Fats, Oil and Waxes

Fats
Fats
• Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along
with carbohydrate and protein.Fats, also known as triglycerides,
are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol. The
terms "oil", "fat", and "lipid" are often confused. "Oil" normally refers
to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid
at room temperature, while "fat" may specifically refer to fats that are
solids at room temperature. "Lipid" is the general term, though a lipid
is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like other lipids, are
generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents and
insoluble in water.
Types of Fats
Saturated fat
• Saturated fat is solid at room temperature, which is why it is also
known as "solid fat." It is mostly in animal foods, such as milk, cheese,
and meat. Poultry and fish have less saturated fat than red meat.
Saturated fat is also in tropical oils, such as coconut oil, palm oil, and
cocoa butter. You'll find tropical oils in many snacks and in nondairy
foods, such as coffee creamers and whipped toppings. Foods made
with butter, margarine, or shortening (cakes, cookies, and other
desserts) have a lot of saturated fat. Saturated fat can raise
your cholesterol. A healthy diet has less than 10% of daily calories
from saturated fat.
Example of Saturated fat
Saturated Fats in Foods
• Butyric acid - milk (especially buffalo, goat, and sheep), butter,
Parmesan cheese
• Lauric acid - coconut oil, palm kernel oil, laurel oil
• Myristic acid - nutmeg, coconut oil, palm kernel oil and butterfat 
• Palmitic acid - meat, palm oil, palm kernel oil, coconut oil, butter,
cheese and other dairy products
• Stearic acid - animal and vegetable fats
Example of Saturated fat
Foods High in Saturated Fat
• Hydrogenated oils including palm and coconut
• Dried coconut
• Butter Rendered animal fats including tallow, suet, lard, and shortening
• Dark chocolate
• Fish oil
• Cheese Nuts and seeds
• Processed meats
• Whipped cream

Read more at http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-saturated-

fat.html#HtBIGScjJYvD6PbK.99
Trans fat
• This is a fat that has been changed by a process called hydrogenation.
This process increases the shelf life of fat and makes the fat harder at
room temperature. Harder fat makes crispier crackers and flakier pie
crusts. Trans fat can raise your cholesterol, so eat as little trans fat as
possible. 
Trans fat
You'll find it in:
• Processed foods.
• Snack foods, such as chips and crackers.
• Cookies.
• Some margarine and salad dressings.
• Foods made with shortening and partially hydrogenated oils.
Unsaturated fat
• Unsaturated fat is liquid at room temperature. It is mostly in oils from
plants. If you eat unsaturated fat instead of saturated fat, it may help
improve your cholesterol levels. Try to eat mostly unsaturated fats.
Monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat are types of
unsaturated fat.
Monounsaturated fat
• Monounsaturated fat: This fat is in avocado, nuts, and vegetable oils,
such as canola, olive, and peanut oils. Eating foods that are high in
monounsaturated fats may help lower your "bad" LDL cholesterol.
Monounsaturated fats may also keep "good" HDL cholesterol levels
high. But eating more unsaturated fat without cutting back on
saturated fat may not lower your cholesterol.
Polyunsaturated Fat
• This type of fat is mainly in vegetable oils such as safflower, sunflower,
sesame, soybean, and corn oils. Polyunsaturated fat is also the main
fat found in seafood. Eating polyunsaturated fat in place of saturated
fat may lower LDL cholesterol. The two types of polyunsaturated fats
are omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids.
Polyunsaturated Fat
• Omega-3 fatty acids are found in foods from plants like soybean oil,
canola oil, walnuts, and flaxseed. They are also found in fatty fish and
shellfish as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid
(DHA). Salmon, anchovies, herring, sardines, Pacific oysters, trout,
Atlantic mackerel, and Pacific mackerel are high in EPA and DHA
and lower in mercury. A healthy diet includes 8 ounces or more of
these types of fish a week, averaging 250 mg a day of these omega-3
fatty acids
• Omega-6 fatty acids are found mostly in liquid vegetable oils like
soybean oil, corn oil, and safflower oil.
Total fat
• Total fat includes saturated, polyunsaturated, monounsaturated, and
trans fat.
Oil
Oil
• A hydrocarbon liquid substance that is greasy to the touch and is
formed by natural resources or the breakdown of fats. Oil comes in
many forms as diverse as crude oil and vegetable oil, which serve very
different purposes. Products consisting of oil are insoluble when
added to water, but will dissolve in organic substances such as those
acquired from living organisms.

Read more: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/oil.html

Types of Oil
Type 1: Very Light Oils (Jet Fuels,
Gasoline)
• Highly volatile (should evaporate within 1-2 days).
• High concentrations of toxic (soluble) compounds.
• Localized, severe impacts to water column and intertidal resources.
• No cleanup possible.
Type 2: Light Oils (Diesel, No. 2 Fuel Oil,
Light Crudes)
• Moderately volatile; will leave residue (up to one-third of spill
amount) after a few days.
• Moderate concentrations of toxic (soluble) compounds.
• Will "oil" intertidal resources with long-term contamination potential.
• Cleanup can be very effective.
Type 3: Medium Oils (Most Crude Oils)
• About one-third will evaporate within 24 hours.
• Oil contamination of intertidal areas can be severe and long-term.
• Oil impacts to waterfowl and fur-bearing mammals can be severe.
• Cleanup most effective if conducted quickly.
Type 4: Heavy Oils (Heavy Crude Oils, No.
6 Fuel Oil, Bunker C)
• Little or no evaporation or dissolution.
• Heavy contamination of intertidal areas likely.
• Severe impacts to waterfowl and fur-bearing mammals (coating and
ingestion).
• Long-term contamination of sediments possible.
• Weathers very slowly.
• Shoreline cleanup difficult under all conditions.
Structures of Fats and Oils
Fats and oils are called triglycerides (or triacylcylgerols)
because they are esters composed of three fatty acid units
joined to glycerol, a trihydroxy alcohol:
Structures of Fats and Oils
If all three OH groups on the glycerol molecule are esterified with the same fatty acid, the
resulting ester is called a simple triglyceride. Although simple triglycerides have been
synthesized in the laboratory, they rarely occur in nature. Instead, a typical triglyceride
obtained from naturally occurring fats and oils contains two or three different fatty acid
components and is thus termed a mixed triglyceride.
Structures of Fats and Oils

A triglyceride is called a fat if it is a solid at 25°C; it is called

an oil if it is a liquid at that temperature. These differences in
melting points reflect differences in the degree of unsaturation
and number of carbon atoms in the constituent fatty acids.
Triglycerides obtained from animal sources are usually solids,
while those of plant origin are generally oils. Therefore, we
commonly speak of animal fats and vegetable oils.
Waxes
Waxes
• Waxes is a general term used to refer to the mixture of long-chain
apolar lipids forming a protective coating (cutin in the cuticle)
on plant leaves and fruits but also in animals (wax of honeybee,
cuticular lipids of insects, spermaceti of the sperm whale, skin lipids,
uropygial glands of birds, depot fat of planktonic crustacea), algae,
fungi and bacteria. Some waxes are of mineral origin. Montan wax
originates from mob or lignite, that fossilized compound representing
a late step of the transformation of vegetal into hydrocarbons.
Types of Waxes
Animal Waxes
Bee Wax
• This wax is an abdominal secretion of bees (Apis mellifera), its colour
being dependent of the flowers gathered by these insects. Bees used
it to form the hive cells. Bee wax is easily saponifiable and
emulsifiable because of its content in free fatty acids, diols and
hydroxyacids.
Chinese wax (insect wax)
• This wax is secreted by insects (Coccus ceriferus) and laid on tree
branches (1500 insects are needed to produce 1g chinese wax). That
insect is cultivated in China. Besides an important content in esters
(about 83%), this wax includes some free acids, alcohols (up to 1%)
and hydrocarbons (2 to 3%). Chemically, the esters are formed of
chains with 46 up to 60 carbon atoms, the majority of alcohols and
acids having 26 or 28 carbon atoms. The purified wax is used to make
candles and polish.
Chinese wax (insect wax)
• This wax is secreted by insects (Coccus ceriferus) and laid on tree
branches (1500 insects are needed to produce 1g chinese wax). That
insect is cultivated in China. Besides an important content in esters
(about 83%), this wax includes some free acids, alcohols (up to 1%)
and hydrocarbons (2 to 3%). Chemically, the esters are formed of
chains with 46 up to 60 carbon atoms, the majority of alcohols and
acids having 26 or 28 carbon atoms. The purified wax is used to make
candles and polish.
Shellac wax
• This wax (known also as lac wax) is produced by a cochineal insect
(Tachardia lacca) native of India. It contains a majority of fatty esters
(70-82%), free fatty alcohols (8-14%), acids (1-4%) and hydrocarbons
(1-6%). The esters are formed of chains of 28 up to 34 carbon atoms.
This wax is used in varnish industry and may replace carnauba wax.
Whale spermaceti
• Spermaceti is extracted by cooling (11% of the initial oil) from adipose
tissues and also collected from a big cavity in the head of a cachalot
(Physeter macrocephalus) known as sperm whale. The frontal organ, used
as a sonar by the animal, contains about 3 tons spermaceti for a 15 meters
animal. This product contains fatty esters (65-95%) but also triglycerides
(5-30%), free alcohols (1-5%) and acids (0-3%). Adipose tissues (9-10 tons
of lard for a 15 m animal) contain only 10-12% spermaceti wax. Fatty
esters are formed essentially of cetyl palmitate (C32) and cetyl myristate
(C30). Purified spermaceti has an aspect of a light mass of white crystals
which can be powdered. It can be fused with bee wax and other fatty
compounds (oils, fatty acids). Its melting point is 42-50°C.
Lanolin (wool wax)
• This material is secreted by sheep sebaceous glands and collected
from crude wool by dilute alkali or detergent washing. Unwashed
wool contains about 10-24% of greasy matter and a small proportion
of salts of long-chain fatty acids. Lanolin contains fatty esters (14-
24%), sterols and triterpene alcohol esters (45-65%), free alcohols (6-
20%), sterols (cholesterol, lanosterol) and terpenes (4-5%). 
Vegetal waxes
Carnauba wax
• This wax (known as "queen of waxes") is secreted by leaves of a
Brasilian palm tree (Copernicia prunifera cerifera), about 100 g for one
tree in a year. It contains mainly fatty esters (80-85%), free alcohols
(10-15%), acids (3-6%) and hydrocarbons (1-3%). As a peculiarity,
carnauba wax contains esterified fatty dialcohols (diols, about 20%),
hydroxylated fatty acids (about 6%) and cinnamic acid (about 10%).
This last phenolic acid compound (antioxidant in free form) may be
hydroxylated or methoxylated.
Ouricouri wax
• It was first exported from Brazil in 1937 but has fallen in use in recent
times.
It was extracted from the ouricouri palm (Syagrus coronata, Cocos
coronata) by sraping the wax from the leaf surface. Its melting point is
81-84°C. Ouricouri resembles carnauba wax in its physical properties,
thus, it was used as substitute in carbon paper inks, mould release
lubricants and polishes.
Jojoba oil
• This product resulted from the pressure on governments to replace spermaceti.
This wax is fluid (melting point: about 7°C) and produced by pressing from seeds of
the jojoba tree (Simmondsia chinensis, Euphorbiacae), now cultivated in Mexico
(Sonora), Arizona and California. The cultivation of jojoba is also experimented in
Israel, Africa, Australia, and China.
It is formed quite exclusively of alcohols esterified with long-chain fatty acids (more
than 98%) with a total of 38 to 44 carbon atoms. The fatty acids are 18:1n-9 (about
10%), 20:1n-9 (about 70%) and 22:1n-9 (15-20%), while the fatty alcohols have
predominantly 20 and 22 carbon atoms and one double bond.
Jojoba oil is very resistant to oxidation and is largely used in cosmetic applications
(soaps, shampoos, skin cream, anti-solar oils). Industries use sulfonated or
hydrogenated oil as lubricant, polishes, candles and coatings. Future uses could be
as foam control agent and low-calorie food additive.
Candelilla wax
• This wax is produced by small shrubs from Mexico, Euphorbia
cerifera and E. antisyphilitica (Euphorbiaceae). The wax is extracted by
boiling the plant (to separate the wax and the plant material). The
wax floats to the top of the water and is skimmed off and
processed. It contains hydrocarbons (about 50% of C29 to C33, mainly
C31), esters (28-29%), alcohols, free fatty acids (7-9%), and resins (12-
14% triterpenoid esters). 
Esparto wax
• This wax is a by-product in the artisanal preparation of paper from a
reed known in northwest Africa and southern Spain as "Halfah
grass", Stipa tenacissima, it melt at 73°C. While its composition is
highly variable, it contains hydrocarbons, esters, alcohol (C28) and
triterpenoids. 
Japan wax
• That product is not a true wax but is more like a vegetable tallow
found in the kernel and outer skin of the berries
of Rhus and Toxicodendron species, including those yielding Japanese
lacquer. It contains a high amount of palmitic acid triglycerides (93-
97%), long chain dicarboxylic acids including C22 and C23 chains (4-
5.5%) and free alcohols (12-1.6%). Its melting point is 45-53°C. 
Rice bran oil
• Rice bran from the milling of rice, Oryza sativa, contains a wax mixed
with triglycerides. The melting point of the pure wax is 75-80°C. It
contains esters of fatty acids (26 to 30 carbon atoms) and long-chain
alcohols (C26 to C30) and a large amount of unsaponifiable matter
(55-67%).
Mineral waxes
Ozocerite (or ozokerite)
• This wax is found in lignite beds in Galicia in the Carpathian
mountains, Russia, Iran, and United States (Utah). Most ozocerite
consists of hydrocarbons (C20-C32) and its melting point is about
90°C. It is used in making lubricants, lipsticks, deodorants, polishes,
and adhesives.
Montan wax
• This wax is derived by solvent extraction of lignite or brown coal (sub-
bituminous coal). As it has been preserved in the coal it is really fossilized plant
wax. Thus, it has many characteristics similar to those of vegetal waxes. The
earliest production on a commercial scale was in Germany during the latter
half of the nineteenth century, and Germany continues to supply the majority
of the world’s production of Montan wax.  The composition of Montan wax
depends on the material from which it is extracted, but all contain varying
amounts of wax, resin, and asphalt. Resins must be removed by extraction with
solvents (diethyl ether, acetone). The wax component of Montan is a mixture
of long. chain (C24-C30) esters (62-68 wt %), long-chain acids (22-26 wt %),
and long. chain alcohols, ketones, and hydrocarbons (7-15 wt %). 
Example structures of waxes
Fats, Oils, and Wax
Physical and
Chemical Properties
 Lipids
a group of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes,
steroid, phospholipids, and certain components of
membranes that are grouped together due to their
insolubility in water but are soluble in organic solvents.
 Physical Properties
State of Matter
• Fats that contain saturated fatty acids (single bonds
between carbon molecules) are typically solid at room
temperature.
e.g. animal fats
• Fats that contain unsaturated fatty acids (double bond
between carbon molecules) are henceforth liquid at room
temperature.
e.g. plants fats
The hydrocarbon chains in these fatty acids are, thus, fairly straight and can pack closely together, making these fats solid
at room temperature.

Because of the kinks in the hydrocarbon tails, unsaturated fats can’t pack as closely together, making them liquid at room
temperature.
 Physical Properties
Color, Odor, and Taste
• Pure fats are colorless, virtually odorless, and have an
extremely bland taste.

• They are capable of absorbing a variety of odors and

flavors.
 Physical Properties
Solubility
• Lipids are described as being hydrophobic in nature and are
thus insoluble in water.

• They are, however, soluble in organic solvents.

e.g. chloroform, ether, acetone, & benzene

• Solubility of fatty acids decreases as chain length increases.

Note: Introduction of Hydroxyl group, however, increases solubility.
 Physical Properties
Melting Point
• The greater the degree of unsaturation (higher number of
double bonds) of the constituent fatty acid, the lower the
melting point of the fat.
Physical Properties
Melting Point
 Physical Properties
Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity of fats is less than that of water (approx.
0.86)and therefore float on water surface.

• Increase in chain length of fatty acid residues tend to increase

specific gravity.
 Physical Properties
Geometric Isomerism

• The presence of a double bond in unsaturated fatty acids

produces geometric (cis-trans) isomerism.
 Physical Properties
Emulsification

• The process where a lipid mass is converted into small lipid

droplets

• Significance:
In digestion, fats have to be emulsified before they can be
absorbed by the intestinal walls. This process is accompanied
by the bile juice secreted from the liver.
 Chemical Properties
Saponification

• Hydrolysis (chemical breakdown due to reaction w/ water)of

fats by alkali

• Produces glycerol and salts of fatty acids called soaps.

 Chemical Properties
Rancidity

• Fats contaminated with enzymes like lipase undergo partial hydrolysis and
oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids at the double bonds.
• Due to this, there is release of hydrogen peroxide giving a bad odor and
taste to the fat.
• Rancidity can be prevented by antioxidants like vitamin E, vitamin C,
phenols, hydroquinone’s, etc.
• Rancidity is observed more frequently in animal fats then vegetable fats.
This is due to vegetable oils ,in their natural form, possessing constituents
that function as natural antioxidants.
 Facts and Fantasies

• While carbohydrates and proteins provide 4 calories of energy per gram,

fat of any type provides 9 calories.
• There is no such thing as low-calorie fat.
• Thus, by replacing fats of animal origin like butter with vegetable oils,
weight cannot be reduced.
• For weight reduction, the only rule is to eat less and exercise more.
• Though, despite the same calorie content, the nutritional quality of
different fats differ.
Fat Production
1. RENDERING
The fat can be obtained from any of the following three methods:

• A) Dry rendering: fat is released by dehydrating the raw

material
• B) Wet rendering: either boiling water or steam is added to
the material, separating fat into a floating phase
• C) Low-temperature wet rendering: uses heating, separation
and cooling on a continuous basis and is regarded as an ideal
purpose
2. ACTUAL FAT PROCESSING
• 2.1 Settling and degumming: utilized to remove animal
proteins, carbohydrate residues, phosphatides and water
• 2.2 Neutralization/refining with alkali: removal of non-
glyceride fatty materials by washing the oils with strong
alkaline water solutions (sodium hydroxide)
• 2.3 Bleaching: reduces the color of fat and it is achieved by
adsorbing the colorants on bleaching earth and/or charcoal by
chemical reactions involving their oxidation or reduction.
• 2.4 Deodorization: an important oil refining step that removes
undesirable flavor and odor
• 2.5 Fractionation: the partial crystallization of fat or oil at a
specific temperature
• 2.6 Hydrogenation: the direct addition of hydrogen to double
bonds of fatty acids, used to modify vast quantities of fats and
oils.
• 2.7 Insterification: sometimes called “ester interchange” or
transesterification. It involved an interchange of an alkyl
groups among triacylglycerols.
3. Quality Control
• Free fatty acid : expressed as percentage of free oleic acid of
tital sample weight
• Iodine number: indicates the degree of unsaturation
• Peroxide test: determine the rancidity of tallow
• Smoke Point: the temperature to which the fat may be heated
before it begins to smoke
• Saponification value: a measure of the average molecular
weight ( or chain length ) of all the fatty acids present.
• Refractive Index: indicates the purity and identity of
substance
• Melting Point: the temperature at which it changes state from
solid to liquid
• Moisture, impurities and unsaponifiable (MIU): Pure fat is
virtually free of moisture. Water in tallow is undesirable as it
acts a medium for the growth of fat-splitting bacteria and the
action of fat-splitting enzymes. Unsaponifiavle matter is the
material in tallow that cannot be converted into soap by the
use of an alkali.
Oil Process
1. Extraction
• In the past, it was done primarily by physical means such as the
application of heavy pressure to the seed, fruit or nut.
• Today, extraction is accomplised through solvent extraction method
• Hexane is most widely used for its high volatility because little or no
residue remains in the product
2. Refining
• 2.1) Crude Oil Storage : crude oil is stored in a tank, not only
because of the separation by gravity of oil insoluble material but
also because of correct pumping and storage condition will
produce improved quality
• 2.2) Degumming: removes phospholipis, sugars, resins,
proteonaceous compound and trace metals present in the crude
oil. Accomplished by continuous centrifugating.
• 2.3) Neutralization: neutralization with caustic soda is required to
produce consistently high quality product. Strong caustic solutions
when mixed with oil will saponify glycerides with consequent
increase in neutral oil loss
• 2.4) Bleaching: the prime purpose is to remove the color
pigments that are present in the crude oil
• 2 5) Neutralized and Bleaching oil storage: provides a
useful break in production for quality control and serves as the
starting point for deodorization and modification process
• 2.6) Deodorization: remove residual free fatty acids,
aldehydes and ketones which are responsible for unacceptable
oil odors and flavors
• 2.7) Polishing: It filters the oil after deodorizing to remove
unnecessary chemicals
• 2.8) Cooling: a heat exchanger is installed to reduce the
temperature of oil to about 30℃
3. Modification
• 3.1) Hydrogenation: disperses hydrogen oil in the presence of a catalyst
such as nickel
• 3.2) Fractionation: removal of solids at selected temperatures
• 3.3)Winterization: necessary in order to achieve the required cold stability
when refining
• 3.4) Solvent Fractionation: a process for the crystallization of a desired
fraction from a mixture of triglycerides dissolved in a suitable solvent
• 3.5) Inter-esterification: permits the random rearrangement of the fatty
acids in the triglyceride molecules
• 3.6) Placticizing: develop the finest possible crystal structure in order to
produce a shortening or margarine that is smooth in appearance and firm
in consistency
Wax Refining
1. Crystallization
• Slack wax is heated, mixed with solvent and then cooled
2. Filtration
• The crystallized wax is filtered from the solvent
• In order to obtain low oil contents, two and three stages at filtration are required
3. Solvent Recovery
• Remained solvent is removed by continuous distillation in steam heated kettle,
heat exchanged and stripping towers.
4. Decoloring and Deodorizing
• Removal of unwanted odor and color
5. Blending and Manufacturing
• Fully refined waxes are blended together to give certain desired properties
such as melting point and penetration
Quality Control
• AOM (Active Oxidation Method): a measure of oxidation
stability
• Color
• Consistency/ Penetration: a measure of firments, hardness
and resistance to penetration
• FFA (Free Fatty Acids): indicator of the freshness and quality
of the fat
• Flavor
• Hexane: measure of residual extraction solvent
• Iodine value: measure of number of double bonds or degree
of unsaturation
• Moisture
• OSI (Oxygen Stability Index): measure the point of maximum
change of the rate of oxidation
• PV (Peroxide Value): measure of the state of oxidation of an
oil or fat
• SV (Saponification Value): indicator of molecular weight or
size as a function of the chain lengths of the constituent fatty
acids
• Totox Value (Total Oxidation Value):measures oil
deterioration
GENERAL USES OF OILS
AND FATS
FOOD APPLICATIONS
• Fats and oils are very important raw materials and functional
ingredients for several food products such as confectionery, bakery,
ice creams, emulsions, sauces, shortenings, margarines, and other
specially tailored products.

• Important attributes such as smooth, creamy and rich texture; milky

and creamy appearance; desirable flavor; and satiating effects are
influenced by the droplets of fat, and these characteristics are
paramount to the consumer and consequently crucial to the success
of the product in the market. 
OVERVIEW OF THE APPLICATION
OF FATS AND OILS IN SOME
FOOD PRODUCTS
1. Use of Fat in Chocolate Products
CHOCOLATE
Milk fat and cocoa butter are the two main
forms of fat used in chocolate
manufacture. Milk fat is a complex mixture
of triglycerides (98 %) and other minor lipid
sugar milk components. Milk fat and cocoa butter have
cocoa solids different stable crystal forms, and therefore
the two fats will not mix completely in the
solid state. Adding increased amounts of
FAT PHASE
milk fat changes the physical and functional
- Aroma
properties of chocolate including hardness,
- Color
- Gloss ability to temper, and melting point. 
- Snap
- Flavor Release
- Melting Properties
- Prevention of Bloom
- Release from the mould
2. The Importance of Fat in Ice Cream
- is a colloidal complex food, which contains fat globules, air
ICE CREAM bubbles, and ice crystals dispersed in an aqueous phase of high
viscosity 

30% ice 5% fat 15% sugar solution

50% air
Fat appears to contribute largely to the properties of ice cream during freezing and whipping,
through the partially coalesced continuous three dimensional network of homogenized globules
helping in the air phase stabilization because fat globules surrounds air bubbles, and increased levels
of fat aggregation are also correlated to improved melting resistance. Fat is essential to explain the
"dryness" of ice cream, shape retention, melting in the mouth and textural creaminess, which is a
highly desirable attribute that is contributed by milk fat.
3. The Role of Fat in Baked Products
BISCUITS CAKE BREAD

- dough or batter whose mainly
ingredients are flour, fat, sugar,
milk, water, eggs, and salt and that
is viscous enough to allow the
pieces of dough to be baked on a
flat surface.
- considered as an oil-in-water
emulsion containing dry ingredients
such as sugar, flour, milk powder,
salt, and yeast, suspended or
dissolved in the continuous
aqueous phase.
- made of flour or meal that has
been mixed with milk or water, made
into a dough or batter, with or
without yeast or other leavening
agent, and baked.

FAT FUNCTIONALITY IN BAKED

PRODUCTS
Tenderness Mouthfeel Heat Transfer
 Overall Texture Extended Shelf Life
Structure Integrity Air Entrapment Lubrication
Other Uses
• As Cooking Oils

- The major use of cooking oil is in frying, where it functions as a

heat transfer medium and contributes flavor and texture to
food. One requirement of a cooking oil is that it be stable under
the very abusive conditions of deep-fat frying, namely, high
temperatures and moisture.
Other Uses
• As Shortenings

- Shortenings are semisolid fats that impart a "short" or tender

quality to baked goods, enhance the aeration of leavened
products, and promote a desirable grain and flavour. They coat
the gluten proteins of flour which prevents toughness. In
contrast, toughness is desirable in yeast-raised products to give
a chewy texture. 
Other Uses
• As Salad Oils

- A major use of salad oils is in pourable salad dressings.

Traditional salad dressings, some of which are emulsified,
consist of a two-phase system of oil and water with 55-65
percent oil. A salad oil coats the salad ingredients, spreading
the flavour of the dressing that improves the palatability of the
salad. The other major use of salad oils is in mayonnaise and
thick salad dressings, which contain 80 and 35-50 percent oil,
respectively. 
Other Uses
• As Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCT)

- Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCT oil) are used in specialized

therapeutic preparations. MCT oil is a fraction of coconut oil
containing fatty acids of 8-10 carbon atoms in triacylglycerols.
MCT oil is used in formulas for enteral feeding and in diets for
patients with malabsorption syndromes.
NON-FOOD APPLICATIONS
• Paint
• Animal Feed
• Pharmaceuticals
• Personal Care
• Cosmetics
• Soaps
• Polymers
• Candles
• Oil for Cars
GENERAL USES OF
WAXES
• As Building Materials
- Wax is added as a water repellent in the production of wood-
based manufactured composite boards such as particle board,
medium density, oriented strand and other board products.

• As Candles
- One of the oldest uses of wax, but still vital. No longer used for
primary illumination, candles are the fastest growing segment
of the wax market with new decorative and therapeutic uses.
• As Chlorinated Paraffins
- The largest application for chlorinated paraffins is as a plasticiser
and flame-retardant in flexible PVC. It is also used as an extreme
pressure-additive for metalworking fluids and other lubricants.

• As Corrugated board
- Food-grade wax is applied to corrugated containers in order to
provide strength and waterproofing for food packaging during
transportation.
• As Coatings
- Wax can be used to form a coating that allows oxygen to pass
but not water; generating numerous applications in such
diverse areas as cosmetics, food, packaging, furniture, time
release properties, etc.

• As Flexible Packaging
- Food-grade waxes and wax blends are used in laminating
compounds and surface coatings to provide strength, to
waterproofing, and improve appearance and moisture-vapor
transmission.
• In Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals
- Fully-refined wax is non-toxic, and many products are approved for
direct use in food and personal care formulations. Waxes are widely
used in the cosmetic industry in products such as lipstick, mascara,
moisturizing creams and sunblock.

• As Chewing Gum
- Chewing gum base is a compound of elastomers, resin and food-grade
wax to which other materials are added to produce chewing gum.
Hard, high melt-point waxes are used in this application, including
microcrystalline and candelilla waxes.
• As Crayons
- Food grade wax provides the solid structure for a crayon and,
since most crayon users are young children, its non-toxic
characteristics are critical.

• As Fire Logs
-  A modern convenience product, wax acts as both a binder
and as fuel.

• As Inks
- Graphical printing inks include wax in their formulation as an
anti-scuff agent.
• In Food
- Food grade wax is used to cover certain types of cheese that
would dehydrate if not properly protected. It is sprayed on
citrus and other fruit to protect from oxidation and enhance
appearance, and in meat and bone wraps.

• As Hot Melt Adhesives

- Waxes are present in most hot melt adhesive formulations to
control the viscosity of the adhesive and contribute to open
time, flexibility and elongation.
• As Investment Casting
- In the "lost wax" method of casting jewelry, and other industrial
products, a wax model of the piece is made and used to create a clay
mold. The wax is melted out and the clay is used to cast the final
piece.

• As Polishes
- The application of waxes to wooden floors to improve their
appearance and provide protection dates back several hundred years.
It serves to retard the penetration of air and moisture, thereby
increasing the life of the flooring material as well as preventing
abrasion by surface grit.
• In PVC
- Two different lubricants are used in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride
thermoplastic: internal and external; and two different types of wax are used
in the lubricants. Internal lubricants are formulated to help PVC flow in the
manufacturing process by forming a solution with PVC. External lubricants
are not soluble in PVC and can produce a film between the PVC and its
extrusion equipment.

• As Tire and Rubber

- Wax is a vital component in rubber tire formulations and is added for
protection from atmospheric ozone that will "dry" unprotected rubber,
causing cracking that compromises the strength of the tire. Wax creates a
physical barrier between the tire surface and the atmosphere.
Fats, Oils and Waxes
Current Researches
Used and Waste Oil and Grease for Biodiesel

• Biodiesel is an alternative fuel similar to conventional

or 'fossil' diesel. Biodiesel can be produced straight from vegetable oil,

animal oil/fats, tallow and waste cooking oil. The process used to
convert these oils to Biodiesel is called transesterification.
 Converting Used Oil and Trap Grease to
Biodiesel
• less than 3% or 4% FFA (Free Fatty Acids):

- add extra catalyst,

- let the FFAs convert to soap

- remove the soap.

• From 3% or 4%, up to 10% or 15% FFAs:

- use vacuum distillation to remove the FFAs

- process normally
 Converting Used Oil and Trap Grease to
Biodiesel
- can be sold as animal feed or esterified separately
• more than 15% FFAs:
- need additional processing before they can undergo traditional alkali-
catalyzed transesterification.
 Acid Pre-Treatment

• Introduce an acid catalyst such as sulfuric or hydrochloric acid to

convert the FFAs to esters

• followed by an alkali catalyst to convert the triglycerides to esters

• the conversion of FFAs to esters causes water formation, which can

cause soaps to form during the alkali-catalyzed process
 Acid Pre Treatment

•  can be overcomed by using an acid pre-treatment process to reduce the FFAs of

the oil or grease

• An acid catalyst and alcohol are added and reacted

• mixture is allowed to reach equilibrium

• the methanol, water, and acid portion that separates is removed

• After this pre-treatment process, the reaction is continued with alkaline-catalyzed

transesterification
 Glycerolysis
• can be used with feedstocks containing more than 10% FFAs

• involves adding glycerin at 400°F and letting it react with the FFAs to form
monoglycerides

• monoglycerides can then be processed using a standard alkaline catalyst

transesterification process

• expensive because of the high heat involved, which requires a high-

pressure boiler and trained boiler operator
 Glycerolysis

• vacuum must be applied while heating to remove water that is

formed during the reaction
 Solid Acid Catalysts

• relatively new technology in biodiesel production

• packed in a canister, mixture of oil and alcohol flows through this canister

• the FFAs are converted to esters

• acid does not contaminate the oil and therefore does not need to be removed at
the end

• contaminants in the oil such as water and phosphorus can foul the catalyst and
prevent it from reacting with the FFAs
 Solid Acid Catalysts

• One solution is to install a guard column in front of the acid catalyst

canister to remove contaminants from the oil
 Supercritical Reactors

• currently under development for processing high free fatty acid

feedstocks

• involves performing the reaction under supercritical conditions (275°

to 325°C and high pressure)

• At high temperature and pressure, the reaction does not require a

catalyst, so soap formation is not a problem.
 Supercritical Reactors

• Water also does not appear to inhibit the reaction. Both free fatty
acids and triglycerides react easily, so there is no need to separate
these materials before processing. In fact, even very low quality
feedstocks can be processed successfully.
Modulation of hepatic lipid metabolism by olive oil
and its phenols in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

• Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Definition and Risk Factors

- NAFLD is the most common chronic liver disease in western countries
- liver damage caused by hepatitis C virus or by alcohol
• Olive oil Chemical Properties

- A lower incidence of chronic diseases such as certain types of cancers,

or cardiovascular and hepatic disorders, has been demonstrated in
countries of the Mediterranean region compared to other parts of the
world. This reduced incidence has been partially attributed to the regular
intake (25–50 mL/day) of olive oil, component of the Mediterranean
diet.
• The averages of the main fatty acids in 100 g of olive oil are as follows:
Monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) ∼70 g; saturated fatty acids,
∼14 g; and polyunsaturated fatty acids, ∼8 g

• In addition to a high MUFA content, olive oil contains a significant

amount of antioxidants and phytochemicals; however, when refined
or heated, olive oil loses these natural compounds.
• Recent findings have demonstrated that EVOO (extra virgin olive oils)
and its phenols have a regulative effect on hepatic lipid metabolism
by reducing the lipogenic pathway, and thus weakening liver steatosis