growing Up with Television: Cultivation
Processes,” in Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research,
Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann, eds., Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum,
43–67.
Goffman, Erving (1979), Gender Advertisements, London: MacMillan
Press.
Grabe, Shelly, L. Monique Ward, and Janet Shibley Hyde (2008), “The
Role of the Media in Body Image Concerns among Women: A
Meta-Analysis of Experimental and Correlational Studies,”
Psychological Bulletin, 134 (3), 460–76.
Grau, Stacy Landreth, and Yorgos C. Zotos (2016), “Gender
Stereotypes in Advertising: A Review of Current Research,”
International Journal of Advertising, 35 (5), 761–70.
Grier, Sonya A., and Anne M. Brumbaugh (1999), “Noticing Cultural
Differences: Ad Meanings Created by Target and Non-Target
Markets,” Journal of Advertising, 28 (1), 79–93.
Gulas, Charles S., and Kim McKeage (2000), “Extending Social
Comparison: An Examination of the Unintended Consequences of
Idealized Advertising Imagery,” Journal of Advertising, 27 (1), 83–96.
Halliwell, Emma, and Helgo Dittmar (2004), “Does Size Matter? The
Impact of Model’s Body Size on Women’s Body-Focused Anxiety
and Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Social and Clinical
Psychology, 23 (1), 104–22.
Holbrook, Morris B. (1987), “Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall, What’s
Unfair in the Reflections on Advertising?,” Journal of Marketing, 51
(3), 95–103.
Holt, Douglas B., and Craig J. Thompson (2004), “Man-of-Action
Heroes: The Pursuit of Heroic Masculinity in Everyday
Consumption,” Journal of Consumer Research, 31 (2), 425–40.
Hooten, Mary Ann, Kristina Noeva, and Frank Hammonds (2009),
“The Effects of Homosexual Imagery in Advertisements on Brand
Perception and Purchase Intention,” Social Behavior and Personality,
37 (9), 1231–38.
Hurwitz, Lisa B., Aubry L. Alvarez, Alexis R. Lauricella, Thomas H.
Rousse, Heather Montague, and Ellen Wartella (2018), “Content
Analysis across New Media Platforms: Methodological
Considerations for Capturing Media-Rich Data,” New Media and
Society, 20 (2), 532–48.
Jaffe, L.J., and P.D. Berger (1994), “The Effect of Modern Female Role
Portrayals on Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Advertising
Research, 34 (4), 32–41.
Kim, Kyongseok, Jameson L. Hayes, J. Adam Avant, and Leonard N.
Reid (2014), “Trends in Advertising Research: A Longitudinal
Analysis of Leading Advertising, Marketing, and Communication
Journals, 1980 to 2010,” Journal of Advertising, 43 (3), 296–316.
Knoll, Silke, Martin Eisend, and Josefine Steinhagen (2011), “Gender
Roles in Advertising: Measuring and Comparing Gender
Stereotyping on Public and Private TV Channels in Germany,”
International Journal of Advertising, 30 (5), 867–88.
Kolbe, Richard H., and Darrel Muehling (1995), “Gender Roles and
Children’s Television Advertising,” Journal of Current Issues and
Research in Advertising, 17 (1), 49–64.
80 M. EISEND
Maher, Jill K., and Nancy M. Childs (2003), “A Longitudinal Content
Analysis of Gender Roles in Children’s Television Advertisements: A
27 Year Review,” Journal of Current Issues and Research in
Advertising, 25 (1), 71–81.
Marshall, David, Teresa Davis, Margaret K. Hogg, Tanja Schneider,
and Alan Petersen (2014), “From Overt Provider to Invisible
Presence: Discursive Shifts in Advertising Portrayals of the Father in
Good Housekeeping, 1950–2010,”Journal of Marketing Management,
30 (15–16), 1654–79.
Matthes, J€ org, Michael Prieler, and Karoline Adam (2016), “Gender-
Role Portrayals in Television Advertising across the Globe,” Sex
Roles, 75 (7), 314–27.
McArthur, Leslie Zebrowitz, and Beth Gabrielle Resko (1975), “The
Portrayal of Men and Women in American Television
Commercials,” Journal of Social Psychology, 97 (2), 209–20.
Milner, Laura M., and James M. Collins (2000), “Sex-Role Portrayals
and the Gender of Nations,” Journal of Advertising, 29 (1), 67–79.
Oakenfull, Gillian K., Michael S. McCarthy, and Timothy B. Greenlee
(2008), “Targeting a Minority without Alienating the Majority:
Advertising to Gays and Lesbians in Mainstream Media,” Journal of
Advertising Research, 48 (2), 191–98.
Orth, Ulrich R., and Denisa Holancova (2003), “Consumer Response to
Sex Role Portrayals in Advertisements,” Journal of Advertising, 32
(4), 77–89.
———, and ——— (2004), “Men’s and Women’s Responses to Sex Role
Portrayals in Advertisements,” International Journal of Research in
Marketing, 21 (1), 77–88.
Patterson, Maurice, and Richard Elliot (2002), “Negotiating
Masculinities: Advertising and the Inversion of the Male Gaze,”
Consumption, Markets, and Culture, 5 (3), 231–46.
Pi~
na-Garcıa, C.A., Carlos Gershenson, and J. Mario Siqueiros-Garcıa
(2016), “Towards a Standard Sampling Methodology on Online
Social Networks: Collecting Global Trends on Twitter,” Applied
Network Science, 1 (3), 1–19.
Plakoyiannaki, Emmanuella, Kalliopi Mathioudaki, Pavlos Dimitratos,
and Yorgos Zotos (2008), “Images of Women in Online
Advertisements of Global Products: Does Sexism Exist?,” Journal of
Business Ethics, 83 (11), 101–12.
Pollay, Richard W. (1986), “The Distorted Mirror: Reflections on the
Unintended Consequences of Advertising,” Journal of Marketing, 50
(2), 18–36.
——— (1987), “On the Value of Reflections on the Values in ‘The
Distorted Mirror’,” Journal of Marketing, 51 (3), 104–10.
Pounders, Kathryn (2018), “Are Portrayals of Female Beauty in
Advertising Finally Changing?,” Journal of Advertising Research, 58
(2), 133–37.
Putrevu, Sanjay (2004), “Communicating with the Sexes: Male and
Female Responses to Print Advertisements,” Journal of Advertising,
33 (3), 51–62.
Read, Glenna L., Irene I. van Driel, and Robert F. Potter (2018),
“Same-Sex Couples in Advertisements: An Investigation of the Role
of Implicit Attitudes on Cognitive Processing and Evaluation,”
Journal of Advertising, 47 (2), 182–97.
Rindfleisch, Aric, Alan J. Malter, Shankar Ganesan, and Christine
Moorman (2008), “Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Survey
Research: Concepts, Findings, and Guidelines,” Journal of
Marketing Research, 54 (3), 261–79.
R€
oßner, Anna, Maren K€ ammerer, and Martin Eisend (2017), “Effects
of Ethnic Advertising on Consumers of Minority and Majority
Groups: The Moderating Effect of Humor,” International Journal of
Advertising, 36 (1), 190–205.
Schlegelmilch, Bodo B., Mubbsher Munawar Khan, and Joe F. Hair
(2016), “Halal Endorsements: Stirring Controversy or Gaining New
Customers?,” International Marketing Review, 33 (1), 156–74.
Shaw, Ping, Martin Eisend, and Yue Tan (2014), “Gender-Role
Portrayals in International Advertising,” in The Handbook of
International Advertising Research, Hong Cheng, ed., Chichester:
John Wiley & Sons, 299–312.
Skelly, Gerald U., and William J. Lundstrom (1981), “Male Sex Roles
in Magazine Advertising, 1959–1979,” Journal of Communication, 31
(4), 52–57.
Tsai, Wan-Hsiu Sunny (2010), “Assimilating the Queers:
Representations of Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexual, and Transgender
People in Mainstream Advertising,” Advertising and Society Review,
11 (1), published electronically,
Tuncay, Linda, and Catherine A. Coleman (2015), “Advertising
Professionals’ Perceptions of the Impact of Gender Portrayals on
Men and Women: A Question of Ethics?,” Journal of Advertising, 44
(3), 1–12.
Whipple, Thomas W., and Alice E. Courtney (1985), “Female Role
Portrayals in Advertising and Communication Effectiveness: A
Review,” Journal of Advertising, 14 (3), 4–8,17.
Windels, Kasey (2016), “Stereotypical or Just Typical: How Do U.S.
Practitioners View the Role and Function of Gender Stereotypes in
Advertisements?,” International Journal of Advertising, 35 (5),
864–87.
Yoder, Janice D., Jessica Christopher, and Jeffrey D. Holmes (2008),
“Are Television Commercials Still Achievement Scripts for
Women?,” Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (3), 303–11.