Chapter 1: Sources and general introduction to oils and fats.

Fats and Oils

Fats and oils are chemical substances, which constructed of building blocks called
“triglycerides” resulting from the combination of one unit of glycerol and three units of fatty
acids. Oil are ester of fatty acid with glycerol in which fatty acids are mostly long chain
unsaturated and they are liquid at ambient temperature. But fat contains mostly short chain
saturated fatty acids and so they are solid at ambient temperature.

The common characteristic of such oils and fats are-

1. They may be decomposed into glycerin and one or more acids of the class known to
fatty acids.
2. They float on water but are not soluble in it.
3. They are greasy to the touch, and have lubricating properties;
4. They are not readily volatile and may be burned without leaving any residue, i.e., ash.

The differences between oils and fats are:

1) Fats are solid at room temperature where oils are liquid at room temperature.
2) Fats are more saturated (more number of single bonds between its carbon atoms) compared
to oils.
3) Fats are generally an animal product where as oils are often a plant derived product.

Chemical composition of fats and oils

The main components of edible fats and oils are triglycerides. The minor components include
mono and diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins,
tocopherols, pigments, waxes, fatty alcohols and others.

The Major Component- Triglycerides

Triglycerides are neutral lipid molecules created through the esterification of three fatty acids
to a single glycerol molecule. If all three fatty acids are identical, it is a simple triglyceride.
The more common forms, however, are the “mixed” triglycerides in which two or three kinds

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of fatty acids are present in the molecule. Illustrations of typical simple and mixed
triglyceride molecular structures are shown below.

The number of double bonds in the fatty acids affects the melting temperature of the
triglyceride. Saturated fats have higher melting points and are often solids at room
temperature. Triglyceride is stored within cells that make up adipose tissue (fat).
Triglycerides are the most abundant form of stored potential fuel in the human body. A
typical 70-kilogram (154-pound) man will have approximately 15 kilograms (33 pounds) of
stored triglyceride, representing several months of stored fuel.

The Minor Components

1. Mono and Diglycerides: Mono and diglycerides are mono and diesters of fatty acids and
glycerol. They are used frequently in foods as emulsifiers. They are prepared commercially
by the reaction of glycerol and triglycerides or by the esterification of glycerol and fatty
acids. Mono and diglycerides are formed in the intestinal tract as a result of the normal
digestion of triglycerides. They occur naturally in very minor amounts in both animal fats and
vegetable oils.

2. Fatty Alcohols: Long chain alcohols are of little importance in most edible fats. A small
amount esterified with fatty acids is present in waxes found in some vegetable oils. Larger
quantities are found in some marine oils. Tocotrienols are mainly present in palm oil, and can
also be found in rice bran and wheat germ oils.

3. Phosphatides: Phosphatides, also known as phospholipids, consist of an alcohol (usually

glycerol) combined with fatty acids, and a phosphate ester. The majority of the phosphatides
are removed from oil during refining. Phosphatides are an important source of natural
emulsifiers marketed as lecithin.

4. Sterols: Sterols are found in both animal fats and vegetable oils, but there are substantial
biological differences. Cholesterol is the primary animal fat sterol and is found in vegetable

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oils in only trace amounts. Vegetable oil sterols are collectively called “phytosterols.”
Stigmasterol and sitosterol are the best-known vegetable oil sterols. Sitosterol has been
shown to reduce both serum and LDL cholesterol when incorporated into margarines and/or
salad dressings. The type and amount of vegetable oil sterols vary with the source of the oil.

5. Tocopherols and Tocotrienols: Tocopherols and tocotrienols are important minor

constituents of most vegetable fats. They serve as antioxidants to retard rancidity and as
sources of the essential nutrient vitamin E. The common types of tocopherols and tocotrienols
are alpha (α), beta (β), gamma (γ), and delta (δ). They vary in antioxidation and vitamin E
activity. Among tocopherols, alpha-tocopherol has the highest vitamin E activity and the
lowest antioxidant activity. Delta tocopherol has the highest antioxidant activity.

6. Pigments: Carotenoids are yellow to deep red color materials that occur naturally in fats
and oils. They consist mainly of carotenes such as lycopene, and xanthophylls such as lutein.
Palm oil contains the highest concentration of carotene. Chlorophyll is the green coloring
matter of plants, which plays an essential role in photosynthesis. Canola oil contains the
highest levels of chlorophyll among common vegetable oils.

7. Free Fatty Acids: As the name suggests, free fatty acids are the unattached fatty acids
present in a fat. Some unrefined oils may contain as much as several percent free fatty acids.
The levels of free fatty acids are reduced in the refining process. Fully refined fats and oils
usually have a free fatty acid content of less than 0.1%. Some fatty acids in oils and fats are-

Sources of Oils and Fats

Fats and oils are produced from two different sources: 1. Animal Sources (terrestrial and
marine sources) 2. Vegetable Sources.

Animal Sources
Animal fats and oils are derived both from terrestrial and marine animals. Marine fats include
liver oils, blubber oils, and fish oils. In addition, from certain marine animals waxes are
obtained, e.g., spermaceti, which, because it is a wax and not a fat. With two important
exceptions animal fats are obtained from carcasses. These two exceptions are butter and the
fat of the yolks of eggs. Lard and Tallow are two important animal origins. Carcass fat is
found in different locations. There is a good deal of it in the visceral cavities and in and
around the viscera. More or less of it occurs in the muscles, in the connective tissue, under
the skin, and in the bones. The proportions found in the different parts of the body vary from
species to species and in any given species with the age of the individual animal and its
condition. The fats from the different parts and organs of a given animal differ somewhat in
their properties.

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Vegetable Sources
Vegetable fats and oils are found in greatest abundance in fruits and seeds. While fats and
oils do occur in the roots, stalks, branches, and leaves of plants, they are rarely present in
these organs in quantities large enough for commercial purposes. The vegetable oils are
usually classified into groups according to their fatty acid composition. In this manner, the
oils are divided into the lauric acid containing oils, such as palm kernel oils, cocoa butter;
linoleic acid oils, such as cottonseed; linolenic acid oils, such as soybean oil and erucic acid
oils, such as rapseed oil.

Types of oil and fat

a. Types of fats (animal and vegetable fats). b. Types of oil (animal and vegetable oils).
 Soft margarine.  Olive oil.
 Hard margarine.  Rape seed oil.
 Dripping.  Sesame seed oil.
 Lard.  Fish oils.
 Butter.  Sunflower oil.
 Low fat spread.  Cod liver oil.
 Suet.
 Cocoa Butter.

Margarine
Margarine is a vegetable fat, which is produce by the hydrogenation of vegetable oils, but
some do contain milk or other animal fats. Some types of margarine are lower in saturated fat
and overall total fat than butter, so can be a healthier choice if you are on a reduced-fat diet,
again check the label before buying. There are two main types of margarine - hard margarine,
which is sold in blocks like butter, and soft margarine, which is sold in tubs. Soft margarine is
not really a substitute for butter but can be used as a spread and in some cake recipes (only
where soft margarine is specified), it cannot be used for frying as it burns very easily. Hard
margarine has similar properties to butter and can be used for baking, frying and spreading.
Low-fat margarines are not suitable for cooking or baking due to their high water content.

Dripping
It is also know as beef dripping or, more rarely, as pork dripping, is an animal fat produced
from the fatty or otherwise unusable parts of cow or pig carcasses. It is similar to lard, tallow
and schmaltz.

Lard
Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. It must come primarily from
visceral depot fats and subcutaneous fatty tissues. If skin fats, bone fats and cured ham
facings are used then it is called rendered pork fat. Lard was commonly used in many
cuisines as a cooking fat or shortening, or as a spread similar to butter. It is also used for the
production of cosmetic items in the world.

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Tallow
Tallow is normally thought of as beef fat. It may contain mutton tallow or lard. A carefully
processed wet rendered beef fat was once a major source of edible fat. The rendered tallow is
known as oleo oil and it have mild oleo flavor, which is not removed by deodorization. Oleo
is also converted to margarine by emulsification with milk. More recently candy
manufacturers used it as a replacement for butter oil since it had a similar flavor and similar
melting characteristics.
Butter
Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. It is generally
used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, and
pan-frying. Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water.

Spread
Spread is a food that is literally spread, generally with a knife, onto bread, crackers, or other
food products. Spreads are added to food to provide flavor and texture, and are an integral
part of the dish, i.e. they should be distinguished from condiments, which are optional
additions. Spreads should also be distinguished from dips, which generally are not applied to
food via a knife or similar utensil, such as salsa.
Suet
Suet is raw beef or mutton fat, especially the hard fat found around the loins and kidneys.
Suet has a melting point of between 45° and 50°C (113° and 122°F) and congelation between
37° and 40°C. (98.6° and 104°F). Its high smoke point makes it ideal for deep-frying and
pastry production.

Marine oils
The major marine oils are from the menhaden, Pilchard, Sardine and Whale. Marine oils are
highly unsaturated. The unsaturated oils oxidized quickly to develop extremely disagreeable
fishy flavors and odors. The oils become fairly stable by hydrogenation. The hydrogenated
oils have characteristics sweet odor and flavor somewhat reminiscent of undeodorized fully
hydrogenated vegetable oil.

Drying and Non-drying Oils

Drying oils absorb oxygen from the air and are thereby converted into plastic, elastic, resin-
like substances. Hence, when exposed in a thin layer, as in painting, they form a tough,
elastic, waterproof film, which adheres tightly to the painted surface and protects it from the
weather. The two chief drying oils are linseed oil and tung (chinawood) oil, which find wide
use in the manufacture of paints, varnishes, artificial rubber, linoleums, and other coverings.

The non-drying oils find a wide variety of industrial uses: they enter into soaps and cleansers,
cosmetics, lubricants, leather dressings, and candles. They are used in the processes of wool
manufacture, especially carding; they are employed in making tin plate and in foundry work.

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The formulas of these acids (disregarding isomers) are as follows:

Classification of Fatty Acids

Fatty acids occurring in edible fats and oils are classified according to their degree of
saturation. Mainly two types of fatty acids are found in oils and fats and they are-

1. Saturated Fatty Acids: Those containing only single carbon-to-carbon bonds are termed
“saturated” and are the least reactive chemically. The melting point of saturated fatty acids
increases with chain length. Decanoic and longer chain fatty acids are solids at normal room
temperatures.

2. Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Fatty acids containing one or more carbon-to-carbon double
bonds are termed “unsaturated” fatty acids. Due to the presence of double bond, they are
more reactive than saturated fatty acids. They are two types-

a. Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA): Fatty acids in this category have what is known as
one double bond in their chemical make-up. They are relatively stable to oxidation and the
development of rancidity and are now considered, in nutritional terms, as being the best type
of fat to eat. 
 The most common source of monounsaturated is Olive Oil and Rapeseed oils.

b. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA): Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain two or more
double bonds in their chemical make-up. They are least stable fatty acids to oxidation and as
such are best used in cold applications. The most common source of polyunsaturated is
Sunflower seed oil.

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which have been found
especially good for health. This is one of the two Essential fatty acids, so called because
humans cannot manufacture it and must get it from food. Omega-3 fatty acids are mostly

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obtained from oily fish caught in high-latitude waters. They are comparatively uncommon in
vegetable sources, including margarine. However, one type of Omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-
Linolenic acid (ALA) can be found in some vegetable oils. Flax oil contains 30-50% of ALA,
and is becoming a popular dietary supplement to rival fish oils; both are often added to
premium margarines. An ancient oil plant, camelina sativa, has recently gained popularity
because of its high Omega-3 content (30-45%), and it has been added to some margarines.
Hemp oil contains about 20% ALA. Small amounts of ALA are found in vegetable oils such
as soybean oil (7%), rapeseed oil (7%) and wheat germ oil (5%).

Omega-6 fatty acids

Omega-6 fatty acids are also important for health. They include the essential fatty acid
linoleic acid (LA), which is abundant in vegetable oils grown in temperate climates. Some,
such as hemp (60%) and the common margarine oils corn (60%), cottonseed (50%) and
sunflower (50%), have large amounts, but most temperate oil seeds have over 10% LA.
Margarine is very high in omega-6 fatty acids. Modern Western diets are frequently quite
high in Omega-6 but very deficient in Omega-3. The omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is typically
10:1 to 30:1. Large amounts of omega-6 decrease the effect of omega-3. Therefore it is
recommended that the ratio in the diet should be less than 4:1, although optimal ratio may be
closer to 1:1.

c. Trans fat
Unlike other dietary fats, trans fatty acids are not essential and provide no known benefit to
human health. As with saturated fatty acids, there is a positive linear trend between trans fatty
acid intake and LDL cholesterol concentration, and therefore increased risk of coronary heart
disease, by raising levels of LDL cholesterol and lowering levels of HDL cholesterol.
Several large studies have indicated a link between consumption of high amounts of trans fat
and coronary heart disease, and possibly some other diseases, prompting a number of
government health agencies across the world to recommend that the intake of trans-fats be
minimized.

Different types of oils and fats based on healthy or unhealthy

Healthy Fats
Type of Oils Major Food Sources
Olive, canola and peanut oils, avocados, non-
Monounsaturated Fat / Monounsaturated
hydrogenated margarines, nuts and seeds
Polyunsaturated Fat / Polyunsaturated Safflower, sesame, sunflower and corn oils, nuts
 Omega-6 Fat and seeds, Fattier fish, canola and soybean oils,
 Omega 3 Fat flax seed, omega-3 eggs and walnuts.

Unhealthy Fats
Type of Fat Major Food Sources
Saturated Fat / Saturates Hydrogenated oils, as well as fatty meats, full-fat
Trans Fats dairy products, butter, lard, coconut oil, palm oil,
palm kernel oil and cocoa butter.

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Fatty acids profile of some fats and oils

Oil or fat Major fatty Numbe Number Physical stage

acids % r D. C. atoms
bonds
Linoleic acid 54.5 2 18
Liquid
Soybean oil Oleic acid 22.3 1
Linolenic 8.3 3 18

Linoleic acid 52.7 2 18

Liquid
Palmitic acid 25 0 16
Cottonseed oil
Oleic acid 17 1 18
Linoleic acid 58.7 2 18
Liquid
Oleic acid 26.6 1 18
Corn oil
Palmitic acid 11.50 0 16

Oleic acid 51 1 18
Liquid
Peanut oil Linoleic acid 31 2 18
Palmitic acid 11 0 16

Linoleic acid 75.5 2 18

Liquid
Sunflower Oleic acid 14.3 1 18
Palmitic acid 6.7 0 16
Oleic acid 62 1 18
Liquid
Palmitic acid 17 0 16
Olive oil
Linoleic acid 15 2 18
Erucic acid
45 1 22
Liquid
Oleic acid 17.4 1 18
Rapeseed oil Linoleic acid 13 2 18

Linolenic 5.3 3 18
Lauric acid
48 0 12
Semi-solid
Coconut oil Myristic acid 16.6 1 14
Caprylic acid 7.6 0 8
Palmitic acid 46.8 0 16
Semi-solid
Oleic acid 37.6 1 18
Palm oil
Linoleic acid 10 2 18

Oleic acid 36.5 1 18

Semi-solid
Stearic acid
Cocoa Butter 34.5 0 18
Palmitic acid 25 0 16
Linoleic acid 3 2 18

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 Oleic acid 43.5 1 18
Palmitic acid Solid
27 0 16
Lard
Linoleic acid 10.5 2 18

Oleic acid 44 1 18
Palmitic acid Solid
Tallow 29 0 16

Stearic acid 19 0 18

Erucic 40-55 1 22

Oleic 12-24 1 18
Mustard oil Liquid
Linoleic 12-16 2 18

Linolenic 7-10 3 18

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 Acid Saponification Iodine Peroxide Specific
Fat or Oil number value Gravity
value number
Mustard oil 1.5 125 08 0.83 0.91
Rapeseed oil 5.2 170 - 179 94 – 102 01 0.91
Corn oil 0.1-5.7 188 - 193 111 - 130 0.16 0.92
Olive oil 6.6 185 - 196 79 - 88 20 0.91
Soybean oil 0.1-0.2 193 137 - 143 7.5 0.92
Cacao butter 1.2 193.55 32 - 41 7 0.90
Linseed oil 192 - 195 32 - 41 2.21 0.94
Cottonseed 0.6-2.87 108 - 110 10 0.92
193 - 195
oil
Lard 5-13 195.4 46 - 70 2 0.93
Mutton 5-14 35 - 46 2 0.92
192 - 195.5
tallow
Peanut oil 3.5-4.0 190 - 196 83 - 100 10 0.92
Beef tallow 5-14 193.2 - 200 38 - 46 2 0.93
Palm oil 7-50 196 - 205 51.5 - 57 10 0.92
Butter 01 220 - 233 26-40 0.5 0.91
Palm kernel 11.6 13 - 17 1.7 0.89
242 - 250
oil
1.99- 0.24–0.49 0.93
Coconut oil 246 - 260 8 - 10
12.8
Sunflower oil 0.2-0.5 188-194 119 - 135 0.5 0.91
Whale oil 185–202 121 - 146.6 10 0.92
Milk fat 26 – 50
Sesame oil 103 - 108
Canola oil 0.67-
2.84

Fatty acid composition of some common edible fats and oils.

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 Saturated Mono Poly
unsatu unsaturated
rated
Unsat Capric Lauric Myristic Palmiti Stearic Oleic Linoleic Alpha
Oil or Fat ./Sat. Acid Acid Acid c Acid Acid Acid (ω6) Linolenic
ratio Acid Acid (ω3)
C10:0 C12:0 C14:0 C18:0 C18: 1 C18: 2 C18: 3
C16:0
Almond Oil 9.7 - - - 7 2 69 17 -
Beef Tallow 0.9 - - 3 24 19 43 3 1
Butterfat (cow) 0.5 3 3 11 27 12 29 2 1
Butterfat (goat) 0.5 7 3 9 25 12 27 3 1
Butterfat (human) 1.0 2 5 8 25 8 35 9 1
Canola Oil 15.7 - - - 4 2 62 22 10
Cocoa Butter 0.6 - - - 25 38 32 3 -
Cod Liver Oil 2.9 - - 8 17 - 22 5 -
Coconut Oil 0.1 6 47 18 9 3 6 2 -
Corn Oil (Maize) 6.7 - - - 11 2 28 58 1
Cottonseed Oil 2.8 - - 1 22 3 19 54 1
Flaxseed Oil 9.0 - - - 3 7 21 16 53
Grape seed Oil 7.3 - - - 8 4 15 73 -
Illipe 0.6 - - - 17 45 35 1 -
Lard (Pork fat) 1.2 - - 2 26 14 44 10 -
Olive Oil 4.6 - - - 13 3 71 10 1
Palm Oil 1.0 - - 1 45 4 40 10 -
Palm Olein 1.3 - - 1 37 4 46 11 -
Palm Kernel Oil 0.2 4 48 16 8 3 15 2 -
Peanut Oil 4.0 - - - 11 2 48 32 -
Safflower Oil* 10.1 - - - 7 2 13 78 -
Sesame Oil 6.6 - - - 9 4 41 45 -
Shea nut 1.1 - 1 - 4 39 44 5 -
Soybean Oil 5.7 - - - 11 4 24 54 7
Sunflower Oil* 7.3 - - - 7 5 19 68 1
Walnut Oil 5.3 - - - 11 5 28 51 5

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