Introduction to Logic Study

1
Introduction to the
Study of Logic
The study of philosophy has always been mind-

boggling for several reasons. One such reason is that the
learner will be led to a critical and deep thinking process as
a necessary step in comprehending certain concepts. It is
due to the ‘rudeness’ of this discipline that a good number of
learners express a feeling of aversion against it.
Getting into its meaning and nature will confirm the

learner’s impression. Its definitions are complex and
multifarious as they are developed by various thinkers and
authors. Philosophy is so broad that assigning a single
definition to it violates its comprehensiveness and scope.
However, logic as a philosophical field is specific on correct
thinking. It underscores the importance of making sure that
arguments are valid in view of the rules it postulates.
Lesson 1: Philosophy: Its Meaning and Nature
Definition of Philosophy
Philosophy is a broad discipline so that it cannot be
contained in a single definition. Several authors have come
up with their own definition. However, for the purpose of
knowing what it is all about we shall have its etymological
and real definitions. By etymology, we shall have its origin
or root of the word.
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It was Pythagoras, a renowned Greek philosopher, who

coined the term philosophy. Etymologically, philosophy is
from the Greek words philos, meaning love and sophia,
wisdom. Hence, from its roots, philosophy is the love of
wisdom. A philosopher, therefore, is a lover of wisdom.
Primarily, philosophy seeks not only knowledge but also
wisdom. What is wisdom? How is it different from
knowledge? For Socrates, wisdom is an attitude or a critical
habit. It is more of an accumulated experience beyond the
theoretical variety. Philosophy then, as a love of wisdom, is
a passion not only for theories but also for practice.
Contrarily, knowledge is concerned with theories but not
much with practice.
Our first real definition of philosophy can be stated

briefly as a search for meaning. The word search means to
look, to find, or to seek. However, in philosophy, it connotes
something more serious, more intense, and more of a quest.
The mere acts of looking, finding and seeking are classified
as ordinary search, while philosophical search considers the
three elements:
a) The object (one that is sought) of the search is of real
value to the subject (the person searching),
b) It ‘consumes’ the whole person – his attention,
concentration, interest and effort, and;
c) It is continued without let-up or without stopping
until the object sought is found.
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The other real definition is that philosophy is the

branch of human science, which deals with the formal
reasons and formal principles of things, knowable through
the natural light of human reason alone.
Let us take one by one this definition. Philosophy is a

human science because it is made up of a systematic body of
knowledge which is obtained from rational inference or
from the process of reasoning. Meantime, philosophy deals
with the formal reasons and formal principles of things
since it considers not the physical or material features of
things but by their formal features. Just like when you look
at a chalk you don’t simply see it based on its color but on
the quality that makes it as it is.
On the other hand, philosophy is knowable through the

natural light of human reason alone for it uses reason as
tool in understanding or shedding light over things under
study or investigation.
The Nature of Philosophy

It is in the very nature of philosophy that man searches
for the meaning of himself and his world. It can be truly said
that philosophy was born the very first time man started
wondering at what he saw around him.
Thales of Ionia in Greece, the first of the pre-Socratic

philosophers, looked around him and thought everything
came from water. His successor thought it was air. Anyway,
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to the early Greeks, philosophy was a superstar of a subject.

They looked with favor ‘on a total world picture, in the
unity of all truths’ – whether they were scientific, ethical,
religious, or aesthetic. A Greek philosophos (philosopher)
was concerned not only with particular types of knowledge,
but with all types.
Divisions and Branches

Philosophy can be divided into two major divisions:
a. Theoretical division aims at acquiring knowledge on
the subject matter being studied (e.g. epistemology,
metaphysics, and cosmology).
b. Practical division aims at applying knowledge about
a subject matter for practical purposes (e.g. logic,
ethics, and aesthetics).
The following are the four main branches:

a. Metaphysics is the investigation of ultimate reality.
b. Epistemology studies the origins, validity, and limits
of knowledge.
c. Ethics is the study of the morality and the good.
d. Aesthetics deals with the nature of beauty and art.
Short Historical Outline of Philosophy

It is good to encapsulate the historical perspective of
philosophy by saying that once upon a time there lived
people in Greece who thought the world was made out of
water or air who preceded the well-known triumvirate of
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Socrates and Plato were
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brilliant, but it was Aristotle who contributed significantly in

the following areas: ethics, logic, metaphysics, art,
literature, psychology, biology, and politics. His philosophy
was, in the 13th century, rediscovered and was put into a
Christian framework by St. Thomas Aquinas, the ‘angelic
doctor’ of the Catholic Church and the best philosopher of
the Middle Ages.
Key Ideas in this Lesson
Definition of Philosophy
Philosophy is from the Greek words Philos and Sophia. Philos is
love; Sophia, wisdom. Literally, it is the love of wisdom. The
two real definitions are 1) it is the search for meaning and 2) it
is a human science which deals with formal reasons and formal
principles of things knowable through the natural light of
human reason alone.
The Nature of Philosophy

It is truly a characteristic of philosophy to wonder at certain
object, thing or reality. It invites man to be critically conscious
at what he saw around him. The search is unrelenting until man
is able to decipher the meaning of the reality.
Divisions and Branches

Philosophy has two main divisions; the theoretical and practical
divisions. The branches include metaphysics, epistemology,
ethics and aesthetics.
Short Historical Outline

All philosophical discussions will lead to the triumvirate of
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Although they had predecessors
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but their contributions to various disciplines were not as vast as

theirs.
Group Discussion Questions

1. Philosophy is a search for meaning. How would you
differentiate a philosophical search from an ordinary
search?
2. Elaborate; Philosophy deals with the formal reasons and
formal principles of things.
3. Simplify the following philosophical quotations:
a. “The only thing I know is that I know that I do not
know.” - Plato
b. “Wisdom begins in wonder.” – Socrates
c. “The only permanent thing in this world is change.” –
Heraclitus
d. “Everything in excess is opposed to nature.” –
Hippocrates
e. “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not
an act, but a habit.” – Aristotle
f. “It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to
entertain a thought without accepting it.” – Aristotle
g. “The law is reason, free from passion.” – Aristotle
h. “To one who has faith, no explanation is necessary. To
one without faith, no explanation is possible.” – St.
Thomas Aquinas
i. “Good can exist without evil, whereas evil cannot exist
without good.” – St. Thomas Aquinas
j. “He, who opens a school door, closes a prison.” – Victor
Hugo
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What to do
1. Formulation of a ‘Philosophy in Life’
a. Develop your personal ‘Philosophy in Life’ in a
statement or quotation form.
b. Provide an explanation about it by highlighting its
relevance to your life as a person, as a student, as a
son or daughter, and with what you intend to do with
your life.
c. Have your output computerized, Times New Roman
font size 12, and double spaced.
d. Due date: Prelim Examination.
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Exercise 1
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: On the blank before each number, write OK if the

statement is true; if it is false, write the appropriate answer in
lieu of the underlined and italicized word to make the statement
true.
______ 1. Philosophy is divided into four main divisions.

______ 2. Wisdom, for Socrates, refers to a critical habit or an
attitude.
______ 3. Logic is classified under the theoretical division of
philosophy.
______ 4. Aesthetics deals with the nature of beauty and ugly.
______ 5. The two Greek words philos and sophia constitute
the etymological definition of philosophy.
______ 6. Plato contributed significantly in ethics, logic,
metaphysics, art, literature, psychology, biology,
and politics.
______ 7. Epistemology studies the origins, validity, and
limits of knowledge.
______ 8. Aristotle’s philosophy was rediscovered by St.
Augustine in the 13th century.
______ 9. Philosophy was born the very first time man started
wondering at what he saw around him.
______10. Thales of Ionia thought everything came from air.
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Lesson 2: Logic: Its Meaning and Nature
The Definition of Logic

Just like philosophy, logic has a lot of definitions. It is
said correct thinking is the primary preoccupation of logic.
Let us first know the origin of the word logic. The actual
name logic was introduced by Zeno (ca. 300 BC), founder
of the Stoic School in Greece. It comes from the Greek term
logike which means systematized and intelligible. Logike is
related to logos, the Greek term for thought. Hence, the term
logic would mean a systematic study of matters pertaining
to thought.
Traditionally and really, logic is defined as the science

and art of correct thinking. As a science, logic is viewed in
three aspects:
a) It needs a body of data.
b) It adheres to a certain procedure, system or method in
drawing out conclusions.
c) It aims at arriving at the validity of every argument
As an art, logic is viewed as directing reason toward

distinguishing good and correct arguments from bad and
erroneous arguments. Meanwhile, thinking, as interpreted in
logic, only includes mental operations that are directed
toward the attainment of truth and which elaborate
knowledge previously possessed.
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Mental Operations
Mental operations can be divided into three processes:
simple apprehension, judgment, and reasoning. Man is
endowed with the capacity to think. Logic comes in order to
see if one’s thinking is correct. The question ‘when do we
say one’s thinking is correct?’ can be measured when one’s
thinking conforms or agrees with the laws and rules
investigated by logic.
Let us familiarize each process.
1) Simple apprehension refers to the act of the mind as it

apprehends or grasps a particular entity or reality.
This enables the mind to know the essence or nature
of a particular thing, entity, or reality. As the mind
grasps or knows such thing, it produces an idea
(term) constituting the essence of that thing.
2) Judgment is an act of the mind through which two
ideas are compared in terms of their relation, whether
they are in agreement or disagreement with each
other. This mental operation is called proposition.
3) Reasoning is an act of the mind through which the
mind abstracts or infers a specific judgment implicitly
contained in other judgments. This mental operation
is known as inference or argument.
Table 1 provides a picture of the mental operations.
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Table 1: Mental Operations and External Expressions

Mental Operations External Expressions
Simple apprehension Idea/term
Judgment Proposition
Reasoning Inference/argument
Logical and Illogical

All of us are familiar with the words logical and
illogical. We speak for instance, of a logical political
candidate, a logical procedure, and a logical choice. In these
contexts the word logical means in accordance with what
one would reasonably expect in view of the events or
circumstances.
Again, using the word logical in a slightly different

sense, we refer to a man whose thinking is orderly and
consistent as a logical thinker and to an argument that
clearly proves its conclusion as a logical argument. On the
other hand, we brand as illogical an action that is not called
for by the circumstances, or a person whose thinking is
disorderly and inconsistent, or an argument that does not
prove its conclusion but is irrelevant, circular, or self-
contradictory.
You will notice that in every instance the word logical

refers to correct thinking– a choice is logical or illogical
depending on whether or not it results from correct thinking;
a person is logical or illogical depending on whether or not
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his thinking is correct; and an argument is logical or

illogical depending on whether or not it expresses correct
thinking.
Natural and Scientific Logic

Logic can be classified as natural and scientific logic.
Natural logic refers to the gift of reason endowed to man as
a special faculty which enables him to have a sense of what
is logical or reasonable and what is not. While scientific
logic is a tool to help us sharpen our reasoning ability. It is
through this formal study of logic that our reasoning
capability can be distinguished from ordinary reasoning.
Natural logic is not enough. There is a need to

supplement it with scientific logic so that we may learn to
think, speak, and reason with logical consistency.
Insistence on Understanding
The laws and rules of logic are not arbitrary (subjective)
enactments that we submit to out of reverence for authority
or because of long-established custom. We submit to these
laws and rules only because we clearly see that they must be
as they are – that is, the evidence compels us to submit.
In logic course, there has to be no blind memorizing and

no mere mechanical application of rules that have been
learned by rote. The student should not be satisfied with
anything short of a thorough understanding of all the
fundamentals of logic.
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Brief History of Logic

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is considered as the founder of
this science. He wrote treatises on logical matters, the
collection of which was called the Organon.
Zeno (336-264 B.C.), the founder of the Stoic school in

Greece, introduced its actual name. The Stoic logic was
mainly the Prior and Posterior Analytics of Aristotle’s
logical works, expanded with longer treatises on the
hypothetical syllogism, and with a treatise on the criterion of
truth.
Porphyrius (232-304 A. D.), a neo-platonist, who wrote

an introductory treatise to the Categories of Aristotle, called
the Isagoge, the Greek word meaning introduction.
Severinus Boethius (470-524 A.D.), a Roman Christian

philosopher, who translated the Organon of Aristotle and
wrote commentaries on the Categories and on the Isagoge of
Porphyrius.
The Arabian Philosophers Avicenna (Ibn-Sina, 980-

1037 A.D.) and Averroes (Ibn-Rosh, 1126-1198 A.D.) also
wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s Organon.
The Scholastics of the Middle Ages, particularly St.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), wrote extensive
commentaries on the logical works of Aristotle. From them,
we received our comprehensive science of logic.
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Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote a Novum Organon,

new Organon, with a view of improving on the Organon of
Aristotle. He introduced the theory of introduction, which
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) developed into a general
theory for scientific investigation.
In the recent past, a new logic, known as Symbolic

Logic, came to the forefront. It covers the same subject
matter as our standard logic, but differs as to the
mathematical symbols and language that it uses. It may be
considered as a version and complement of standard logic.
George Boole is considered as the founder of this new
symbolic logic. In the English speaking countries its chief
exponents were Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand
Russell.
Symbolic Logic attained full development in a short

time. At present it has lost much of its earlier popularity due,
in no small measure, to the limited scope of its application.
The Significance of Studying Logic

The subject logic requires so much mental activities of
analyzing and inferring. For this reason, to most learners the
study of logic is really taxing and difficult. Hence, a feeling
of dislike is overwhelming. Hopefully, this dislike will turn
into an interest and will find the study of logic a self-
fulfilling subject.
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a) As students, we should consider logic as a basic

subject needed in the study of every other academic
subject.
b) As professionals, we use logic particularly in
decision-making. No profession is devoid of the use
of reasoning.
c) As persons, we need to study logic in order improve
our reasoning potentials; and that as much as possible
we can promote understanding and foster better
relationships among others in the society.

Definition of Logic
Logic can be understood by its etymological and real definition.
Etymologically, logic is love of wisdom. Really, it is the science
and art of correct thinking.
Mental Operations
The three processes involved in the mental operations are
simple apprehension, judgment and reasoning. Simple
apprehension is the mind’s capacity to express ideas, express
proposition in judgment and articulate inference or argument in
reasoning.
Logical and Illogical
One’s thinking is logical when it conforms to what one would
reasonably expect in view of the event, circumstance or reality.
Otherwise, one’s thinking is illogical.
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Natural and Scientific Logic

Natural logic holds on to the inherent truth that man by nature
is logician. However, it does not guarantee an all-inclusive
familiarity of the logical processes. Hence, scientific logic
warrants the strengthening of that natural gift.
Insistence on Understanding
Familiarization is a necessary tool in the study of logic rather
than memorizing word for word certain concepts or statements
of rules or laws.
Brief History of Logic
All basic logical concepts started with Aristotle, the founder of
logic; however, it was Zeno who introduced the term logic. The
rest of the Post-Aristotelian logicians followed and developed
their own logical treatises. Nonetheless, majority of them
adopted what Aristotle started.
The Significance of Studying Logic
The study of logic is significant to man either as a student, a
professional or as a person.

1. When do we say one’s thinking is correct?
2. Discuss logic as a science, and as an art.
3. Differentiate natural and scientific logic.
4. What does ‘insistence on understanding’ mean in the study
of logic?
5. Can you think of any other significance of studying logic
aside from the ones mentioned above?
6. What is our basis in saying that an argument is logical?
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Exercise 2
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________

statement is TRUE; if it is false, write the appropriate answer in
true.
______ 1. Logic as a branch of philosophy, deals primarily

with questions.
______ 2. Logic is allied to logos, the Greek term for thought.
______ 3. Scientific logic refers to man’s gift of reason.
______ 4. Zeno is the founder of the Stoic school in Rome.
______ 5. The three mental operations include simple
apprehension, judgment, and reasoning.
______ 6. The significance of studying logic can be drawn as
a student, as a professional, and as a philosopher.
______ 7. A person is logical or illogical depending on
whether or not his thinking is correct.
______ 8. The laws and rules of logic are arbitrary enactments
that we submit to out of reverence for authority or
because of long-established custom.
______ 9. Etymologically, the term logic is from the Greek
logike, which means thought.
______10. Plato gave the term logic.
______11. Judgment is an act of the mind through which two
ideas are compared in terms of their relation.
______12. Aristotle is considered the founder of logic.
______13. Avicenna and Averroes were Indian Philosophers.
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______14. Francis Bacon wrote a NovumOrganon with a view of

improving the Organon of Aristotle.
______15. Symbolic logic attained full development in a long
time.
B. Directions: Tell whether each statement is logical or illogical.

Write (/) if it is logical; (X) if otherwise.
______1. He speaks fluent English; hence, he is logical.
______2. Juan is honest because he never tells a lie.
______3. The guy is good looking; he must be lovable.
______4. He goes to church every Sunday, therefore, he must
be holy.
______5. He serves the interest of the people; he must be doing
his sacred duty as a public servant.
______6. A witness is involved in some ministries of the
Catholic Church; hence, he could not possibly lie
during the Senate Committee on Justice hearing.
______7. Maxine Medina, the Philippine’s Miss Universe 2017
candidate, is a charming lady, she should bag the
crown because of that quality.
______8. Her arguments are valid and correct. They must be
logical.
______9. President Duterte keeps on changing his mind on
certain important issues. He must be out of his mind.
______10. Majority of the Filipinos are suffering from poverty it
is because this country is inherently poor.
References:
Abelos, A. V. & Javines, R. R. (2007).Logic and critical thinking: A
Textbook-workbook. Educational Publishing House, Manila
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Ardales, V. B. (1998). Logic made easy. CONCERNS, Inc. Iloilo City
Babor, E. R. (2009). Logic: The philosophical discipline of correct

thinking, 3rd ed. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Bachhuber, A. H. (1957). An introduction to logic. Appleton-Century

Crofts,Inc. New York
Hinacay, M. L. & Hinacay, M. B. (2004).Logic: A textbook-workbook for

college students, 2nd ed. Ivory Printing and Publishing House. Iligan,
Philippines
Pinon, M. T. (1973). Fundamental logic. Rex Bookstore, Inc. Manila
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The
Term
This module highlights the essentiality of the term in
logical processes. Understanding the term as a basic
component in inference should not be set aside by anyone
wanting to develop a logical thought and reasoning. One
needs to have a good grasp of what the term is all about so
that using it in the proposition would not affect its material
validity.
Hence, our comprehension of the term should be in
such a way that it describes what the term really is in view
of the circumstance or the reality.
Lesson 1: Preliminary Definitions and Concepts
Definition of Term
The word term is from the Latin terminus meaning the
last element to which a proposition may be resolved, namely
the spoken word or the written word. A term is a basic
component of a syllogism. By having two terms, we come
up with a proposition. As in the proposition Man is a
thinking being, which is made up of the terms man and
thinking being. Now, a series of propositions can make up a
syllogism. Just like in the example below;
Man is a thinking being;
But, Pedro is man;
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Therefore, Pedro is a thinking being.
The traditional order of treatment, therefore, begins

with the study of terms, proceeds with the study of
propositions, and ends with the study of syllogisms.
Words, Concepts and Terms

A word, which is a basic unit of language, is composed
of different letters. It has two categories, namely: function
word and content word. Function words refer to words that
have no semantic content or meaning like articles (a, an,
the), prepositions (at, to, for, in, by), and conjunctions (and,
that, when, while, although). Content words refer to words
that have meaning. They point to a certain concept like
nouns.
Concepts are made up of ideas. Words are used to

represent an idea or concept. However, some ideas cannot
be given a word. These words can only be understood when
our attention goes to the object that the word is meant to
designate.
When a word or group of words is used to express a

concept, we call them terms. Concepts refer to the mental
representation of an object of reality. They are abstract,
immaterial and intelligible. Terms are the external signs of a
concept. They are concrete, material and sensible.
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Concept and term are often used interchangeably but

care must be taken to distinguish one from the other as
explained above. Sometimes, notion is also used to mean
concept, idea or term. The more important distinction
between term and word is that a term is word but not all
words are terms. As discussed, a word has a wider meaning
and it includes elements of language like articles,
prepositions, and conjunctions, which do not represent an
object in reality.
In logic, we are concerned with the term, which carries

a meaning that points to an object in reality. This can be
illustrated clearly by the difference between a dog (a term)
and in (a mere word).
Terms as Natural and Conventional Signs

Terms are signs. They stand for things in the objective
world. There are two kinds of sign: natural and
conventional. Natural signs symbolize natural occurrences,
e.g., smoke is the sign of fire, or dog is a four-legged
animal. The relation between the fire and the smoke is that
of a cause to an effect in the order of nature, while dog and
four-legged animal signify the inherent characteristic of
dogs.
Conventional signs, on the contrary, derive their

meanings from human convention. This convention is an
agreement that is binding in a given community, either
because people have come to accept it or because of an
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explicit understanding among people. Traffic light and road

signs are good examples of conventional signs.
Terms are conventional signs because they are products

of convention and are used in a more or less the same way.
People create their meaning and usage. Due to the diversity
of cultures and people, a term could vary in meaning and
usage with each culture and group of people.
Significant and Non-significant Terms

Terms are either significant or non-significant, also
labeled as terms and non-terms respectively. On the one
hand, significant term signifies quality, nature or essence.
Meaning to say, there is a particular significant meaning we
can derive from the term. Nouns are significant terms. Man,
dog, church, etc. are some of the examples.
Non-significant term, on the other hand, does not

signify quality, nature or essence. These terms simply add
more meaning and significance to significant terms and to
propositions. Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these,
those), adjectives, and proper names are non-significant
terms.
Demonstrative pronouns do not express any quality,

nature or essence whatsoever. They simply point out to
things, e.g., This is a chalk. Adjectives simply describe
nouns, e.g., valid argument. Proper nouns do not tell about
the quality, nature or essence of things bearing that name,
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e.g., Mr. Aguipo does not mean that the man with that
surname looks black as a charcoal or Nabunturan as a
capital town of Compostela Valley Province does not mean
being progressive economically, politically and culturally.
Definition of Term
The term, from the Latin terminus, which means the last
element to which a proposition may be resolved. And a better
understanding of the proposition will bring us to term.
Words, Concepts and Terms

Words are basic units in language without which concepts and
terms would not be possible. Since concepts are abstract,
immaterial, and intelligible, terms make them concrete,
material, and sensible through the aid of words.
Terms as Natural and Conventional Signs

Terms are signs. As a natural sign, a term is understood based
on its inherent and irreversible meaning. As a conventional
sign, a term has developed and evolved its meaning based on
man’s creation and association with reality.
Significant and Non-significant Terms

Terms are significant when they give out essential meanings by
themselves. They are non-significant when they are used for
other terms in order to express or to represent thoughts or ideas.

1. What are the meanings of terms both etymologically and
really?
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2. Compare and contrast words from concepts, words from

terms.
3. Cite examples for terms as natural signs and conventional
signs.
4. Make a distinction between significant and non-significant
terms.
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Exercise 3
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
statement is TRUE; if it is false, write the appropriate answer in
true.
______ 1. The word term is from the Latin termus.

______ 2. By having two terms, an inference is formed.
______ 3. A word is a basic unit of language.
______ 4. Conjunctions are function words.
______ 5. Nouns are content words.
______ 6. Concepts are made up of terms.
______ 7. All words are terms.
______ 8. Natural signs symbolize natural occurrences.
______ 9. Significant term does not signify quality, nature or
essence.
______10. The term ‘extrajudicial’ is a non-significant term.
B. Directions: Write T for the words which are terms and W for
those which are not. Use the blank before each number.
______ 1. With ______ 6. Fixed marriages
______ 2. While ______ 7. Not
______ 3. School ______ 8. Although
______ 4 An ______ 9. Subjects
______ 5. Notebook ______10. To
C. Directions: On the blank before each number, write NS for

statements which show natural signs; CS for conventional signs.
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______ 1. All dogs are quadruped.

______ 2. Dogs are man’s best friends.
______ 3. The traffic light red signifies stop.
______ 4. Red is the color of blood.
______ 5. The crescent and star are symbols of Islam.
______ 6. Every star is a heavenly body.
______ 7. Cats are playful.
______ 8. Cats are house pets.
______ 9. Death is the termination of life.
______10. Black is the color of death.
D. Directions: Write ST for terms which are significant; NST for

non-significant. Use the blank before each number.
______ 1. ACN ______ 6. Table
______ 2. College ______ 7. Responsible
______ 3. Johnny Cover ______ 8. Yolanda
______ 4 Attractive ______ 9. Honesty
______ 5. That ______10. ACER Laptop
Lesson 2: Comprehension and Extension of the Term
Preliminary Definitions
A term has two-fold elements: comprehension and
extension. Comprehension includes the characteristics,
attributes, or qualities that the term implies. Let us take the
term bachelor. This term implies the state of being
unmarried of a man, so that the comprehension of the term
bachelor is an unmarried man. This is true of everyone who
is labeled a bachelor. The comprehension of a term,
Essentials of Logic
28
therefore, refers to the features shared by all objects to

which the term may be rightly applied.
Extension, on the other hand, is the group of individual

objects to which the term may be correctly applied. Thus,
the extension of the term bachelor includes every person
who is unmarried.
To illustrate the distinction more clearly, here is another

example: the term college has for its comprehension a
higher institute of learning, and for its extension Assumption
College of Nabunturan, Ateneo de Davao University,
Compostela Valley State College, among others. To
simplify, the comprehension of the term is about the
meaning of the term; extension of the term is about the
examples that the term can have.
Inverse Relation between Comprehension and Extension

The comprehension and extension of a term are
inversely proportional to each other so that according to the
principle of logic: “When the comprehension is increased,
the extension decreases, and when the extension is
increased, the comprehension decreases.”
Let us give an example to explain this relationship
between the comprehension and extension of a term. Let us
use the term mother. The extension of this term applies to
all female human beings who have given birth to a child. If
we add to the comprehension of the term by qualifying it,
Essentials of Logic
29
say Filipino mothers, the extension will be greatly reduced

and will exclude non-Filipino women who have begotten a
child. If we further expand the comprehension by saying
teenage Filipino mothers, we further decrease the extension.
Now let us begin with the extension of the term. Let us
take the case of one professor and say that the full
comprehension is a female English professor at Assumption
College of Nabunturan. If we increase the extension by
adding to the number other English professors, including
male, the comprehension will have to be limited to English
professors at Assumption College of Nabunturan. Suppose
we add more English professors from other colleges, the
comprehension will now be reduced to English professors.
And if we add philosophy professors to the group, thus
increasing their number, the comprehension will further be
restricted to professors. Shown below is the diagram of the
inverse relation between comprehension and extension.
Figure 1: Inverse Ratio between Comprehension and Extension
Extension
Teachers
Professors English Teachers
ACN English Teachers
Female ACN English Teachers
Comprehension
Essentials of Logic
30

Preliminary Definitions
Simply put, the comprehension of the term refers to the
definition or meaning of the term; while extension of the term
refers to the example we can give of the term.
Inverse Relation between Comprehension and Extension

Terms can either have greater or lesser comprehension. If so, it
can also have either greater or lesser extension.

1. What are the two elements of the meaning of a term?
Define each and illustrate with examples.
2. State the principle governing the relationship between the
comprehension and extension of terms. Elaborate.
Essentials of Logic
31
Exercise 4
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: The following are sets of terms. Identify the term

which has greater comprehension and the term which has
greater extension.
(A) (B) (C)

1. Sepak Takraw Games Philippine Games
2. Fruits Plants Apples
3. Artworks Visual Arts Paintings
4. Technological Computers Pentium VI
devices
5. Schools ACN Sectarian
6. Lawyers Prosecutors Professionals
7. Ethnic Groups Mansaka
8. Murder Crimes Offenses
9. Equipment Home Appliances Television Set
10. Toyota Land Model 2015 Cars
Cruiser
B. Directions: Determine whether the underlined and italicized

terms are properly defined. Write OK if it is defined correctly;
OPPS if not and explain why.
______ 1. A horse is a four-legged animal.

______ 2. A mother-in-law is a woman who is regarded more
than a wife.
______ 3. Library is a school facility that accommodates
students who want to engage in gossips.
Essentials of Logic
32
______ 4. A friend is one who expresses and lives out genuine

loyalty and faithfulness to someone.
______ 5. Detergent Soaps are cleansing agents made from alkali
used for washing clothes.
______ 6. Airplanes are self-propelled winged vehicles heavier
than air and capable of flight.
______ 7. A bench is a seat with a back designed to
accommodate one person.
______ 8. A chalk is a white-colored writing instrument.
______ 9. Politicians are people who promote extrajudicial
killings.
_____ 10. Tables are pieces of furniture having flat horizontal
surfaces supported by legs used for various purposes.
C. Directions: Match the terms in column A with their

corresponding comprehension in column B. Write only the
letter.
A B
____ 1. School President A. One and only eternal God
____ 2. Suicide B. Basic unit in a society
____ 3. Course Syllabus C. Building where books are
stored
____ 4. Allah D. Terminating one’s own life
____ 5. Map E. Course offering
____6. Family F. Computer gadget manipulated
by the hand
____ 7. Mouse G. Sequential presentation of
topics for subjects
____ 8. Library H. Religious institution
____ 9. Church I. Head of State
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33
____10. Table J. Two-dimensional presentation

of a location
K. An object with flat top surface
L. Head of an educational
institution
D. Directions: Match the terms in column A with their

corresponding extension in column B. Write only the letter.
A B
____ 1. Cell Phones A. Ethics, Metaphysics,
Epistemology, Aesthetics
____ 2. Branches of B. Preschool teacher, Basic Ed
Philosophy Teacher, College Teacher
____ 3. Local Chief C. Rep. Zamora, Sen. De Lima, Sen.
Executives Escudero
____ 4. Legislators D. St. Mary’s College, Ateneo, ACN
____ 5. Historical sites E. People’s Park, Rizal Park, Mainit
National Park
____6. Educators F. Mayor Rellon, Gov. Uy, Mayor
Amatong
____ 7. Church leaders G. UM, ACES, AMA
____ 8. Private sectarian H. Bishops, Priests, Deacons
schools
____ 9. Party-list I. Anak Mindanao, A Teacher,
Bayan Muna
____10. School facilities J. Classrooms, Libraries,
Gymnasium
K. Nokia, Samsung, MyPhone
L. Dambanang Kagitingan,
Corregidor, Intramuros
Essentials of Logic
34
Lesson 3: The Classification of Terms
There are various classifications of the term, but for the

purpose of this module, classification covers only the
following: quantity, quality and incompatibility.
Terms According to Quantity

According to quantity, either the terms are singular,
particular or universal. Singular term applies to one definite
individual, for example President Duterte. Particular term
applies to some indeterminate portion of a class. Examples
are most graduates, some teachers, few students, many
sections, and the like.
Universal term applies to all members of a class, as in

man (referring to the human species). In logic, the universal
term is often introduced by the quantifier all in the
affirmative, e.g., all animals, which means every member of
the class animal is included or no in the negative, e.g., no
animal, which means every member of the class animal is
excluded. Every and each are also universal quantifiers.
Meanwhile, quotations or sayings are universal in quantity.
Terms According to Quality

According to quality, terms are classified into univocal
and equivocal.
A term is said to be univocal when it carries exactly the

same meaning even if it is predicated of two or more
Essentials of Logic
35
individuals. The term tree, for instance, whether applied to a

narra, a maple, a coconut, or a mahogany, means the same
thing.
A term is equivocal when it changes its meaning when

it is predicated of different individuals. The term star when
applied to Venus means a celestial or heavenly body but
when applied to Maja Salvador means an actress or a
celebrity.
Terms According to Incompatibility

According to incompatibility, terms are classified into
contradictory and contrary. Contradictory terms are
absolutely opposed to each other in meaning. If one is an
affirmation, the other is its complete negation. There is no
possible middle ground between contradictory terms. They
totally exclude each other. For example, the term black is
the contradictory of non-black, and living of non-living. An
object is either black or non-black; a thing is either living or
non-living. There is no other possible option.
Contrary terms are opposed to each other since they

represent two extremes in a particular order or class of
nature or reality. As such they are not totally exclusive and a
middle ground or alternative is possible between them.
Black, for instance, in the order of color, is the contrary of
white, and between them there can be other colors. In the
order of life, alive is the contrary of dead and between them
there can be a state of half-alive (biologically) and half-dead
Essentials of Logic
36
(mentally). Some other examples of contraries are extra

large and extra small (class of size), tall and short (class of
height), pretty and ugly (class of beauty), happy and
miserable (class of emotion), etc.

Terms According to Quantity
Terms can either be universal, particular, or singular. By
interpretation, the term’s quantity is about the extent of the idea
that the term expresses. It does not measure idea with ‘how
much’ or ‘how many.’
Terms According to Quality

Terms are univocal when they, as used in the propositions,
share the same meaning. Otherwise, it makes the terms
equivocal.
Terms According to Incompatibility

Terms may either be contraries or contradictories. Both are
opposite terms. They are contraries when there are middle
terms between them; contradictories when nothing between
them exists.

1. Differentiate the following:
a. Particular from universal terms
b. Contrary from contradictory terms
c. Univocal from equivocal terms
Essentials of Logic
37
Group Activity
A. Directions: Choose two terms from the box below. Pair them
and formulate 10 sentences. Give the quantity of the subject
term.
Animals Filipino Mrs. Yolanda
Asians Honest Parrots
Baguio Insentient beings Plants
Beautiful Intelligent persons Roses
Birds Ladies Round
Warays Latest model Streets
Dogs Lawyers Students
Earth Men Summer capital
Expensive Mortal beings This car
Father Mother Wide
B. Directions: Give the contrary or contradictory of all the terms

in the box below. Use them in a sentence.
Educated Hot Accomplished
Small Movable Approved
Vulnerable Sane Devoted
Moral Saints Humble
Adult Tall Miserable
Legal Finite Powerful
Weak Living Rejected
Essentials of Logic
38
Exercise 5
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Give the quantity of each underlined and italicized

term as either singular, particular, or universal. Write (S) for
singular, (P) for particular and (U) for universal on the blank
before each number.
_____ 1. Nurses are career professionals called to care for
others.
_____ 2. Typhoon Yolanda is the world’s worst natural disaster
in recent memory.
_____ 3. Christians are believers of God.
_____ 4. Most people in Tacloban City were caught unprepared
for Yolanda’s fury.
_____ 5. Kerwin Espinosa invoked his right against self-
incrimination.
_____ 6. An earthquake with a 7.2 magnitude is very
catastrophic.
_____ 7. Earthquakes and typhoons are natural disasters.
_____ 8. All men are created equal.
_____ 9. Not all Christians are true believers of Christ.
_____10. No men are immortal.
B. Directions: Give the quality of each underlined and italicized

term as either univocal or equivocal. Write (/) for univocal; (X) for
equivocal.
_____ 1. She could type 200 words per minute. She does not
like the type of dress her boyfriend wears.
Essentials of Logic
39
_____ 2. Cotton is light. Please turn on the light.

_____ 3. The table has a flat top surface. The table has a curve
design.
_____ 4. He presses the control key. He is in control of the
situation.
_____ 5. John owns plenty of philosophy books. John returned
the books he borrowed from the library.
_____ 6. Magellan kills Lapu-lapu. Lapu-lapu is a fish.
_____ 7. Teachers are professionals. Catherine is a teacher.
_____ 8. Circle is a figure. She is in company with good circle of
friends.
_____ 9. Gravity is a law. RA 215 is a law.
_____10. Janet Napoles is held responsible for the pork barrel
scam. She is not a responsible Catholic.
C. Directions: Give the relation of the two underlined and

italicized terms as either contraries or contradictories. Write (/)
for univocal; (X) for equivocal.
_____ 1. Lyn’s life with Edgar is either happy or miserable.
_____ 2. God is either loving or merciful.
_____ 3. The table is either painted or non-painted.
_____ 4. The control key is either functional or non-functional.
_____ 5. His girlfriend is either pretty or ugly.
_____ 6. His arguments are either valid or invalid.
_____ 7. Teachers are either average or excellent.
_____ 8. Ronnie Dayan’s statements are either credible or
incredible.
_____ 9. The accused is either innocent or guilty of the crime.
_____10. Some students are either responsible or irresponsible.
Essentials of Logic
40
References:

Crofts, Inc. New York
Buenaflor, L. E. (2004). The art of critical thinking: Logic for Filipino

students. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp. Mandaluyong City
Hinacay, M. L. &Hinacay, M. B. (2004).Logic: A textbook-workbook for

Philippines
Umali, P. S. M. (2007). Logic: The art of living with reason.

MINDSHAPERS CO., INC. Manila
Essentials of Logic
41
The
Proposition
The next important topic in the study of logic is on the

proposition. Familiarization of some basic concepts about
the term is a requisite in the discussion about the term. The
formulation of propositions presupposes a good grasp about
comprehension, extension, quantity, and quality of the term.
The discussions in this module focus not only on the
formal structure of propositions but more importantly on
their material content vis-à-vis quantity of both subject and
predicate terms. Thus, it is opening the door for the
discussion on the inference.
Lesson 1: General Notion of the Proposition
The Nature of the Proposition
By definition, a proposition is defined as a statement in
which anything whatsoever is affirmed or denied. It may
also be defined as a discourse that expresses either truth or
falsity. It is the only kind of discourse that can be true or
false in the strict sense, and every proposition is the one or
the other.
A proposition is expressed by what grammarians call a
declarative sentence, and must be distinguished from a
question, exclamation, wish, command and entreaty. Hence,
a proposition is the only kind of discourse that you believe,
Essentials of Logic
42
assume, prove, refute, doubt, or deny. All propositions are

sentences; not all sentences are propositions.
Contingent and Necessary Propositions
A proposition can either be necessary or contingent. On
the one hand, necessary propositions are propositions
having predicate terms whose attributes are essentially
predicated to the subject term. In other words, the attributes
indicated in the predicate term cannot be excluded from the
subject. On the other hand, contingent propositions are those
propositions having predicate terms whose attributes are not
essentially predicated to the subject term. In other words, the
attributes indicated in the predicate term may or may not be
excluded from the subject.
Let us take for example, “Square is a plane figure with
four equal sides.”Plane figure is the genus while with four
equal sides is the specific difference. These are the attributes
necessarily contained in the comprehension of a square.
Thus, a square is necessarily a plane figure with four equal
sides, and vice versa.
A contingent proposition is illustrated by this example,
“Salt is an inexpensive mineral.” The predicate inexpensive
mineral is not essentially related to the subject salt because
it does not follow that salt is inexpensive at all times and in
all places.
Essentials of Logic
43
The Types of Propositions

The two main types of propositions are the categorical
and the hypothetical propositions. Categorical propositions
come in single propositions while hypothetical propositions
come in multiple propositions.
The Single Propositions. Single proposition can easily
be determined because it consists of only one subject term
and one predicate term. For example:
a) Earth is a planet.
b) Man is a creature.
The Multiple Propositions. The multiple propositions
are those that contain two or more propositions united as
one, as in the example, “John is handsome and a good
student.” There are two main classifications of multiple
propositions, namely, the overtly multiple proposition and
the covertly multiple proposition. If there is a clear
appearance of several propositions, the proposition is called
overtly multiple proposition. Examples are:
a) Cebu is in Region 7 and Cagayan de Oro is in
Region 10.
b) Peter is brilliant in the class, but a stupid
organization president.
If the union of the propositions is not clear, the
proposition is known as covertly multiple proposition. It has
the appearance of a single proposition but on examination it
contains multiple propositions. Take for example this
Essentials of Logic
44
proposition, “All students, except the juniors, are invited to

the symposium.” It appears to be a single proposition, but
actually it contains two assertions. One is, “All students are
invited to the symposium,” and the other is, “No juniors are
invited to the symposium.”
The Categorical Propositions. Propositions not
compounded with other propositions are called categorical.
It contains two categories, namely: the subject term and the
predicate term, and asserts that some or all of the referents
of the subject term are included in or excluded from the
class designated by the predicate term. We have these
propositions as examples:
a) All imported goods are non-taxable products.
b) Some revenues are intended for infrastructures.
c) No assemblies are constitutionally illegal.
d) Some NGOs are not well-organized institutions.
The Hypothetical Propositions. A hypothetical
proposition is one which does not directly attribute a
predicate to its subject, but asserts the dependence of one
proposition on another proposition. The examples are:
a) If Marcos reigns until today, then there is no true
democracy.
b) Either Willy or Martin is corrupt.
There are three different types of hypothetical
propositions, namely: conditional, disjunctive, and
conjunctive. Each of them will be discussed in Module 7.
Essentials of Logic
45
Basic Elements of the Categorical Proposition

The attributive, or categorical proposition is defined as
a proposition in which a predicate is affirmed or denied of a
subject. It has three basic elements, namely; the subject, the
predicate, and the copula. The subject is that about which
something is affirmed or denied. The predicate is that which
is affirmed or denied of the subject. The copula is either is
(am, are) or is (am, are) not. If the copula is is, the
proposition is affirmative; if the copula is is not, the
proposition is negative.
In the proposition “Every man is a rational being,”
man is the subject term rational being is the predicate term
and is the copula (linking verb). Just like in English
grammar, the copula agrees with the form of the subject.
The Nature of the Proposition
A proposition is a statement. It is also a sentence. As either
statement or sentence, a proposition can take on several forms
which can be categorical or hypothetical, and multiple or single.
However, there are special considerations in the understanding
of propositions since while it is true that propositions are
sentences; not all sentences are propositions.
Contingent and Necessary Propositions
When the predicate of the proposition presents an idea that is
essentially attached or associated with the subject term, the
proposition is necessary. Meanwhile, when the idea expressed
in the predicate is not essentially attached or associated with the
subject, the proposition is contingent.
Essentials of Logic
46
The Types of Propositions

Proposition can either be single, multiple, categorical, or
hypothetical. It is single when it is made up of just one sentence
or an idea and multiple when it is composed of two ideas or
thoughts encased in a sentence. It is categorical when it presents
an idea that is exact or definite and hypothetical when the idea
is suppositional.
Basic Elements of the Categorical Proposition
By structure, the categorical proposition is made up of the
elements: subject, copula and predicate. The copula is is, are,
was, were and is linking verb in the English grammar.

1. What is a proposition?
2. Differentiate contingent from necessary propositions.
3. Name and elaborate the types of propositions.
4. What are the elements of the categorical proposition?
Group Activity
A. Directions: Choose two terms from the text box below. Pair
them and formulate 10 propositions of any type.
Animals Filipino Mrs. Yolanda
Asians Honest Parrots
Baguio Insentient beings Plants
Beautiful Intelligent persons Roses
Birds Ladies Round
Warays Latest model Streets
Dogs Lawyers Students
Earth Men Summer capital
Expensive Mortal beings This car
Father Mother Wide
Essentials of Logic
47
Exercise 6
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Identify the statements as propositions and non-

propositions on the left blanks (write P for propositions; NP for
non-propositions) and write the letter that corresponds to the
type of sentence below on the right blanks.
a. interrogative sentence c. exclamatory sentence
b. imperative sentence d. declarative sentence
_____1. Either turn on the TV or turn off the 1. _____
radio.
_____2. Do you swear to tell the truth? 2. _____
_____3. Wish we could be together. 3. _____
_____4. Let’s stop griping and get to work. 4. _____
_____5. Ouch! I got my fingers bleeding. 5. _____
_____6. The kids are glad to see their parents. 6. _____
_____7. Murder is a crime. 7. _____
_____8. Let’s paint the table red. 8. _____
_____9. How do you assess Duterte’s 9. _____
performance?
_____10. If you resign, then, you can leave the 10. ____
country.
_____11. The image was stolen yesterday. 11. ____
_____12. If God is for us, who can be against us? 12. ____
_____13. O comfort-killing night, image of hell! 13. _____
Dim register and notary of shame!
_____14. Give me one more chance. 14. _____
_____15. God gives me hills to climb, and 15. _____
strength for climbing!
Essentials of Logic
48
B. Directions: Identify each proposition as either necessary or

contingent. Write (/) for necessary; (X) for contingent.
_____1. Man is an animal.
_____2. The streets in Nabunturan are not flooded areas.
_____3. The whole is greater than any of its parts.
_____4. Peter is a lay minister.
_____5. Cats are playful all their lives.
_____6. A tree is not an animal.
_____7. Parrot is a trainable bird.
_____8. Filipinos are deeply religious.
_____9. A society is a community of persons.
_____10. A triangle has three sides.
Lesson 2: Quality and Quantity of the Proposition and

Symbols A, E, I, & O
Quality of the Proposition

Aristotelian logic presents two qualities of the
propositions: the affirmative and the negative. The copula
plays an important role in determining the quality of the
proposition. If the copula is is or are then the proposition is
affirmative, but if the copula is is not or are not, then the
proposition is negative. Let us consider the following
propositions:
a) That horse is the winner.
b) That horse is not the winner.
The first proposition is an affirmative proposition. The

copula is affirms the predicate of the subject. The second
proposition is a negative one. The copula is not denies the
Essentials of Logic
49
predicate of the subject. Note that the negative particle no is

also used to indicate negative quality, but it is placed before
the subject term as in the proposition No Christian is an
atheist.
Quantity of the Proposition

The concept behind quantity of the proposition is
basically about the scope of the idea that is expressed in the
proposition itself. Generally, the quantity of the proposition
is influenced by the quantity of the subject term. There are
three quantities of the propositions: the universal, the
particular and the singular.
A proposition is universal when the subject term is also

universal. However, there are other considerations.
Quantifiers all, every, each, will make the proposition
universal. Expressions, quotations or sayings are generally
categorized as universal in quantity. Meanwhile, there are
propositions which do not need quantifiers and are not
expressions, quotations or sayings but the idea they reflect is
universal just as in the example below:
a) Dogs are animals.
b) No dogs are cats.
A proposition is particular when the subject term is

also particular. Particular quantity is one which stands for an
indeterminately designated portion of its absolute extension.
In other words, the idea expressed in the proposition has a
certain degree of uncertainty. Some, few, many, several, and
Essentials of Logic
50
most are particular quantifiers. The indefinite article a and

an when used to begin a proposition may make its quantity
particular as in the proposition: A dog is barking. Upon
investigation, you will note that one is not certain which dog
is barking. It is universal when it is used to terms which
have universal idea as in: “A dog is a barking animal.”
You should note the quantifier not all attached to a

subject term, for example, “Not all men are drunkards.”
The quantifier is equivalent to “Some men are not
drunkards” and would make the proposition particular and
negative in quality.
The quantity is singular when the subject applies to a

single individual or group. Proper nouns, demonstrative
pronouns, superlatives, and collective nouns may make the
quantity of the proposition singular. Please note the
following examples:
a) Juan is not lazy. (proper noun)
b) This is a chalk. (demonstrative pronoun)
c) The prettiest candidate is Ms. Venezuela.
(superlative)
d) Herd of goats are in the farm. (Collective noun)
The definite article the is prefixed for both singular and

universal quantities. “The dog is wagging its tail” has a
singular quantity; but universal in “The dog is an animal
that wags its tail.”
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51
Symbols A, E, I & O
On the basis of both quality and quantity, the
categorical propositions are designated as A, E, I & O.
Formulated by Aristotle, these letters are from the Latin
words affirmo, which means, I affirm, and nego, which
means, I deny. These symbols have the following meanings:
A and I (the first two vowels of affirmo) signify affirmative
propositions – A either a universal or a singular, and I a
particular; E and O (the vowels of nego) signify negative
propositions – E either a universal or a singular, and O a
particular.
The diagram below shows the symbols and what

quantities and qualities they represent.
Figure 2: Diagram of the Symbols A, E, I & O
Symbols A, E, I & O QUALITY
Affirmative Negative
QUANTITY
Universal and Singular A E
Particular I O
The Quantity of Predicate Term

The quality of the proposition, that is, whether
affirmative or negative, has something to do with the
quantity of the predicate term except when the quantity of
the proposition is singular. In other words, if the proposition
Essentials of Logic
52
is singular, the quantity of the predicate term is also

singular.
Let us now familiarize the rules.
a. Rule for the Affirmative Proposition: The predicate

of an affirmative proposition is particular unless it is
singular.
The following diagram displays the most common

relationship in extension of the subject and predicate of an
affirmative proposition. The large circle represents the
extension of animal.
Figure 3: Diagram for Quantity of Predicate-Affirmative
Proposition
A dog is an animal. Dog Dog

Fish
Octopus
All cats are animals. Cats Bird Cats
Elephant
The pig is an animal. Cow
Man
Pig Pig
Each of the dotted circles represents the indeterminate

part of the extension of animals embraced by dog, cats, and
pig, respectively. The words fish, bird, cow, octopus, and so
on, show that there are, or at least might be, other animals
besides dogs, cats, and pigs. When we say that a dog is an
animal, we do not mean that a dog is every animal, or this or
Essentials of Logic
53
that animal, but that dog is some animal: we mean that dog
is identical with an indeterminately designated portion of the
extension of animal.
b. Rule for Negative Proposition: The predicate of a

negative proposition is universal unless it is singular.
The subject of a negative proposition is completely

excluded from the extension of the predicate, and the
predicate is completely excluded from the extension of the
subject. Consider the example No dog is a cat and the
accompanying diagram.
Figure 4: Diagram for Quantity of Predicate-Negative
Proposition
All dogs All cats
Cats that are

Black things
not black.
Cats that are black.

(if there are any)
You can go through the entire extension of cat without
finding a single dog and through the entire extension of dog
without finding a single cat. Even the predicate of a
Essentials of Logic
54
particular proposition is always universal for you can go

through the entire extension of the predicate without finding
an instance of the subject. As in the proposition; “Some cats
are not black.” We can look at all black things without
finding those cats of which to be black has been denied, as a
glance at the diagram above will make clear.
Quality of the Proposition
A proposition may either be negative or affirmative. The
presence of no or not makes the proposition negative in quality.
Their absence makes the proposition affirmative.
Quantity of the Proposition

Just like in the quantity of the subject term, the proposition
can either be universal, particular or singular. The quantity of
the proposition could mean the extent of the idea that is
expressed in the proposition.
Symbols A, E, I & O
The symbols A, E, I & O stand for the quantity and quality
of the proposition. An A symbol is for propositions whose
quantity is universal and singular and affirmative in quality. An
E for universal and singular quantity and negative in quality.
An I for particular, affirmative propositions and O, particular,
negative.
Quantity of the Predicate Term

The quantity of the predicate term is based on the quality
of the proposition except when the quantity is singular.
Essentials of Logic
55

1. What are the two qualities of the proposition?
2. Differentiate;
a. Universal from particular quantity
b. Universal from singular quantity
c. Particular from singular quantity
3. What do the symbols A, E, I & O stand for?
4. What are the rules governing the quantity of the predicate
term?
Essentials of Logic
56
Exercise 7
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Identify the quantity of the propositions using the

initials U (universal), P (particular), and S (Singular) and their
qualities (- for negative and + for affirmative).
Propositions Quantity Quality

1. All patriots are heroes. ______ ______
2. No elephants are endemic in the
Philippines. ______ ______
3. Few businesses are non-profitable
initiatives. ______ ______
4. Some tourists are visitors in the Maria
Cristina Falls. ______ ______
5. Some farmers are not fishermen. ______ ______
6. Nabunturan is the Capital town of
Compostela Valley. ______ ______
7. Some shipwrecks are Christmas
incidents. ______ ______
8. No fundamentalists are devotees of the
Blessed Virgin Mary. ______ ______
9. The divorce bill is a subject of debate
among Filipinos. ______ ______
10. Corrupt acts are not permitted under
this administration. ______ ______
Essentials of Logic
57
B. Directions: Give the appropriate symbol (A, E, I & O) for each

proposition. Indicate too the quantity of the predicate term
using the initials U (universal), P (particular), and S (Singular).
Propositions Symbols Quantity of

Predicate
1. No hostile witnesses are willing
witnesses. ______ ______
2. Some rallyists are not religious
groups. ______ ______
3. All evidences are trial exhibits. ______ ______
4. Many defense counsels are
excellent lawyers. ______ ______
5. Every PDP-Laban solon is pro-
administration. ______ ______
6. A horse is galloping along the
road. ______ ______
7. The dog is barking. ______ ______
8. Dogs are barking animals. ______ ______
9. Not all nuns are members of
religious congregations. ______ ______
10. Senators are lawmakers. ______ ______
Lesson 3: Logical Form
Logical Form of the Categorical Proposition

The categorical proposition is defined as a proposition
in which a predicate is affirmed or denied of a subject. This
definition indicates the essential parts of the categorical
Essentials of Logic
58
proposition: the subject, the copula, and the predicate. This

basic structure or the generic logical form is: S – copula – P.
Figure 5: Six Variations of the Generic Basic Structure
Su is P. SaP A
Su is not P. S e P E
Sp is P. SiP I
Sp is not P. SoP O
Ss is P. SaP A
Ss is not P. SeP E
These six forms are represented by symbols A, E, I &O:
A and I signifying affirmative propositions – A either a
universal or a singular in quantity, and I a particular; E and
O signifying negative proposition – E either a universal or a
singular in quantity, and O a particular.
Reduction to Logical Form
Reduction to logical form consists in rewording a
categorical proposition whose structure does not conform to
the Generic Basic Structure: Subject – Copula - Predicate.
In other words, it is rewording a proposition or argument
according to some set plan in order to make its basic
structure obvious. Generally, it is the absence of the copula
or the linking verb that requires the rewording of the
proposition as in the proposition “Cecile Licad plays the
piano.” Obviously, the proposition does have a verb but not
a copula. In rewording the proposition, it becomes “Cecile
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59
Licad is one who plays the piano” or “Cecile Licad is

playing the piano.”
Please note that in rewording the proposition, the
reworded proposition has to take the form of the tense of the
original proposition. For example, the proposition “Some
Logic students did not study their lessons” will be reworded
to “Some students were the ones who did not study their
lessons” or to “Some Logic students were not studying their
lessons.”
Another important consideration in rewording the
proposition is to give an appropriate sign of quantity, such
as all, every, some, and so on. For instance, to reduce to
logical form the proposition “Violinists play the violin”
becomes “All violinists are ones who play the violin.”
Logical Form of the Categorical Proposition
Based on the basic structure of subject, copula and predicate, six
variations of the Generic Basic Structure could be developed
corresponding to the six types of propositions.
Reduction to Logical Form

Propositions which do not follow the basic structure of subject,
copula and predicate have to be subjected to reduction to logical
form by showing the right copula.

1. What are the six variations of the Generic Basic Structure?
2. What does reduction to logical form mean?
Essentials of Logic
60
Exercise 8
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Identify the Generic Basic Structure for each
proposition. Show all three formats.
1. The tallest NBA player is Yao Ming. ______/_____/_____

2. Each student is a learner. ______/_____/_____
3. No schools are religious institutions. ______/_____/_____
4. Most Catholics are nominal members._____/_____/_____
5. Not all husbands are loyal. _____/_____/_____
6. All senators are legislators. _____/_____/_____
7. Some Logic students are not Catholics.____/_____/_____
8. Juan is not lazy. _____/_____/_____
9. That is my pen. _____/_____/_____
10. Some web pages are educational sites.____/_____/_____
B. Direction: Reduce the following propositions to their logical

forms.
1. When under pressure, he does his best work.
__________________________________________________
2. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the Kingdom of
God.
__________________________________________________
3. Few men get all they want.
__________________________________________________
4. Most Logic students studied their lessons hard.
__________________________________________________
5. Melanson Choristers sang during the Holy Eucharist.
__________________________________________________
Essentials of Logic
61
References:


Philippines

Essentials of Logic
62
The
Inference
The reasoning capability of man separates him from

other finite creatures and enables him to understand the
complexities of a reality. Reasoning is an activity of the
mind that enables man to deny or affirm the relationship of
ideas from combined or compared propositions or
statements. This process is called inference.
Lesson 1: General Notion of Inference
Some Definitions
Broadly, inference signifies any process by which the
mind proceeds from one or more propositions to other
propositions. It signifies the operation by which the mind
gets new knowledge by drawing out implications of what it
already knows.
It is also applied to a series of propositions so arranged

that one, called the consequent, flows with logical necessity
from one or more others, called the antecedent. The
antecedent is defined as that from which something is
inferred, while consequent is defined as that which is
inferred from the antecedent. They have to be related that
the truth of the antecedent involves the truth of the
consequent but not vice versa; and the falsity of the
Essentials of Logic
63
consequent involves the falsity of the antecedent but not

vice versa.
The connection which the consequent flows with

logical necessity from the antecedent is known as
consequence or simply SEQUENCE. The sequence,
signified by therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence,
thus, and so, for this reason, and so on, is the very heart of
inference. Genuine sequence is called valid; pseudo
sequence is called invalid.
Figure 6: Synoptic Schema of Inference
ANTECEDENT (Premises)
(connection bet.
INFERENCE SEQUENCE the antecedent and
the consequent)
CONSEQUENT (Conclusion)
Formal and Material Sequence

Valid sequence springs either from the form or
structure of inference or from the special character of the
matter or thought content. If the sequence springs from the
form of inference, the sequence is formal and the argument
is said to be formally valid or formally correct. And so, if
the inference requires giving the original proposition its
opposite, then it has to conform to the requirement for such
type of inference. For example, “All politicians are public
servants” will have as opposite “Some politicians are not
Essentials of Logic
64
public servants.” Hence, the inference is complying with the

form or structure demand of the oppositional inference.
If the sequence springs from the special character of the

thought content, the sequence is material and the argument
is said to be materially valid. This is about the flow of the
thought or the thought itself that is expressed in the
inference.
Truth and Formal Validity

Logical truth or formal validity consists in the
conformity of our minds with reality. When we say, “Some
Christians are not deeply religious” our mind conforms to
the reality that indeed there are Christians who are not
deeply religious. In other words, a proposition is true if
things are as the proposition says they are.
Formal validity, correctness, rectitude or consistency

will be the immediate aim in the study of logic. We should
not ask ourselves, are the premises true? But, does the
conclusion flow from the premises so that if the premises
are true, the conclusion is necessarily true.
Immediate and Mediate Inferences

Inference is either immediate or mediate. Immediate
inference consists in passing directly from one proposition
to a new proposition that is a partial or complete
reformulation of the very same truth expressed in the
original proposition. Immediate inference has two terms, a
Essentials of Logic
65
subject term and predicate term and, strictly speaking,

involves no advance in knowledge.
Mediate inference, on the other hand, draws a

conclusion from two propositions and does involve an
advance in knowledge. It can be categorical or hypothetical
syllogism. In the categorical syllogism, it unites, separates
the subject and predicate of the conclusion through the
intermediacy of a middle term. In the hypothetical
syllogism, the major premise “causes” the conclusion
through the intermediacy of a second proposition.
Shown below is the brief distinction between the two.

Immediate Inference Mediate Inference
a. Passes from one proposition a. Passes from two propositions
b. Without a medium b. Through a medium
c. To a new proposition but not c. Not only to a new proposition
to a new truth but also to a new truth
Deduction and Induction

Logical process can be through deduction or induction.
Deduction is the process by which our minds proceed from a
more universal truth to a less universal truth. As in the
syllogism;
All men are mortal beings;
But Pedro is a man;
Therefore, Pedro is a mortal being.
Essentials of Logic
66
The first proposition, also known as the first premise,

expresses a more general or universal truth. Take note that
as the inference descends, the truth becomes more specific
revealing that since Pedro is a man hence he is a mortal
being.
Meanwhile, induction is the reverse of deduction. It is
the process by which our minds proceed from sufficiently
enumerated instances to a universal truth, as in the example;
Bernard, who wears an insignia with
crucifix, is a Lay Minister; Albert, also
wears the same insignia, is a Lay Minister;
Julius, who has the same insignia, is a Lay
Minister too; this is also true for Roel;
hence, anyone who wears an insignia with
crucifix is a Lay Minister.
In our study of logic, we will utilize deduction since
most syllogisms, just like the simple categorical and
hypothetical syllogisms follow such process.
Some Definitions
Inference is a mental process that proceeds from one
proposition to another proposition. In so doing, the mind gets
new knowledge and draws implications.
Formal and Material Sequence
Formal sequence is on the validity of the inference based on
structure. Material sequence is on the substance or the content
of the inference.
Essentials of Logic
67
Truth and Formal Validity

Formal validity or logical truth has something to do with the
mind in conformity with reality. If the thinking is otherwise;
then the mind contradicts with the truth hence illogical.
Immediate and Mediate Inferences

An immediate inference is composed of two propositions. The
mediate inference is made up of three propositions.
Deduction and Induction

As an approach in reasoning, deduction starts the argument
from universal truth to less universal or specific truth. Induction
is the opposite.

1. What is an inference?
2. What connection does the antecedent have with the
consequent?
3. Compare formal sequence with material sequence?
4. What is logical truth?
5. Differentiate mediate from immediate inference.
6. Compare and contrast deduction and induction. Give
examples for each.
Essentials of Logic
68
Exercise 9
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Identify whether the proposition is materially valid

or not. Write (/) for valid; (X) for invalid.
____1. Some senators are legislators.
____2. All legislators are senators.
____3. No MTRCB members are moralists.
____4. No human beings are infallible.
____5. Some doctors are physicians.
____6. Some tables are without flat top surfaces.
____7. All political candidates are professionals.
____8. Several professionals are licensed practitioners.
____9. Sectarian schools are run either by religious sects or
congregations.
____10. Every cabinet member is a politician.
References:
Ardales, V. B. (2008). Logic: Towards critical thinking and reasoning. 3rd

Ed. Educational Publishing House. Ermita, Manila


Students. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Cornejo, N. L. (2015). Logic: The art of defining and reasoning.

Mindshapers Co., Inc. Manila
Essentials of Logic
69
Gualdo, R. S. (2000). Logic: The basics of correct reasoning. Mega-Jestar

Prints, Inc.
Hinacay, M. L. &Hinacay, M. B. (2004).Logic: A textbook-workbook for

Philippines
Javines, R. R. (2009). Logic and critical thinking: Text-workbook.

Educational Publishing House, Inc. Ermita, Manila
Maboloc, C. R. B. (2011). Foundations of logic: An introduction to critical

thinking. MS Lopez Printing & Publishing, Davao City
Malitao, A. L. (2010). Essential logic.Revised edition. National

Bookstore
Meer, T. Q., Hualda, L. S. & Bamba, L. M. (2004).Basics of logic.

Trinitas Publishing, Inc. Bulacan
Pavo, R. R. (2013). Logical thinking: With an introduction to philosophy.

Text-workbook. Educational Publishing House. Ermita, Manila

Essentials of Logic
70
The
Immediate
Inference
Reasoning can come in various forms. It can be drawn
either from a single or two propositions or premises. One
that is drawn from a single proposition or premise is called
the immediate inference. As a direct form of reasoning, the
immediate inference takes on two types; the oppositional
inference and eduction or equivalent propositions. In
oppositional inference, the idea in the new proposition is
opposed in the original proposition; while, in eduction the
new proposition retains it.
Lesson 1: The Oppositional Inference
Preliminaries
Aristotelian logic provides us with four oppositional
relations. They are contradictory, contrary, sub-contrary,
and sub-altern or contradiction, contrariety, sub-contrariety
and sub-alternation respectively. Under these relations, the
opposing propositions have the same subject and predicate,
but differing in quantity, or in quality, or in both. Here is the
diagram, also known as the Square of Opposition, to
illustrate them.
The diagram, shown in Figure 7, presents the four types
of opposition and the four relations resulting from this
opposition.
Essentials of Logic
71
Figure 7: Square of Opposition
Types of Oppositional Relations

Contradictories. Contradictory or contradiction is the
opposition between two propositions that differ both in
quantity and quality. There are two sets of opposition under
contradiction: A and O, and E and I, vice versa.
a. Contradictory Processes
As shown in the diagram, the following are the
contradictory propositions.
Table 2: Table of Legitimate Contradictories
Original Proposition New Proposition
A Every man is mortal. O Some man is not mortal.
O Some man is not mortal. A Every man is mortal.
E No man is mortal. I Some man is mortal.
I Some man is mortal. E No man is mortal.
Essentials of Logic
72
These two opposite propositions differ both in quantity

and in quality because A is universal affirmative and O is
particular negative; and E is universal negative and I is
particular affirmative.
b. Rules Governing Contradictories

There are rules governing the contradictory propositions
and these are the following;
Rule 1: If one is true, the other is false.
Rule 2: If one is false, the other is true.
Table 3: Table of Legitimate Contradictories with Truth-Value
Original Proposition New Proposition Truth-
value
A Every man is mortal. O Some man is not False
mortal.
O Some man is not A Every man is mortal. True
mortal.
E No man is mortal. I Some man is mortal. True
I Some man is mortal. E No man is mortal. True
Two rules apply to the contradictory propositions.

[Note: By way of interpretation, the words one and other are
crucial in the application of the rules. One refers to the
original or the given proposition; other, the new proposition.
This applies to all rules for the remaining oppositional
inferences except for the sub-alterns.]
Let us go through the entire process of subjecting a

proposition to contradictories. The process must begin by
Essentials of Logic
73
knowing the material sequence or truth-value of the original

or the given proposition. The A proposition “Every man is
mortal” is materially valid, hence, true. Its new proposition,
an O, “Some man is not mortal” is false. On the contrary, if
the original or given proposition is materially invalid or
false, then its new proposition is true.
Contraries. Contrary or contrariety, as other logicians

put it, is the opposition between two universal propositions
that differ as to their quality. There is only one set of
opposition under contrary, that is, A and E, vice versa.
a. Contrary Processes
As shown in the Square of Opposition, the following
are the contrary propositions.
Table 4: Table of Legitimate Contraries
A Every man is mortal E No man is mortal.
E No man is mortal. A Every man is mortal.
These propositions differ only in quality because A is

affirmative and E is negative. There is no change in quantity
because both are universal propositions.
b. Rules Governing Contraries

There are also two rules on contraries, to wit;
Rule 1: If one is true, the other is false.
Rule 2: If one is false, the other is doubtful or
undetermined.
Essentials of Logic
74
Table 5: Table of Legitimate Contraries with Truth-Value

value
A Every man is mortal E No man is mortal. False
E No man is mortal. A Every man is mortal. Doubtful
Just like in the contradictories, one refers to the original

or given proposition; other is the new. Regardless of
whether the original or given proposition is an A or E, the
application of the rules will be based on its material validity
or truth-value. In other words, if “Man is immortal,” an A,
is false, then “No man is immortal” is doubtful. By
investigation, the given “Man is immortal” is false indeed.
The second rule puts the new proposition as either true or
false, hence, doubtful or undetermined.
Sub-Contraries. Sub-contrary or sub-contrariety is the

opposition between two particular propositions that differ as
to their quality. There is only one set of proposition under
sub-contrary, that is, I and O, vice versa.
a. Sub-contrary Processes
The following are sample processes.
Table 6: Table of Legitimate Sub-contraries
I Some man is mortal. O Some man is not mortal.
O Some man is not mortal. I Some man is mortal.
Essentials of Logic
75
These propositions differ only in quality because I is

affirmative and O is negative. There is no change in quantity
because both are particular propositions.
b. Rules Governing Sub-contraries

There are two rules that apply in the sub-contrary
propositions, these are;
Rule 1: If one is true, the other is doubtful or
undetermined.
Rule 2: If one is false, the other is true.
Table 7: Table of Legitimate Sub-contraries with Truth-Value
value
I Some man is O Some man is not True
mortal. mortal.
O Some man is not I Some man is mortal. True
mortal.
Let me reiterate, the rules in the sub-contraries have to
be interpreted and applied on the basis of the material
validity or truth-value of the original or given proposition. A
thorough analysis of the truth-value of the given proposition
is necessary in order to provide an accurate validation of the
inference.
The proposition’s truth-value is doubtful or
undetermined, as in the case of the sub-contrary, when there
is a possibility of its truth-value to be true or false. Or sub-
contrary propositions cannot be both true and be both false.
As in the proposition “Some dogs are not white,” which is
Essentials of Logic
76
true, will have doubtful or undetermined for its truth-value

in the new proposition “Some dogs are white.” Since the
new proposition would be placed within the possibility of
being true or false with reference to the idea that there are
some dogs which are white.
Sub-alterns. Sub-alterns or sub-alternation is the
opposition between two propositions having the same
quality but different quantity. There are two sets of
oppositions under sub-alternation: A and I and E and O, vice
versa. Both propositions, the universal and the particular, are
called sub-alterns. The universal is the sub-alternant, while
the particular is the sub-alternate.
a. Sub-alterns Processes
Shown in the table are the processes in sub-alterns.
Table 8: Table of Legitimate Sub-alterns
A Every man is mortal. I Some man is mortal.
I Some man is mortal. A Every man is mortal.
E No man is mortal. O Some man is not mortal.
O Some man is not mortal. E No man is mortal.
These opposite propositions differ only in quantity

because A is universal and I particular and E is universal
and O particular. There is no change in quality because A–I
and E-O propositions are affirmative and negative qualities
respectively.
Essentials of Logic
77
Before going any further into the laws governing each

of these logical relations, bear in mind that in the two
opposing propositions, the positions of the subject and the
predicate remain unchanged. The eliciting of the truth and
falsity of an existing opposition depends so much on the
succeeding rules.
b. Rules Governing Sub-alterns
There are two phases in the rules on sub-alterns. In the
first phase, the rule is stated from the truth of one of the sub-
altern propositions, and, in the second phase, the rule is
stated from the falsity of one of the sub-altern propositions.
The first rule states, the truth of the universal involves
the truth of the particular, but the truth of the particular
does not necessarily involve the truth of the universal. In
other words, if the universal is true, then, the particular
must also be true, but, if the particular is true, then, the
universal in doubtful or undetermined.
The second rule states, the falsity of the particular
involves the falsity of the universal: but the falsity of the
universal does not necessarily involve the falsity of the
particular. In other words, if the particular is false, then the
universal is also false, but, if the universal is false, then the
particular is doubtful or undetermined.
The rules of sub-alterns are summarized as follows:

Rule 1: If the universal is true, then the particular must
also be true.
Essentials of Logic
78
Rule 2: If the particular is true, then the universal is

doubtful or undetermined.
Rule 3: If the universal is false, then the particular is
doubtful or undetermined.
Rule 4: If the particular is false, then the universal is
also false.
Table 9: Table of Legitimate Sub-alterns with Truth-Value
value
A Every man is mortal. I Some man is mortal. True
I Some man is mortal. A Every man is mortal. False
E No man is mortal. O Some man is not Doubtfu
mortal. l
O Some man is not E No man is mortal. False
mortal.
Table 10: Table of Truth-Values

A I E O
True True False False
False Doubtful Doubtful True
I A E O
True T Doubtful False Doubtful
I False H False True True
F E E O A I
True N True False False
False Doubtful Doubtful True
O E A I
True Doubtful False Doubtful
False False True True
Essentials of Logic
79

1. Why is it necessary to retain the subject and the predicate
terms of the propositions in oppositional inference?
2. Describe each of the four types of logical opposition and
state their respective rules.

Preliminaries
Aristotle developed what we now call the square of opposition
showing the interrelationship among contradictory, contrary,
sub-contrary, and sub-altern. As an immediate inference, the
propositions involved are opposed to each other.
Types of Oppositional Relations

The oppositional relations include the contradictories,
contraries, subcontraries and subalterns. All symbols can be
subjected in the contradictories and the processes are A to O, O
to A, E to I, and I to O. Only universal symbols are subjected in
the contraries; that is, A to E, and E to A for the process. O to I,
and I to O for the sub-contraries, meaning only particular
symbols can be subjected. Sub-alterns involve the interaction
between the universal and particular symbols. And so, A is
subjected to I, I to A, E to O, and O to E.
Essentials of Logic
80
Exercise 10
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Change the given propositions into their opposites

and identify their corresponding truth-value in relation to the
given.
Truth-
Propositions
value
1.All senators are politicians. _____
Subaltern:______________________________________ _____
Contrary:_______________________________________ _____
Contradictory:___________________________________ _____
2. Some tumors are cancerous. _____
Subaltern:______________________________________ _____
Subcontrary :____________________________________ _____
Contradictory:___________________________________ _____
3. No tigers are carnivorous animals _____
Subaltern:______________________________________ _____
Contrary:_______________________________________ _____
Contradictory:___________________________________ _____
4. Some diseases are not curable. _____
Subaltern:______________________________________ _____
Subcontrary:____________________________________ _____
Contradictory:__________________________________ _____
Essentials of Logic
81
5. Some paintings are not artworks. _____

Subaltern:______________________________________ _____
Subcontrary:____________________________________ _____
Contradictory:__________________________________ _____
B. Directions: A) Change the given propositions into their

opposites as either A, E, I or O, B) Write their oppositional
relations, and C) identify their corresponding truth-value in
relation to the given.
1. No terrorists are patriots. (true)
A B C
A
I
O
2. All candidates are professionals. (false)

A B C
E
O
I
3. Some quotations are Biblical passages. (true)

A B C
A
E
O
Essentials of Logic
82
4. No Christians are Muslims. (true)

A B C
A
I
O
5. Some cabinet members are not politicians. (true)

A B C
I
E
A
6. Some families are convention delegates. (true)

A B C
O
E
A
7. No animal rights are human rights. (false)

A B C
A
I
O
8. Some professionals are illiterates. (false)

A B C
O
A
E
Essentials of Logic
83
9. All hospitals are medical institutions. (true)

A B C
I
E
O
10. Some clinical instructors are not graduates. (false)

A B C
I
A
E
C. Directions: Give the truth-value as true, false, or doubtful of

the opposite proposition in every number. Write your answer
on the blank after each number.
If “All text messages are censored communications” is
false, then “No text messages are censored
communications” is 1._________
If “Some voters are not poll watchers” is true, then
“All voters are poll watchers” is 2._________
If “Some Church’s teachings are evil” is false, then
“Some Church’s teachings are not evil” is 3._________
If “All Muslim countries are rich countries” is true,
then “Some Muslim countries are rich countries” is 4. ________
If “No subjects are sciences” is false, then “Some
subjects are sciences” is 5. ________
If “Some tourist spots are historical sites” is true, then
“All tourist spots are historical sites” is 6. ________
If “All divorcees are unmarried women” is true, then
“No divorcees are unmarried women” is 7. ________
If “All students are diligent persons” is false, then
“Some students are not diligent persons” is 8. ________
Essentials of Logic
84
If “Some patients are healthy persons” is false, then

“All patients are healthy persons” is 9. ________
If “No outreach program is an academic program” is
true, then “All outreach programs are academic
programs” is 10. _______
Lesson 2: Eduction or The Equivalent Propositions
Preliminaries
Eduction or equivalent proposition is a process of
immediate inference whereby, from any proposition taken as
true, we derive other propositions implied in it, though
differing from the first in subject, predicate, or both. Unlike
the opposite propositions where the original or given
proposition may either be true or false, eduction or
equivalent propositions must take materially valid
propositions. This is because the idea expressed in the
original proposition is going to be retained in the new
proposition. The four main forms of eduction or equivalent
propositions are obversion, conversion, contraposition and
inversion.
Types of Eduction
Obversion. Obversion (from the Latin, ob, meaning
before, toward, and verfere, to turn) is a process of eduction
involving three changes. The original or given proposition is
called obvertend, the new, obverse and the process itself is
obversion. These changes occur in the quality of the
proposition and in the status of the predicate term.
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85
The change in the quality of the proposition is done by

making an affirmative proposition negative and a negative
proposition affirmative and giving the predicate of the
obvertend its contradictory in the obverse. From the process,
three rules on obversion are formulated:
Rule 1: Retain the subject and the quantity of the
obvertend.
Rule 2: Change the quality.
Rule 3:As predicate, use the contradictory of the
predicate of the original proposition.
Let us now apply the rules guided by the table of
legitimate obversions.
Table 11: Table of Legitimate Obversions
Obvertend Obverse
A All voters are citizens. E No voters are non-citizens.
E No Protestants are non- A All Protestants are
believers. believers.
I Some citizens are voters. O Some citizens are not non-
voters.
O Many men are not honest. I Many men are dishonest.
The obverse of an A proposition is always an E, an I is

an O, vice versa. So in the proposition “All voters are
citizens” following rules 1 and 2, the subject has retained its
position and the quantity is the same as in “No voters are
non-citizens.” However, rule 3 changes the predicate into its
contradictory from citizens to non-citizens. The idea of
contradictory is on the quality of the term which we
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86
discussed in module 2. It is about giving the term its

corresponding contradictory term, i.e., dishonest for honest
or using appropriate prefixes like non to the term, i.e., non-
voters for voters.
As you can see in the table “No Protestants are non-

believers,” an E is obverted to A “All Protestants are
believers.”“Some citizens are voters” becomes “Some
citizens are not non-voters,” that is from I to O. An O is
obverted to I as in “Many men are not honest” becomes
“Many men are dishonest.”
Conversion. Conversion (from the Latin, convertere,

meaning to turn) is another form of eduction. The original
proposition is a convertend and the equivalent proposition is
a converse. Conversion involves a single change that is,
switching the subject term and the predicate term. In other
words, the subject of the convertend becomes the predicate
of the converse, and the predicate of the convertend
becomes the subject of the converse.
There are two types of conversion: the simple and partial
conversions.
a. Simple Conversion. Conversion is simple if the quantity
of the converse is the same as the quantity of the
convertend. Hence, if the convertend is universal, the
converse is also universal; if the convertend is
particular, the converse is also particular, and if the
convertend is singular, the converse is singular. E and I
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87
are the only symbols which can be subjected to

conversion. The following are the Rules of Simple
Conversion:
Rule 1: Interchange subject and predicate.
Rule 2: Retain quality of the convertend.
Rule 3: Retain quantity of the convertend.
Table 12: Table of Legitimate Simple Conversions
Convertend Converse
E No Protestants are non- E No non-believers are
believers. Protestants.
I Some citizens are voters. I Some voters are citizens.
As already mentioned, only symbols E and I can be

converted. How about the other two symbols? If you convert
“No dog is a cat,” its converse is, following the 3 rules, “No
cat is a dog.”“Some men are dishonest” becomes “Some
dishonest creatures are men.” There is no problem of the
truth-value for both convertend and converse. However, if
you convert an A as in "All men are mortals,” it will
become “All mortals are men” and an O like, “Some
husbands are not honest,” to “Some honest people are not
husbands.” There is a limitation to the truth-value expressed
by both A and O symbols. The converse of “All mortals are
men” excludes other beings or creatures from the
classification of mortals, which is a clear inconsistency to
the truth expressed in the convertend. This is also true to an
O proposition.
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88
b. Partial Conversion. Conversion is partial if the quantity

of the proposition is reduced from universal to
particular. Partial conversion is also called accidental
conversion, conversion by limitation, and reduced
conversion. A is converted by partial conversion to I,
and E is converted to O. The following are the Rules of
Partial Conversion:
Rule 1: Interchange subject and predicate.
Rule 2: Retain quality of the convertend.
Rule 3: Reduce the quantity of the convertend from
universal to particular.
Table 13: Table of Legitimate Partial Conversions
Convertend Converse
A Every political candidate I Some voters are political
is a voter. candidates.
E No Protestants are non- O Some non-believers are not
By application of the rules, an A proposition is

converted to I, E to O. Let’s have the examples: “Every
political candidate is a voter” is converted to “Some voters
are political candidates,” “No men are immortal beings” to
“Some immortal beings are not men.”
Contraposition. Contraposition is the process of
eduction which combines the principles of conversion and
obversion. The original proposition is the contraponend
while the equivalent proposition is the contrapositive. It is
formed by two steps:
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89
a) Switching the subject term and the predicate term as

in conversion.
b) Substituting both the subject term and the predicate
term with contradictory or complementary terms as in
obversion.
There are two types of contraposition: the Partial or
Simple and Complete Contraposition.
a. Partial or Simple Contraposition. It is a type of
contraposition that consists in the formulation of a
new proposition guided by the following Rules of
Partial Contraposition:
Rule 1: The subject of the contrapositive is the
contradictory of the original predicate.
Rule 2: The quality is changed.
Rule 3: The predicate is the original subject.
Table 14: Table of Legitimate Partial or Simple Contraposition
Contraponend Contrapositive
A Every dog is an animal. E No non-animal is a dog.
E No Protestants are non- I Some believers are
O Some men are not I Some dishonest beings are
honest. men.
Except for symbol I, the other symbols, that is, A, E &

O, can be subjected to partial or simple contraposition, A is
changed to E, E to I, and O to I. The proposition “Every dog
is an animal,” an A, becomes “Every non-animal is not a
dog” or “No non-animal is a dog.”
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90
b. Complete Contraposition. This type of contraposition

is the formulation of a new proposition guided by the
following Rules of Complete Contraposition:
Rule 1: The subject of the contrapositve is also the
contradictory of the original predicate.
Rule 2: The quality is not changed.
Rule 3: The predicate is the contradictory of the
original subject.
Table 15: Table of Legitimate Complete Contraposition
Contraponend Contrapositive
A Every dog is an animal. A All non-animal is a non-dog.
E No Protestants are non- O Some believers are not non-
O Some men are not O Some dishonest beings are
honest. not non-men.
Just like in partial or simple contraposition, symbol I

cannot be changed in the complete contraposition. In
observing the rules, this type obverts or provides
contradictory or complementary terms to both subject and
predicate terms. As shown in the table, an O proposition
“Some men are not honest” is changed to “Some dishonest
beings are not non-men.”
Inversion. Inversion, of two types, consists in the

formulation of a new proposition whose subject is the
contradictory of the original subject. The original
proposition is called the invertend, the new proposition, the
inverse, and the process itself inversion.
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91
Inversion is affected by a series of obversions and

conversions. Experiments show that only A and E can be
inverted. There are two types: the partial or simple
inversion and the complete inversion.
a. Partial or Simple Inversion. The process by which
symbols A & E are changed goes this way; A is
inverted to O, and E to I. The following are the Rules
of Partial or Simple Inversion:
Rule 1: The subject of the inverse is the contradictory
of the original subject.
Rule 2: The quality is changed.
Rule 3: The predicate is the same as in the original
proposition.
Table 16: Table of Legitimate Partial or Simple Inversion
Invertend Inverse
A Every dog is an animal. O Some non-dogs are not
animals.
E No Protestants are non- I Some non-Protestants are
believers. non-believers.
b. Complete Inversion. In this type, A proposition is

inverted to I, and E to O. One characteristic unique of
this type is that both subject and predicate terms have
contradictories. The following are the Rules of
Complete Inversion:
Rule 1: The subject of the inverse is the contradictory
of the original subject.
Rule 2: The quality is unchanged.
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92
Rule 3:The predicate is the contradictory of the

original predicate.
Table 17: Table of Legitimate Complete Inversion
Invertend Inverse
A Every dog is an animal. I Some non-dogs are non-
animals.
E No Protestants are non- O Some non-Protestants are not
believers. believers.
Table 18: Summary of Eduction Types

SYMBOLS A E I O
Original SaP SeP SiP SoP
Propositions
1. Obverse S e –P S a –P S o –P S i –P
2. Converse t1 A has no P e S PiS O has no
type 1 converse
3. Converse t2 PiS PoS I has no
type 2
4. Contrapositive t1 -P e S -P i S I has no -P i S
contrapositive
5. Contrapositive t2 -P a -S -P o -S -P o –S
6. Inverse t1 -S o P -S i P I and O have no
7. Inverse t2 -S i -P -S o –P inverse
Dash (-) indicates contradictory
Preliminaries
Eduction, or equivalent propositions, has propositions which
are not opposite each other. The truth of the original
proposition is retained in the new proposition.
Types of Education
There are four types eduction or equivalent propositions. These
are obversion, conversion, contraposition, and inversion. The
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93
original propositions for each are termed as obvertend,

convertend, contraponend and invertend respectively, while the
new propositions are obverse, converse, contraposit or
contrapositive and inverse.

1. What are eductions or equivalent propositions?
2. Enumerate the rules of obversion, conversion,
contraposition, and inversion.
3. Is it legitimate to convert O propositions? Explain your
answer.
4. How would you contrast simple from partial conversion?
What to do
1. Composition of a ‘Philosophical Essay.’
a. Compose a philosophical essay on certain social issue.
b. Social issues can be drug problem, corruption,
divorce, premarital sex, teenage pregnancy, etc. Just
pick one.
c. Following the format of Introduction, Body and
Conclusion, present your argument and stance
regarding the issue.
d. Due date: Final grading period.
Essentials of Logic
94
Exercise 11
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________

true.
______ 1. Eduction is also known as equivalent propositions.
______ 2. Equivalent propositions must take on formally valid
propositions.
______ 3. Converse is the term for new proposition in
conversion.
______ 4. Conversion has two types: the simple and complete
conversions.
______ 5. Obversion is from the Latin, ob, meaning before,
toward, and verfere, to turn.
______ 6. Contraposition applies both processes observed in
conversion and obversion.
______ 7. Contraponend is the original proposition in
contraposition.
______ 8. The quality of the contrapositive, in complete
contraposition, is changed.
______ 9. Partial inversion changes the predicate term into its
contradictories.
______10. Inverse is the term given for new proposition in
inversion.
B. Directions: Give the obverse, converse, contrapositive, and

inverse of the following propositions, if any. Write BONUS if it
cannot be processed to any type. Label your answer.
1. All calculators are mechanical devices.
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95
2. No planets are state-owned celestial bodies.

3. Some public officers are not sincere politicians.
4. Some non-leaders are progress-oriented people.
5. All papers are educational supplies.
6. Some Buddhists are not Chinese.
7. No non-Tagalogs are Cebuanos.
8. Some professors are scholars.
9. All knives are kitchen utensils.
10. No TV sets are furniture.
C. Directions: In every restated proposition, the four elements of
a logically-structured categorical proposition are underlined and
labeled as A for quantifier, B for the subject term, C for the copula
and D for the predicate. Under column A, write the letter that
corresponds to that element that is incorrect, and under column
B, write the correct answer.
Example:
Given: No dogs are cats. A B
Converse (t1): No cats are non-dogs. D Dogs
A B C D
1. No alien is a citizen. A B
1.1. Obv: No aliens are non-citizens. ___ ___
A B C D
1.2. Conv No non-citizen is an alien. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
1.3. Cntr Some non-citizens are not aliens. ___ ___
(t2): A B C D
1.4. Inv Some non-alien is a non-citizen. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
2. All nuns are women. A B

2.1. Obv: No nuns are women. ___ ___
A B C D
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96
2.2. Conv All women are nuns. ___ ___

(t2): A B C D
2.3. Cntr All non-women are not non-nuns. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
2.4 Inv All non-nuns are non-women. ___ ___
(t2): A B C D
3. No texts are calls. A B

3.1. Obv: All texts are not non-calls. ___ ___
A B C D
3.2. Conv All calls are texts. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
3.3. Cntr Some non-calls are not texts. ___ ___
(t2): A B C D
3.4 Inv Some non-texts are not calls. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
4. Some athletes are champions. A B

4.1. Obv: Some athletes are not champions. ___ ___
A B C D
4.2. Conv All champions are athletes. ___ ___
(t1): A B C D
5. Some persons are not Chinese. A B

5.1. Obv: Some persons are Chinese. ___ ___
A B C D
5.2. Cntr Some non-Chinese are non-persons. ___ ___
(t1): AB C D
5.3 Cntr Some non-Chinese are not persons. ___ ___
(t2): A B C D
6. All songs are arts. A B
6.1. Obv: No non-songs are non-arts. ___ ___
A B C D
6.2. Conv: Some arts are not songs. ___ ___
A B C D
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97
6.3 Cntr All arts are non-songs. ___ ___

(t2): A B C D
D. Directions: As labeled, give the obverse, converse,

contrapositive, and inverse of the following propositions. Write
BONUS if it cannot be processed to any type.
1. All rebellions are illegal acts.

Obverse _____________________________________
Converse t1 _____________________________________
Converse t2 _____________________________________
Contrapositive t1 _____________________________________
Inverse t1 _____________________________________
Inverse t2 _____________________________________
2. No measles are non-curable illnesses.

Obverse _____________________________________
Converse t1 _____________________________________
Converse t2 _____________________________________
Inverse t1 _____________________________________
Inverse t2 _____________________________________
3. Some quotations are Biblical passages.

Obverse _____________________________________
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98
Converse t1 _____________________________________
Converse t2 _____________________________________
Inverse t1 _____________________________________
Inverse t2 _____________________________________
4. Many Christians are not deeply religious.

Obverse ______________________________________
Converse t1 ______________________________________
Converse t2 ______________________________________
Contrapositive t1 ______________________________________
Contrapositive t2 ______________________________________
Inverse t1 ______________________________________
Inverse t2 ______________________________________
References:



Essentials of Logic
99


Prints, Inc.

Philippines


Malitao, A. L. (2010). Essential logic. Revised edition. National

Bookstore
Meer, T. Q., Hualda, L. S. &Bamba, L. M. (2004).Basics of logic.Trinitas

Publishing, Inc. Bulacan

Text-workbook. Educational Publishing House.Ermita, Manila

Essentials of Logic
100
The
Categorical
Syllogism
Categorical syllogism is the type of argument which has
been continuously studied for more than two thousand years
now since the time of Aristotle. It is the centerpiece of
Aristotelian logic, and is still the most visible type of
argument in logic courses and textbooks but since the
structure of classical syllogism is so straightforward and
involves talking and distinguishing universal and particular
statements, it has become the foremost representative of the
type of argument to be found in logic textbooks.
Lesson 1: The Structure of Categorical Syllogism

This lesson discusses the structure of categorical
syllogism, the significance of education in categorical
syllogism, and the four principles of categorical syllogism.
A syllogism is a deductive argument consisting of two

premises and one conclusion. It is a categorical syllogism if
all the propositions are categorical propositions. Every
categorical syllogism consists of terms and propositions.
The Terms
The categorical propositions that constitute the
categorical syllogism contain three terms. They are the
major tem, the minor term, and the middle term.
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1. The major term is the predicate of the conclusion

and it is found in one of the premises.
2. The minor term is the subject of the conclusion and
it is found in one of the premises.
3. The middle term is that which provides the linkage
between the two premises. It is found in both
premises but not in the conclusion.
Let us represent the three terms with letter symbols;
capital letter T for the major term, small letter t for the minor
term and capital letter M for the middle term.
Example:
Every Christian is a believer;
But, every Catholic is a Christian;
Therefore, every Catholic is a believer.
Mu Is T M a T
Tu Is M t a M
Tu is T t a T
In this categorical syllogism, believer is the major term
(T), Catholic is the minor term (t), and Christian is the
middle term (M).
The Use of Univocal Terms

The terms must be used in the same sense (univocal)
throughout the syllogism. If a term is used in different
senses (equivocal), it would not count as one but several
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102
terms and so there will be more than three terms. Observe

the example below:
The poor needs government subsidy;

But, the students’ performance is poor;
Therefore, the students’ performance needs
government subsidy.
The term poor is used in different sense. In the first
proposition, poor means indigent people, while in the
second, poor means weak performance.
Terms in Synonym
A synonym introduced into one of the propositions does
not add another terms to the syllogism. Note the example
below:
All businessmen are wealthy persons;

But, all rich persons are hardworking
individuals; Therefore, some hardworking
individuals are businessmen.
The terms wealthy persons and rich persons are
synonym and must be treated as univocal.
The Significance of Eduction in Syllogism

The logical eduction is anchored solely on the idea of
restating certain sentences into other sentences which are
equivalent in meaning but may have different logical form.
Consider the following argument:
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103
No non-intelligent teachers are terror

teachers; But, all intelligent teachers are
non-compassionate teachers; Therefore, no
compassionate teachers are terror teachers.
This argument appears to be invalid because it contains
more than three terms contrary to what is required by a
correct standard syllogism. These terms are 1.) non-
intelligent 2.) intelligent 3.) terror 4.) compassionate and 5.)
non-compassionate. But, upon evaluation, it is actually
valid.
We shall make a keen evaluation of the second premise,

that is:
All intelligent teachers are non-compassionate teachers.
This proposition contains a subject term and a predicate

term contradictory to any of the terms in the first premise
and in the conclusion. Let us substitute the terms in the
second premise and find its equivalent proposition through
the strict process of eduction. Under contraposition, the
equivalent sentence of this preposition is all compassionate
teachers are non-intelligent teachers. So, if we substitute
the second premise of the original argument with this latter
sentence, we get this argument:
No non-intelligent teachers are terror

teachers; But, all compassionate teachers
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104
are non-intelligent teachers; Therefore, no

compassionate teachers are terror teachers.
The argument now contains only three terms (non-
intelligent, compassionate, and terror) and is a standard form
categorical syllogism. It can now be tested using the
standard rules for testing the validity of syllogisms. We see
then that the argument is valid.
The Propositions
There are three propositions in a categorical syllogism.
The two are premises and the other is the conclusion. The
premises are designated as major premise or minor premise
depending on the term it carries.
1. The major premise is the proposition that carries the
major term.
2. The minor premise is the proposition that carries the
minor term.
3. The conclusion or the main claim is the proposition
that carries both the minor term and the major term.
We have this argument as our example:
Major Premise :All men are mortal beings.
Minor Premise : But, Pedro is a man.
Conclusion :Therefore, Pedro is a mortal being.
The validity of a categorical syllogism can easily be
evaluated when it is written in its standard logical form. If
an argument is presented in an essay form and that the
standard structure of a categorical syllogism is not
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105
observable, the arrangement can easily be done by

determining the conclusion first and then label the
constitutive terms as S (subject) and P (predicate). To be
observant of the premise indicators is of great help in this
restructuring process.
Take this example:
Anna is an intelligent person for Anna is a student and
all students are intelligent persons.
The above argument once restructured into the standard
form of categorical syllogism has this order:
Major Premise: All students are intelligent persons;
Minor Premise: but, Anna is a student;
Conclusion : Therefore, Anna is an intelligent
person.
The statement Anna is an intelligent person is the
conclusion for it is what is being claimed in the argument
supported by the premises. The statement all students are
intelligent persons is the major premise because it is the
proposition that contains the major term intelligent person
which is the predicate of the conclusion. Anna is a student is
the minor premise for it is the proposition containing the
minor term Anna which is the subject term of the
conclusion.
The Principle of Categorical Syllogism
There are four principles governing the relations of the
terms within a syllogism. They are as follows:
1. The Principle of Reciprocal Identity;
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106
2. The Principle of Reciprocal Non-Identity;

3. The Dictum “de Omni” (Law of All); and
4. The Dictum “de Nullo” (Law of None).
The Principle of Reciprocal Identity. This principle

provides that if both the major and the minor terms agree
with the middle term, then they are identical with each
other.
Example:
All mayors are government officials.
But, Mr. Garcia is a mayor.
Therefore, Mr. Garcia is a government official.
The Principle of Reciprocal Non-Identity. This principle
provides that if one of the terms, either the minor or the
major, agrees with the middle term and the other does not
agree with the same third term, then they are not identical
with each other.
Example:
A cow is an animal.
But, a mahogany is not an animal.
Therefore, a mahogany is not a cow.
We must take note that if both the major and the minor
terms do not agree with the third term, then we may have the
case of double negative propositions which would render the
syllogism invalid, or would not lead to any conclusion.
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107
The Dictum “de Omni” (Law of All).This principle

provides that what is affirmed of a logical class is also
affirmed of its logical member.
Example:
All motorcycles are land vehicles.
But, Kawasaki is a motorcycle.
Therefore, Kawasaki is a land vehicle.
If the major term land vehicle can be affirmed logically
for all motorcycles (a class or a group), then it can also be
affirmed for each member of that class including Kawasaki.
The Dictum “de Nullo” (Law of None).This principle

provides that what is denied of a logical class is also denied
of its logical member.
Example:
No Visayans are Pampanguenos.
But, all Boholanos are Visayans.
Therefore, No Boholanos are Pampanguenos.
The major term Pampanguenos is denied entirely of the
term Visayans which is the class or the group. Inasmuch as
it is denied to the class of Visayans, then it must also be
denied to the single member of that class, that is, the
Boholanos.

The Terms
The categorical syllogism is made up of terms: the major term,
minor term and the middle term. The major term is the
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108
predicate of the proposition; the minor term is the subject of the

conclusion; and the middle term is found in both the premises.
The Use of Univocal Terms

Since univocal terms share exactly the same meaning, its use in
the categorical syllogism is allowed.
Terms in Synonym
The synonym of the term may also be used in the other
proposition of the categorical syllogism.
The Significance of Eduction in Syllogism

The processes used in eduction or equivalent propositions may
also be used in the categorical syllogism.
The Propositions
The categorical syllogism is made up of three propositions
namely; the major premise, the minor premise and the
conclusion.
The Principle of Categorical Syllogism

The categorical syllogism may be understood according to the
four principles as the principle of reciprocal identity, the
principle of reciprocal non-identity, the dictum de omni, and the
dictum de nullo. These are four possible ways whereby
categorical syllogisms may be constructed.

1. What is a categorical syllogism?
2. Name the three terms and the propositions that comprise
the categorical syllogism. What are their placements?
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109
3. Give examples for the different principles of categorical

syllogism:
a. The Principle of Reciprocal Identity
b. The principle of Reciprocal Non-identity
c. The Dictum “de Omni” (Law of All), and
d. The Dictum “de Nullo” (Law of None)
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110
Exercise 12
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________

true.
_____ 1. Categorical syllogism is the centerpiece of Aristotelian

logic.
_____ 2. The major term is the subject of the conclusion.
_____ 3. The middle term is the only term not found in the
conclusion.
_____ 4. A synonym introduced into one of the propositions does
not add another terms to the syllogism.
_____ 5. The major and the minor premises are the antecedents of
the categorical syllogism.
_____ 6. The principle of reciprocal identity provides that if both the
major and the minor terms agree with the middle term,
then they are identical with each other.
_____ 7. The Dictum “de Omni’ is also called ‘law of none.’
_____ 8. The categorical syllogism is a type of an immediate
inference.
_____ 9. Dictum “de Nullo” provides that what is denied of a
logical class is also denied of its logical member.
_____10. Induction is the approach in reasoning used in the
syllogisms.
B. Directions: Identify and underline the terms in the categorical

syllogisms as T for major term, t for minor term, and M for
middle term. Copy the syllogisms.
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111
1. All Catholics are Christians;

But every Catholic is a believer;
Therefore, some believers are Christians.
2. All senators are legislators;
But some senators are lawyers;
Therefore, some lawyers are legislators.
3. Some school facilities are not libraries;
But all school facilities are learning facilities;
Therefore, some learning facilities are not libraries.
4. All physicians are medical practitioners;
But some professionals are physicians;
Therefore, some professionals are medical practitioners.
5. No quack doctor is a licensed medical practitioner;
But every surgeon is a licensed medical practitioner;
Therefore, no surgeon is a quack doctor.
6. Every square is a plane figure with four equal sides;
But every square is a shape;
Therefore, some shapes are plane figures with four equal
sides.
7. All school facilities are learning facilities;
But all AVR’s are school facilities;
Therefore, all AVR’s are learning facilities.
8. Every chair is not a table;
But every table is having a flat top surface;
Therefore, some objects having flat top surfaces are not
chairs.
9. Every corrupt act is detestable;
But all good acts are not detestable;
Therefore, all good acts are not corrupt acts.
10. Many men are dishonest;
But every dishonest individual is insincere;
Therefore, many insincere individuals are men.
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C. Directions: Indicate the principle that applies to each

categorical syllogism; that is, whether it is the principle of
reciprocal identity, the principle of reciprocal non-identity, the dictum
“de Omni,’ or the dictum “de Nullo.” Copy the syllogisms and
write your answers on the space provided for in each syllogism.
Therefore, some believers are Christians. _________
2. All senators are legislators;
But some senators are lawyers;
Therefore, some lawyers are legislators. _________
3. Some school facilities are not libraries;
But all school facilities are learning facilities;
Therefore, some learning facilities are not
libraries. _________
4. All physicians are medical practitioners;
But some professionals are physicians;
Therefore, some professionals are medical
practitioners. _________
5. No quack doctor is a licensed medical
practitioner; but every surgeon is a licensed
medical practitioner; Therefore, no surgeon is a
quack doctor. _________
6. Every square is a plane figure with four equal
sides; but every square is a shape; therefore,
some shapes are plane figures with four equal
sides. _________
7. All school facilities are learning facilities;
But all AVR’s are school facilities;
Therefore, all AVR’s are learning facilities. _________
8. Every chair is not a table;
But every table is having a flat top surface;
Therefore, some objects having flat top surfaces
are not chairs. _________
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9. Every corrupt act is detestable;

But all good acts are not detestable;
Therefore, all good acts are not corrupt acts. _________
10. Many men are dishonest;
But every dishonest individual is insincere;
Therefore, many insincere individuals are men. _________
Lesson 2:General Rules of the Categorical Syllogism

The categorical syllogism is governed by rules. There
are ten of them. The following outline will be of great help
both in remembering the rules and in seeing their
relationship to one another.
Outline of the Rules

a. The Rules of the Terms
1. Their Number and Arrangement
(1). Their number. . .
(2). Their arrangement. . .
2. Their Quantity, or Extension
(3). The Quantity of the Minor and Major Term. . .
(4). The Quantity of the Middle Term. . .
b. The Rules of the Propositions
1. Their Quality
(5). If both premises are affirmative. . .
(6). If one premise is affirmative and the other
negative. . .
(7). If both premise are negative. . .
2. Their Quantity (Corollaries of Rules 3 and 4)
(8). At least one premise must be. . .
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(9). If a premise is particular; the conclusion must be.

3. Their Existential Import
(10). If the actual real existence of a subject has not
been asserted in the premise.
1) Their Number and Arrangement

Rule1. There must be three terms and only three- the
major term, the minor term, and the middle term.
The necessity of having only three terms follows the

very nature of a categorical syllogism, in which a minor (t)
and a major (T) term are united or separated through the
intermediacy of a third term, and the middle term (M).
The terms must have exactly the same meaning and

(except for certain legitimate changes in supposition) must
be in exactly the same way in each occurrence. A term that
has a different meaning in each occurrence is equivalently
two terms. We must be especially on our guard against
ambiguous middle terms.
The violation to this rule is called the fallacy of excess

terms. Let us consider the categorical syllogism below.
Every man is a thinking being;

But that painting on the wall is a man;
Therefore, that painting on the wall is a thinking
being.
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In the major premise, the middle term man refers to a

real man described of having a quality as a thinking being;
while the term man in the minor premise refers to man as a
subject of painting. Hence, the term man as used in the
foregoing syllogism is equivalently two terms.
Rule 2. Each term must occur in two propositions.
The major term must occur in the conclusion, as

predicate, and in one of the premises, which is therefore
called the major premise. The minor term must occur in the
conclusion, as subject, and in the other premise, which is
therefore called the minor premise. The middle term must
occur in both premises but not in the conclusion.
Let us have the succeeding categorical syllogism and

find out its flaw later.
All students are learners;
But some learners are preschoolers;
Therefore, some learners are students.
Taken individually, the propositions used in the
syllogism are materially and logically valid. However, taken
as parts of the entire syllogism, the flow of the argument
from the major premise to the conclusion is rendered
incoherent and disjointed.
2)The Quantity, or Extension, of the Terms
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Rule 3. The major and the minor terms may not be

universal in the conclusion unless they are universal in the
premises.
The reason for this rule is that we may not conclude

about all the inferiors of a term if the premises have given us
information about some of them. The conclusion is an effect
of the premises and must therefore be contained in them
implicitly; but all are not necessarily contained in some- at
least not by virtue of the form of argumentation alone.
Violation of this rule is called either extending a term or

an illicit process of a term. There is an illicit process of the
major term if the major term is particular in the premise but
universal in the conclusion; and an illicit process of the
minor term, if the minor term is particular in the premise but
universal in the conclusion.
Let us examine the following categorical syllogisms.
a) Every political candidate is a voter;

But every political candidate is a citizen;
Therefore, every citizen is a voter.
b) Every dog is a mammal;

But no cat is a dog;
Therefore, no cat is a mammal.
The first categorical syllogism has a conclusion that is
invalid since it is not logical to state that every citizen is a
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voter. The truth of the matter is that while it is true that

every voter is a citizen; nonetheless, not all citizens are
voters for some have not yet reached the right voting age. It
is the quantity of the minor term citizen which has affected it
all since its quantity in the minor premise is particular and
universal in the conclusion. Clearly, it violates Rule 3 on the
quantity of the minor term.
Meanwhile, the second syllogism also has a conclusion

that is materially invalid stating no cat is a mammal. Upon
investigation, it can be noted that the quantity of mammal in
the conclusion as major term is universal but particular in
the major premise. And so, it is the quantity of the major
term mammal which has affected the validity of the
syllogism.
Rule 4. The middle term must be universal at least once.
The reason for this rule is that when the middle term is
particular in both premises it might stand for a different
portion of its extension in each occurrence and thus be
equivalent to two terms, and therefore fail to fulfill its
function of uniting or separating the minor and major terms.
Again, let us investigate the syllogism below.
Every salamander is an amphibian;

But every gecko is an amphibian;
Therefore, every gecko is a salamander.
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Take note on the quantity of the middle term

amphibian. As shown, both have particular quantity.
Consequently, the conclusion is rendered materially invalid
stating that every gecko is a salamander. It is the quantity of
the middle term, which are both particular in quantity, that
has rendered the syllogism invalid.
3)The Quality of the Propositions

Rule 5. If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion
must be affirmative.
The reason for this rule is that affirmative premises

either unite the minor and major terms, or else do not bring
them into relationship with one another at all- as when there
is a particular middle.
Let us consider the categorical syllogism below.
Some witnesses are credible;

But all witnesses are thinking beings;
Therefore, some thinking beings are not credible.
Evidently, the categorical syllogism has for its
conclusion a proposition that is negating two affirmative
premises. Which should not be the case since by virtue of
logical principle, what had been affirmed in the premises
should not be denied the conclusion. It is a clear violation to
rule number 5.
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Rule 6. If one premise is affirmative and the other

negative, the conclusion must be negative.
The reason for this rule is that affirmative premise

unites the middle term with one of the extremes (that is,
with either the minor or the major term) and the negative
premise separates the middle term from the other extreme.
Two things, of which the one is identical with a third thing
and the other is different from that same third thing, cannot
be identical with one another.
Let us examine the categorical syllogism below.

All cats are quadrupeds;
But some animals are not quadrupeds;
Therefore, some animals are cats.
Apparently, the conclusion some animals are cats bears
no flaw at all. However, it runs counter to the thought
expressed in the premises that since all cats are quadrupeds
and that some animals are not quadrupeds; hence, by logical
consequence, some animals are not cats.
Rule 7. If both premises are negative – and not

equivalently affirmative- there is no conclusion at all.
To fulfill its function of uniting or separating the minor

and the major term, the middle term must itself be united
with at least one of them. But if both premises are negative,
the middle term is denied of each of the extremes and we
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learn nothing about the relationship of the extremes towards

one another.
Let us have categorical syllogism which have

propositions both negative in quality.
Every dog is not a cat;

But every cat is not a rat;
Therefore, every rat is not a dog.
Taken either wholly or individually, the categorical
syllogism presents no problem at all since each proposition
speaks of something materially valid. But obvious as it is,
each proposition used expressed what logicians call
conclusiveness of thought. Meaning, a negative proposition
by itself contains a conclusive thought. And so, it would be
of no use to complete negative propositions into a
categorical syllogism.
4) The Quantity of the Propositions

The rules on the quantity of the propositions are
corollaries of the rules on the quantity of the terms.
Rule 8. At least one premise must be universal.
We shall consider every possible arrangement of the

terms in categorical syllogisms in which both the premises
are particular propositions and see how in every
arrangement either Rule 3 or Rule 4 is violated.
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To do that, let us examine the categorical syllogism

below.
a) Some ACN students are protestants;

But many ACN students are Nabunturan
residents; Therefore, some Nabunturan residents
are protestants.
b) Many men are not honest;
Some honest people are priests;
Therefore, some priests are not men.
The categorical syllogism (a), which has particular and
affirmative premises, violates not only Rule 8 but also Rule
4 since both middle terms are particular in quantity.
Although in its entirety we find the syllogism materially
valid.
Syllogism (b), on the other hand, has one of its premises

negative in quality. It also violates Rule 3 as shown in the
conclusion where the quantity of the major term is universal
as against its particular quantity in the major premise.
Rule 9. If a premise is particular, the conclusion must

be particular.
According to Rule 3, the minor term may not be

universal in the conclusion unless it is universal in the minor
premise. But an examination of cases reveals that in a valid
syllogism having particular premise the minor term can
never be universal in an affirmative minor premise.
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The categorical syllogism below will help us

understand Rule 9.
All Baptists are Christians;
But some religious denominations are Baptists;
Therefore, all religious denominations are
Christians.
When and if the conclusion, as shown in the example, is
made universal from universal and particular premises, Rule
3 is violated and its material validity is affected because not
all religious denominations are Christians as there are those
that belong to non-Christian groups.
5) The Existential Import of the Propositions
Rule 10. The actual real existence of a subject may not
be asserted in the conclusion unless it has been asserted in
the premises.
The reason for this rule is the general principle that
nothing may ever be asserted in the conclusion that has not
been asserted implicitly in the premises.
Let us examine this syllogism.
Every student is a learner;

But all BSA are students;
Therefore, all BSBA are learners.
Individually, one may find each proposition valid.
However, the subject being asserted in the minor premise is
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BSA, and so consequently, the same subject should be

asserted in the conclusion and not BSBA.
Hence, it violates Rule 10.

Outline of the Rules
The ten general rules of the categorical syllogism is categorized
into two:1) rules of the terms and 2) rules of the propositions.
The rules of the terms are sub-categorized to number and
arrangement, and to quantity or extension, while the rules of
the propositions are sub-categorized into quality, quantity, and
existential import.

1. What are the two major divisions of the general rules?
What are the categories under each division?
2. What are the rules of the terms? How about the rules of the
proposition?
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Exercise 13
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Indicate what rule/s is violated in the following

syllogisms. Copy the syllogisms.
1. Every dog is an animal; but some living
creatures are not dogs; therefore, some
living creatures are animals. __________
2. All priests are not non-ordained
ministers; but Fr. Joel is a priest; therefore
Fr. Rene is not a non-ordained minister. __________
3. All dogs are mammals; but no men are
dogs; therefore, no men are mammals. __________
4. Every circle is round; but every circle is a
figure; therefore, every figure is round. __________
5. A dog is not a cat; but a rat is not a dog;
therefore a rat is not a cat. __________
6. All assumptionists are god-fearing; but
Rosalia is an assumptionist; therefore,
Rosalia is not god-fearing. __________
7. A dog is an animal; but a cat is an
animal; therefore, a cat is a dog. __________
8. Many men are dishonest; but some
husbands are dishonest; therefore, some
husbands are men. __________
9. All men are thinking beings; but some
creatures are men; therefore all creatures
are thinking beings. __________
10. Love is blind; but God is love; therefore,
God is blind. __________
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Lesson 3: Logical Forms of the Categorical Syllogism:

Figures and Moods
Logical form, as we have seen, is the basic structure, or
the basic arrangement of the parts, of a complex logical unit.
Now the categorical syllogism is a complex logical unit
having as its parts (a) terms and (b) propositions in which
these terms are affirmed or denied of one another. The
logical form, then, of the categorical syllogism includes;
(a) The arrangement of the terms – which is called
figure, and;
(b) The arrangement of the propositions according
to quality and quantity- which is called mood.
A study of the logical forms of the categorical

syllogism will serve several purposes.
1. At present it will be of help to deepen our
understanding of the general rules of the
syllogism and to give us practice in applying
them.
2. Later on it will serve as a background for the
consideration of the principles underlying the
syllogism.
General Nature of the Figures and Moods

Figure. The figure of a categorical syllogism consists of
the arrangement of the terms in the premises. There are four
figures and each is defined by the position of the middle
term in the premises.
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• First Figure(sub-pre) : the middle term is the subject of

the major premise and the predicate of the minor
premise.
• Second Figure(pre-pre) : the middle term is the
predicate of both premises.
• Third Figure(sub-sub) : the middle term is the
subject both premises.
• Fourth Figure(pre-sub) : the middle term is predicate
of the major premise and the subject of the minor
premise.
The prefixes sub and pre are taken from the first three
letters of the word subject and predicate respectively. The
diagram shown below will help us know the figure of the
categorical syllogism.
First Figure Second Figure Third Figure Fourth Figure

(sub-pre) (pre-pre (sub-sub) (pre-sub)
M T T M M T T M
t M t M M t M t
t T t T t T t T
Just to refresh us, M is symbol for middle term; T is

major term, and t for minor term. Now, let us formulate
categorical syllogism for each figure.
a) All students are learners;

But some youths are students;
Therefore, some youths are learners.
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b) No Christian is a non-believer of Christ;

But every atheist is a non-believer of Christ;
Therefore, no atheist is a Christian.
c) Not all Roman Catholics are deeply religious;
But all Roman Catholics are Christians;
Therefore, not all Christians are deeply religious.
d) Few workers are unsatisfied with pay;
But all persons unsatisfied with pay are unhappy;
Therefore, few unhappy people are workers.
The syllogisms above are examples for each figure of
the categorical syllogism. Syllogism (a) has a middle term,
students, subject of the major premise and predicate of the
minor premise. It is a syllogism for the first figure. The next
syllogism for the second figure has middle term, non-
believer of Christ, predicate of both premises.
For the third figure, syllogism (c) has the middle term,
Roman Catholics, subject of both the premises. And the last
syllogism for the fourth figure has unsatisfied with pay as
predicate of the major premise and subject of the minor
premise.
Mood. The mood of a categorical syllogism consists of

the disposition of the premises according to quality and
quantity. There are sixteen possible arrangements of the
premises according to quality and quantity represented by
symbols A, E, I & O.
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Major A A A A E e E e I i i i O o o o
Premise:
Minor A E I O A e I o A e i o A e i o
Premise:
By applying the general rules we shall see that only

eight of these arrangements or pairs are ever valid-the ones
in capital letters.
As you can see in the diagram:

• Rule7 (if both premises are negative, there is no
conclusion) excludes e-e, e-o, o-e and o-o.
• Rule 8(At least one of the premises must be universal)
excludes i-i, i-o, o-i and o-o – the last of which was
already excluded by Rule 7.
• Rule 3(The major and minor terms may not be universal
in the conclusion unless they are universal in the
premises) excludes i-e, for the major term would be
universal in the conclusion but particular in the premise.
Let us now highlight the valid pairs and see the possible
symbols for their conclusions.
Major Premise: A A A A E E I O
Minor Premise: A E I O A I A A
Conclusion A/I E I O E/O O I O
By strictly following the 10 General Rules of the

Categorical Syllogism:
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• AA may either have an A or I conclusion following

rules 5 and 3,
• AE pair will always have an E for its conclusion
following rule 6,
• AI will always take I for its conclusion in keeping with
rules 5 and 9,
• AO will always have O for its conclusion following rule
6 and 8,
• EA may take an E or O for its conclusion following
rules 6 and 3,
• EI will always have O following rules 6 and 9,
• IA will always take I for its conclusion following rules
5 and 9, and;
• OA will always take an O symbol following rules 6 and
9.
The moods indicated by the capital letters in the

diagram remain, but not all of these are valid in every figure.
The Valid Moods of Each Figure

We shall now apply the general rules of the categorical
syllogism to determine the valid moods of each figure.
1) The First Figure. In the first figure the middle term is

the subject of the major premise and the predicate of the
minor premise (sub-pre).
M T
t M
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As we saw above, the eight possible moods are:

A a A a E E i o
A e I o A I a a
By experiment we shall find that of these eight moods
only four indicated by the capital letters are valid.
Rule 3 (The major and minor terms may not be

universal in the conclusion unless they are universal in the
premises) excludes a-e and a-o. In the premise, the major
term is the predicate of an affirmative proposition and
therefore particular; but in the conclusion it is the predicate
of a negative proposition and therefore universal.
Rule 4(The middle term must be universal at least once)

excludes i-a and o-a. As subject of an I or O proposition, the
middle term is particular; and as predicate of an A
proposition, it is also particular in its second occurrence.
Only four moods remain: A A E E

A I A I
They conclude in: A I E O
An inspection of these moods enables us to draw up the
following Rules of the First Figure:
1. The major premise must be universal (A or E)
2. The minor premise must be affirmative (A or I).
Try to observe the following categorical syllogisms.
a) All politicians are public servants;

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But every Municipal Mayor is a politician;

Therefore, every Municipal Mayor is a public
servant.
b) All students are learners;
But some youths are students;
Therefore, some youths are learners.
c) All DepEd people are not politicians;
But all school principals are DepEd people;
Therefore, all school principals are not politicians.
d) No teachers are irrational beings;
But some men are teachers;
Therefore some men are not irrational beings.
Syllogism (a) follows the AAA mood since all three
propositions are universal in quantity and affirmative in
quality. Syllogism (b) is in the AII mood since the major
premise is universal in quantity and affirmative in quality,
and the other two propositions are particular in quantity and
affirmative in quality.
The next syllogism has the EAE mood, the major

premise being universal in quantity and negative in quality,
the minor premise in universal quantity and affirmative in
quality, and the conclusion in universal quantity and
negative in quality. The last syllogism is EIO; with the
major premise universal in quantity and negative in quality,
the minor premise in particular quantity and affirmative in
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quality, and the conclusion particular in quantity and

negative in quality.
All four categorical syllogisms have the middle term

subject of the major premise and predicate of the minor
premise. Definitely, the rules of the first figure are followed.
2) The Second Figure. In the second figure, the middle

term is the predicate of both premises (pre-pre).
T M
t M
Beginning with the eight possible moods, we shall
proceed, just as with the first figure, by applying the general
rules to each of them.
The eight possible moods are:

a A a A E E i o
a E i O A I a a
Whenever both premises are affirmative, the middle

term will be particular in each occurrence; hence Rule 4
(The middle term must be universal at least once) excludes
a-a, a-i and i-a. Rule 3 (The major and minor terms may not
be universal in the conclusion unless they are universal in
the premises) excludes o-a; as the subject of O, the major
term is particular in the premise but, as the predicate of a
negative proposition, is universal in the conclusion.
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Only four moods remain: A A E E

E O A I
They conclude in: E O E O
An inspection of these moods enables us to draw up the
following Rules of the Second Figure:
1. The major premise must be universal (A or E).

2. One premise must be negative.
Let us have syllogisms for all four valid moods.
a) All students are learners;

But no idiots are learners;
Therefore no idiots are students.
b) All papers are light materials;
But several objects are not light materials;
Therefore, several objects are not papers.
c) No Christian is a non-believer of Christ;
But every atheist is a non-believer of Christ;
Therefore, no atheist is a Christian.
d) No dog is oviparous;
But some animals are oviparous;
Therefore, not all animals are dogs.
By analysis of the categorical syllogisms above, it
shows that the middle terms are the predicate of the major
and minor premises. And each has mood distinct from the
other. The categorical syllogism (a) follows the AEE mood,
as all propositions have universal quantities although differ
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134
in quality since the major premise has an affirmative quality,

while the minor premise including the conclusion have
propositions negative in quality.
Syllogism (b) has AOO mood wherein the major
premise is universal in quantity and affirmative in quality,
while the minor premise and the conclusion share both the
particular quantity and negative quality. The next syllogism
has the EAE mood. The major premise is universal in
quantity and negative in quality, the minor premise universal
in quantity and affirmative in quality, and the conclusion
share same quantity and quality with the major premise.
The last categorical syllogism has the EIO mood. The
major premise is universal in quantity and negative in
quality, the minor premise is of a particular quantity and
affirmative in quality, and the conclusion having a particular
quantity and negative in quality.
Obviously, the rules for the second figure are observed.
3) The Third Figure. In this figure the middle tem is the
subject of both premises (sub-sub).
M T
M t
We shall proceed just as with the first and second

figure. The eight possible moods are:
A a A a E E I O
A e I o A I A A
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An inspection of the form above reveals that Rule 3

(The major and minor term may not be universal in the
conclusion unless they are universal in the premises)
excludes a-e and a-o. Note that every conclusion is
particular.
There remain six moods: A A E E I O
A I A I A A
They conclude in: I I O O I O
An inspection of these moods and the conclusion
enables us to draw up the following Rules of the Third
Figure:
1. The minor premises must be affirmative.

2. The conclusions must be particular.
Let us now apply the moods to their corresponding
categorical syllogisms.
a) Every dog is a viviparous animal;

But every dog is a quadruped;
Therefore, some quadrupeds are viviparous.
b) All men are thinking beings;
But some men are stout;
Therefore, some stout individuals are thinking
beings.
c) No politician is a non-citizen;
But all politicians are public servants;
Therefore, some public servants are not non-citizens.
d) All political candidates are not criminals;
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But some political candidates are non-degree

holders; Therefore, some non-degree holders are not
criminals.
e) Some students are Protestants;
But all students are learners;
Therefore, some learners are Protestants.
f) Not all Roman Catholics are deeply religious;

But all Roman Catholics are Christians;
Therefore, not all Christians are deeply religious.
All six categorical syllogisms are examples of the AAI,
AII, EAO, EIO, IAI, and OAO moods respectively. The
categorical syllogism (a) has both premises universal in
quantity and affirmative in quality (that is AA) and the
conclusion in particular quantity and in affirmative quality
(I). The second categorical syllogism is with a universal
affirmative major premise (A) and the minor premise and
conclusion both in particular quantity and in affirmative
quality (II).
The third syllogism is with a universal negative (E)

major premise, universal affirmative (A) minor premise, and
a particular negative (O) conclusion. The syllogism (d) has
universal negative (E) major premise, particular affirmative
(I) minor premise, and a particular negative (O) conclusion.
Syllogism (e) has all propositions affirmative in quality

(IAI) but differ in quantity. The last example (f
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syllogism)has both major premise and conclusion negative

in quality and particular in quantity (O), while the minor
premise has affirmative quality but universal in quantity (A).
All specified rules for the third figure are observed.
4) The Fourth Figure. In the fourth figure, the middle term

is the predicate of the major and the subject of the
minor premise (pre-sub).
T M
M t
The eight possible moods are:

A A a a E E I o
A E I o A I A a
Rule 4 (The middle term must be universal at least

once) excludes a-i and a-o. Rule 3 (The major and the
minor terms may not be universal in the conclusion unless
they are universal in the premises) excludes o-a.
There remain five moods: A A E E I

A E A I A
They conclude in: I E O O I
An inspection of these moods and conclusions enables
us to draw up the following Rules of the Fourth Figure:
1. If the major premise is affirmative, the minor premise
must be universal.
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2. If the minor premise is affirmative, the conclusion must

be particular.
3. If the premise (and the conclusion) is negative, the
major premise must be universal.
Violation of the first rule involves a particular middle,

of the second, an illicit process of the minor term; and the
third, an illicit process of the major term.
Let us now take one by one the moods.

a) All tables are having flat top surfaces;
But all objects with flat top surfaces are
multifunctional;
Therefore, some multifunctional objects are tables.
b) Every BSA student is a potential CPA;
But no potential CPA is negligent;
Therefore, no negligent is a BSA student.
c) No loyal husbands are dishonest;
But all dishonest individuals are insincere;
Therefore, some insincere persons are not loyal
husbands.
d) All nuns are not married;
But some married people are unhappy;
Therefore, some unhappy individuals are not nuns.
e) Few workers are unsatisfied with pay;
But all persons unsatisfied with pay are unhappy;
Therefore, few unhappy people are workers.
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Upon investigation, the examples above reveal they all

follow the moods indicated as AAI, AEE, EAO, EIO, and
IAI in the order of the categorical syllogisms. All of which
follow the three rules for the fourth figure.
Moreover, the middle term is the predicate of the major

premise and subject of the minor premise.

General Nature of the Figures and Moods
The figure of the categorical syllogism refers to the placement of
the terms in the premises. Four different figures are drawn:
figure 1 is where the middle term is subject of the major premise
and predicate of the minor premise. Figure 2 has the middle
term predicate of both premises; figure 3, subject of both
premises. Figure 4 has the middle term predicate of the major
premise and subject of the minor premise.
The mood of the categorical syllogism refers to the disposition

of the propositions according to quality and quantity as
represented by symbols A, E, I and O.
The Valid Moods of Each Figure

Four moods are valid in figures 1 and 2; six are valid in figure 3;
while, figure 4 has five. All valid moods follow the general rules
of the categorical syllogism.

1. What term serves as basis for the figures of the categorical
syllogism?
2. What is the position of the middle term in the;
Essentials of Logic
140
a. 1st figure
b. 2nd figure
c. 3rd figure
d. 4th figure
3. What are the valid moods in the;
a. 1st figure
b. 2nd figure
c. 3rd figure
d. 4th figure
4. What are the rules governing the valid moods of each
figure?
Essentials of Logic
141
Exercise 14
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Indicate the valid mood of each figure. Write the

moods on the spaces provided in each syllogism.
Therefore, some believers are Christians. ________
2. All senators are legislators; but some senators
are lawyers; therefore, some lawyers are
legislators. ________
3. Some school facilities are not libraries; but all
school facilities are learning facilities; therefore,
some learning facilities are not libraries. ________
4. All physicians are medical practitioners; but
some professionals are physicians; therefore,
some professionals are medical practitioners. ________
5. No quack doctor is a licensed medical
practitioner; but every surgeon is a licensed
medical practitioner; therefore, no surgeon is a
quack doctor. ________
6. Every square is a plane figure with four equal
sides; but every square is a shape; therefore,
some shapes are plane figures with four equal
sides. ________
7. All school facilities are learning facilities; but all
AVR’s are school facilities; therefore, all AVR’s
are learning facilities. ________
8. Every chair is not a table; but every table is
having a flat top surface; therefore, some
objects having flat top surfaces are not chairs. ________
Essentials of Logic
142
9. Every corrupt act is detestable; but all good acts

are not detestable; therefore, all good acts are
not corrupt acts. ________
10. Many men are dishonest; but every dishonest
individual is insincere; therefore, many
insincere individuals are men. ________
B. Directions: Construct categorical syllogisms following the
valid moods in each figure and write them on the lines provided
below. (5 points each)
Figure Moods Figure Moods
st rd
1 Figure AAA, EIO, AII 3 Figure AAI, IAI, OAO
2nd Figure EAE, AOO, AEE 4th Figure AEE, EAO, EIO
Essentials of Logic
143
Lesson 4: The Mnemonic Words

All in all, there are nineteen valid moods of the
categorical syllogism; there are four moods of the first
figure, four of the second, six of the third and five of the
fourth. To indicate these nineteen moods, logicians have
composed some of the most ingenious mnemonic words
ever written. The words are Latin hexameters. Hexameter is
a metrical line of verses consisting of six feet. It was the
standard epic metre in classical Greek and Latin literature,
such as in the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid
Mnemonic Words of each Figure

The term mnemonic means pertaining to the memory or
helping the memory. Specifically, the mnemonic words help
in addressing confusion especially to moods which appear in
more than one figure. These moods are EAE (figures 1 & 2),
AII (figures 1 & 3), EIO (all figures), AEE (figures 2 & 4),
AAI (figures 3 & 4), IAI (figures 3 & 4), and EAO (figures
3 & 4).
There are many variants, but the following

arrangements, which are found in many English works in
logic, is as convenient as any.
The vowels of every word indicate the quantity and

quality of the propositions (that is whether they are A, E,I,
and O) in the order of their occurrence in the syllogism- that
is, the first vowel stands for the major premise, the second
for the minor premise, and the third for the conclusion.
Essentials of Logic
144
Table 19: Table of Mnemonic Words of each Figure

First Second Third Fourth
Figure Figure Figure Figure
• Barbara • Cesare • Darapti • Bramantip
• Celarent • Camestres • Disamis • Camenes
• Darii • Festino • Datisi • Dimaris
• Ferio • Baroco • Felapton • Fesapo
• Bocardo • Fresison
• Ferison
Let us simplify some of these mnemonic words.
For FERIO;
No politician is irrational;
But some Filipinos are politicians;
Therefore, some Filipinos are not irrational.
For BAROCO;
All politicians are public servants;
But some Filipinos are not public servants;
Therefore, some Filipinos are not politicians.
For BOCARDO;
Some religious denominations are not protestants;
But all religious denominations are organizations;
Therefore, some organizations are not protestants.
For DIMARIS;
Some animals are quadruped;
But all quadrupeds are finite beings;
Therefore, some finite beings are animals.
Essentials of Logic
145

Mnemonic Words of each Figure
The word mnemonic means helping the memory or pertaining
to the memory and as such they help learners recall the valid
moods of each figure since the vowels stand for those moods.

1. What does the word ‘mnemonic’ mean?
2. What are the mnemonic words for?
3. What are the mnemonic words in each figure?
Essentials of Logic
146
Exercise 15
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: With the following propositions as major

premises, formulate categorical syllogisms using the mnemonic
words. Use the spaces below. (5 points each)
Propositions Mnemonic words
1. All Philo 2 students are moral Bramantip, Camestres,
beings. Darii
2. No criminal is sincere. Celarent, Festino, Fesapo,
Cesare
3. Some students are protestants. Disamis, Dimaris
4. Many politicians are not Bocardo
professionals.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Essentials of Logic
147
References:





Prints, Inc.

Philippines



Bookstore
Meer, T. Q., Hualda, L. S. & Bamba, L. M. (2004).Basics of logic.

Trinitas Publishing, Inc. Bulacan

Essentials of Logic
148
The
Hypothetical
Syllogism
Hypothetical syllogism is a syllogism that has a
hypothetical proposition as one of its premises. It has a
hypothetical proposition that either expresses a sequential
relationship or presents alternative one of which must be
true. Sequential relationship is expressed in the proposition
“If you have poor eyesight, then you cannot read well.”
Alternatives are presented in these propositions;“He is
either for you or against you,” and “He cannot be married
and can be single too.” There are three kinds of hypothetical
syllogisms, corresponding to the three kinds of hypothetical
propositions: the conditional (if . . . then…), the
disjunctive(either . . . or. . .), and the conjunctive (not both .
. . and. . .). The first of these is by far the most important
type.
Lesson 1: The Hypothetical Propositions

There are three types of hypothetical propositions. They
are the conditional, the disjunctive and the conjunctive.
Conditional Propositions
Conditional propositions are “if-then” statements. They
consist of two component propositions. The proposition
which brings the condition and is introduced by the word if
Essentials of Logic
149
is called the antecedent proposition and the proposition

which is dependent on the materialization of the condition
and is introduced by the word then is called the consequent
proposition.
Examples:
a) If senators whose names were dragged into the PDAF
scam were not guilty, then they have to prove their
innocence.
b) If Esmeraldo is married, then he has a wife.
Disjunctive Propositions
Disjunctive propositions are either-or statements. They
consist of two propositions which exclude each other. The
parts of conjunction are known as disjuncts. Disjunction
comes in two forms, namely, proper and improper.
Proper disjunction is a proposition whose disjuncts are
mutually exclusive from each other. In other words, the
disjuncts are two contradictory terms and the rules on
contradiction proper apply. If one is true, the other is false;
and if one is false, the other is true.
Example:
Either a man is polite or impolite.
In the example, the first disjunct, A man is polite, and
the second disjunct, A man is impolite, are mutually
exclusive from each other or are contradictories. In other
words, they cannot be true or false together. If it is true to
say that, “A man is polite” then it would be false to say that,
“A man is impolite.”
Essentials of Logic
150
Improper disjunction differs from proper disjunction

because its parts are not mutually exclusive from each other.
Its disjuncts are two contrary terms. In review, contrary
terms are those terms which are open for middle possibilities
(i.e. black – white, extra large – extra small, etc.). The rules
that govern improper disjunction are the rules on contrariety.
If one is true, the other is false, and if one is false, the other
is undetermined.
Example:
Mary’s dress is either black or white.
If it is true that Mary’s dress is black, then it is false to
say that Mary’s dress is white. But if we say that Mary’s
dress is not black, then we are wrong if we say that Mary’s
dress is white. It is because, other than white, there are many
options such as blue, yellow, red, green (middle possibilities
between black and white).
Conjunctive Propositions
Conjunctive propositions consist of parts known as the
conjuncts. These conjuncts cannot be true at the same time,
but they all may be false together. The two general rules on
this proposition are as follows:
1. From the truth of one member, the falsity of the
other follows.
2. From the falsity of one member, the truth of the
other does not necessarily follow.
Essentials of Logic
151
Example:
The tree cannot be a mahogany and an ipil-ipil at
the same time.
If the first conjunct, “The tree is mahogany,” is true,
then the second conjunct. “The tree is ipil-ipil,” is false. But
if we say, “The tree is not mahogany,” we cannot
necessarily conclude that, “The tree is ipil-ipil,” because it
can be any other tree, i.e. mango, acacia or coconut tree.

Conditional Propositions
The conditional proposition is made up of the “if. . .then”
phrase. The “if” phrase serves as the antecedent; the “then”
phrase, the consequent.
Disjunctive Propositions
The disjunctive propositions use “either-or” statements. There
are two forms: proper and improper.
Conjunctive Propositions
The conjunctive proposition uses conjunctions to link or
separate two terms.
1. What is a hypothetical syllogism? How would you

differentiate it from categorical syllogism?
2. What is a conditional proposition? Disjunctive
proposition? Conjunctive proposition? Give examples for
each.
Essentials of Logic
152
Exercise 16
Name: _____________________________ Crse & Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: Determine whether the proposition is conditional

(CD), disjunctive (DJ) or conjunctive (CJ). Use the initials for
each type.
_____ 1. Senator Joel Villanueva can either be convicted or

acquitted of his plunder case.
_____ 2. If protest will go on, then the economy will be
paralyzed.
_____ 3. A mayoralty candidate cannot campaign in Manat
and Linda at the same time.
_____ 4. Jessy Mendiola’s die-hard suitor is either Jake
Cuenca, Sam Milby or Luis Manzano.
_____ 5. The soldiers cannot be a loyalist and a rebel at the
same time.
_____ 6. The criminal charges filed against Leila De Lima are
punishable either by death or reclusion perpetua.
_____ 7. If Atty. Raymond Fortun is a smart lawyer, then he
should win Jack Lam’s cases.
_____ 8. A Roman Catholic priest cannot be ordained and
married at the same time.
_____ 9. If Lola has a blurred vision, then she cannot read
well.
_____10. A witness in any hearing is either honest or
dishonest.
Essentials of Logic
153
Lesson 2: Types of Hypothetical Syllogism
Conditional Syllogism
A conditional syllogism is the kind whose premise or
premises are conditional propositions. A conditional
proposition is a compound proposition one part of which
states the antecedent or condition and the other part states
the consequent or assertion of the validity of which is
dependent on the condition aforesaid. A conditional
syllogism may either be mixed or pure in kind.
The Mixed Conditional Syllogism. There are two
procedures with which the mixed conditional syllogism can
be constructed.
1) To affirm the antecedent of the major premise in the
minor premise and also to affirm its consequent in the
conclusion.
2) To deny the consequent of the major premise and also
to deny its antecedent in the conclusion.
Procedures other than these two are not valid. Below
are valid examples.
a) If he studies well, then he will pass this course:
but he studies well; therefore, he will pass this
course.
(This applies procedure 1)
b) If man has control over his emotion, then he will
have peace; but he will have no peace; hence,
man has no control over his emotions.
Essentials of Logic
154
Two rules govern the mixed conditional syllogism.

These are:
1) If the antecedent is true and is affirmed, then the
consequent is also true and must be affirmed.
2) If the consequent is false and is denied, then the
antecedent is false and must be denied.
The Pure Conditional Syllogism. This syllogism

consists of the conditional propositions in both premises
and, consequently, has conditional proposition for its
conclusion. This is, therefore, the true hypothetical
syllogism for nothing definite is arrived at by this kind of
argument or reasoning.
The procedures and the rules of the mixed conditional
syllogism apply to the pure conditional syllogism with one
exception: the condition in the minor premise must be
retained in the conclusion. Below are valid examples.
a) If man has control over his emotions, then he is
responsible for what he says; but is man is
rational, then he will have control his emotions;
therefore, if man is rational, then he responsible
for what he says.
b) If man has control over his emotions, then he is
responsible for what he days; but if man is not
rational, then he is not responsible for what he
says; hence, if man is not rational, then he has no
control over his emotions.
Essentials of Logic
155
Disjunctive Syllogism
A disjunctive syllogism is one whose major premise is a
disjunctive preposition, its minor premise is a categorical
proposition which either affirms or denies the remaining
alternatives. A disjunctive proposition is of two kinds; the
strict disjunctive and the broad disjunctive.
The Strict Disjunctive Syllogism. This syllogism has for

its major premise a disjunctive proposition of which only
one of its alternatives is true. Its minor premise is a
categorical proposition which either affirms or denies one or
more but not all of the alternatives of the major premise. Its
conclusion either, (1) denies the alternatives which were not
affirmed in the minor premise, or (2) affirms alternatives
which were not denied in the minor premise
Below are two valid examples:
a) His car is either red, blue or green;
But his car is red;
Therefore, his car is neither blue nor green.
b) His car is either red, blue or green;
But his car is not red;
Therefore, his car is either blue or green.
Take note that the first example concludes with the
denial of alternatives not affirmed in the minor premise,
using the “neither . . . nor. . .”phrase. The second example,
on the other hand, concludes with an affirmation of
Essentials of Logic
156
alternatives not denied in the minor premise, making use of

the “either . . . or. . .”phrase.
The Broad Disjunctive Syllogism. This syllogism has

for its major premise a disjunctive proposition of which
more than one of its alternatives may be true. Its only valid
procedure is for the minor premise to deny one or more but
not all of the alternatives in the major premise, and to affirm
the remaining alternatives in the conclusion.
For example,
His pen is black, red, violet or green;
but his pen is neither black nor red;
therefore, his pen is either violet or green.
Conjunctive Syllogism
A conjunctive syllogism is the kind which has a
conjunctive proposition for its major premise, whose minor
premise is a categorical proposition which affirms one of the
alternatives of the major premise, and whose conclusion
denies the other alternative.
In constructing a conjunctive syllogism, only one

procedure is valid. The minor premise affirms one
alternative of the major premise, and the conclusion denies
the rest of the alternatives. Care must be taken that the
alternatives presented in the major premise are mutually
exclusives; otherwise the process of the exclusion cannot be
made. The following serves as examples.
Essentials of Logic
157
a) He cannot be inside and can be outside of the

country too; But he is inside the country;
Therefore he is not outside the country.
b) A person cannot be real Marxist, a good

Christian or a devout Moslem at the same time;
But this person is a real Marxist; Therefore, this
person is either a good Christian or a devout
Moslem.
c) A politician is either not honest nor successful;

But he is a politician who is not successful;
Therefore, he is a politician who is honest.

Conditional Syllogism
The conditional syllogism is of two types: the mixed
conditional syllogism and the pure conditional syllogism.
Disjunctive Syllogism
Just like the conditional syllogism, the disjunctive syllogism is
also of two types: the strict disjunctive syllogism and the broad
disjunctive syllogism.
Conjunctive Syllogism
The conjunctive syllogism is a hypothetical syllogism where
two terms cannot be true to a single unit.

1. What is a conditional syllogism? What are its two kinds?
2. What is a disjunctive syllogism? What are its two kinds?
Essentials of Logic
158
3. What is a conjunctive syllogism?

4. What is a conditional proposition? Disjunctive
proposition? Conjunctive proposition? Give examples for
each.
5. Provide a general distinction among the three types of
hypothetical syllogisms in terms of procedure.
Essentials of Logic
159
Exercise 17
Name: _____________________________ Crse& Yr.:_______
Date Taken:_________________________ Score:___________
A. Directions: With the following statements or issues as bases,

construct valid mixed conditional syllogism (procedures 1 & 2)
and pure conditional syllogism (procedures 1 & 2). One
statement or issue for mixed and another one for pure. (5 points
each) Rubrics: a) proposition is materially valid =1, b) agreement of
subject and verb, including the predicate, is observed=1, c) use of
appropriate terms=1, d) syllogism is formally valid=1, and e) work is
neat=1. (5 points each, total points=20)
1. Implementation of Reproductive Health law
2. Legalization of divorce
3. Burial of Marcos in Libingan ng mga Bayani
4. Graft and corruption in government
5. Distribution of condoms among students
6. Showbiz people in politics
7. Natural disasters hitting the country
8. Honesty in public service
9. Extra-judicial Killing
10. Clean and honest election
B. Directions: Complete the conditional syllogisms by supplying

the missing phrases. Read and analyze the syllogisms very
carefully.
1. If _______________________________________, then you
should not vote conscientiously; but you do not want progress;
therefore_____________________________.
Essentials of Logic
160
2. If he is a true Christian, then ________________________;

but he does not do good works to others; therefore,__________
__________________________.
3. If the subject offerings are not closed, then you can enroll;
but if enrolment is on-going, then _____________________;
therefore if enrolment is on-going, then ____________________.
4. If _____________________________, then there will be no
problems on its services; but if there are complaints from its
clienteles, then ______________________________; therefore, if
there are complaints from its clienteles, then school policies are
not clear.
5. If _________________________________, then it should be
of service to the poor; but if ACN is not charging higher fees,
then it is a mission school; therefore, if ACN is not charging
higher fees, then____________________________.
C. Directions: Following the correct procedures, determine each

of the following conditional syllogisms as valid or invalid.
Write (/) for valid; (X) for invalid.
____1. If US-led war is humanitarian, then it must not
endanger innocent lives; but it does not endanger
innocent lives; therefore, it is humanitarian.
____2. If the student does not follow examination instructions,
then he may fail in the examination; but the student
passed in the examination; therefore, he followed
examination instructions.
____3. If the student is caught cheating, then he is given a
grade of 5.0; but the student is not caught cheating;
therefore, he should not be given a grade of 5.0.
____4. If Protestants are not admitted in ACN, then they
Essentials of Logic
161
should not enroll; but if the school is exclusive for

Catholics, then Protestants are not admitted in ACN;
therefore, if the school is exclusive for Catholics, then
they should not enroll.
____5. If Yolanda victims had fully recovered, then they should
have moved on from the tragedy; but if they had their
livelihoods back, then they should have moved on from
the tragedy; therefore, if they had their livelihoods
back, then they had fully recovered.
D. Directions: Following the correct procedure, determine

whether the disjunctive syllogisms are valid or invalid. Write (/)
for valid; (X) for invalid.
____1. His car is either Nissan, Ford, or Porsche; but his car
is not Porche; therefore his car is neither Nissan nor
Ford.
____2. The crowned Bb. Pilipinas has either a perfect or
imperfect figure; but she a perfect figure; hence, she
has no imperfect figure.
____3. Jane’s weighted average in Logic is either 70, 75, or
80; but, her weighted average is 70; therefore, her
grades are neither 75 nor 80.
____4. Daniel Padilla’s love interest is either Kathryn or
Jessy; but his love interest is not Jessy; therefore, his
love interest is not Kathryn too.
____5. The President’s top priority program is either anti-
graft, anti-crime, anti-smuggling, or illegal logging;
but his top priority program is either anti-graft or anti-
smuggling; therefore, his top priority is neither anti-
crime nor illegal logging.
Essentials of Logic
162
E. Directions: Determine whether each conjunctive syllogism is

valid (/) or invalid (X).
____1. The Iglesia ni Cristo did not endorse the presidential
bid of Mar and Digong at the same time; but it
endorsed Digong; therefore it did not endorse Mar.
____2. You are either for or against me; but you are against
me; hence, you are for me.
____3. One cannot be married and be single too; but one is
not married; therefore, one is single.
____4. Malaysia cannot declare ceasefire and stage an attack
on the Royal Army Group at the same time; but it
declares a ceasefire; hence, it does not stage an attack.
____5. Chiz Escudero cannot be with Team Pnoy and be
part of the UNA team too; but he is with Team Pnoy;
therefore, he is not with UNA team.
References:




Essentials of Logic
163

Prints, Inc.

Philippines



Bookstore
Meer, T. Q., Hualda, L. S. &Bamba, L. M. (2004).Basics of logic.Trinitas

Publishing, Inc. Bulacan

Essentials of Logic

Introduction to Logic Study

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1

The study of philosophy has always been mind-

Getting into its meaning and nature will confirm the

Lesson 1: Philosophy: Its Meaning and Nature

It was Pythagoras, a renowned Greek philosopher, who

Our first real definition of philosophy can be stated

The other real definition is that philosophy is the

Let us take one by one this definition. Philosophy is a

On the other hand, philosophy is knowable through the

The Nature of Philosophy

Thales of Ionia in Greece, the first of the pre-Socratic

to the early Greeks, philosophy was a superstar of a subject.

Divisions and Branches

The following are the four main branches:

Short Historical Outline of Philosophy

brilliant, but it was Aristotle who contributed significantly in

The Nature of Philosophy

Divisions and Branches

Short Historical Outline

but their contributions to various disciplines were not as vast as

Group Discussion Questions

A. Directions: On the blank before each number, write OK if the

______ 1. Philosophy is divided into four main divisions.

Lesson 2: Logic: Its Meaning and Nature

The Definition of Logic

Traditionally and really, logic is defined as the science

As an art, logic is viewed as directing reason toward

Let us familiarize each process.

1) Simple apprehension refers to the act of the mind as it

Table 1 provides a picture of the mental operations.

Table 1: Mental Operations and External Expressions

Logical and Illogical

Again, using the word logical in a slightly different

You will notice that in every instance the word logical

his thinking is correct; and an argument is logical or

Natural and Scientific Logic

Natural logic is not enough. There is a need to

In logic course, there has to be no blind memorizing and

Brief History of Logic

Zeno (336-264 B.C.), the founder of the Stoic school in

Porphyrius (232-304 A. D.), a neo-platonist, who wrote

Severinus Boethius (470-524 A.D.), a Roman Christian

The Arabian Philosophers Avicenna (Ibn-Sina, 980-

The Scholastics of the Middle Ages, particularly St.

Francis Bacon (1561-1626) wrote a Novum Organon,

In the recent past, a new logic, known as Symbolic

Symbolic Logic attained full development in a short

The Significance of Studying Logic

a) As students, we should consider logic as a basic

Key Ideas in this Lesson

Natural and Scientific Logic

Group Discussion Questions

A. Directions: On the blank before each number, write OK if the

______ 1. Logic as a branch of philosophy, deals primarily

______14. Francis Bacon wrote a NovumOrganon with a view of

B. Directions: Tell whether each statement is logical or illogical.

Ardales, V. B. (1998). Logic made easy. CONCERNS, Inc. Iloilo City

Babor, E. R. (2009). Logic: The philosophical discipline of correct

Bachhuber, A. H. (1957). An introduction to logic. Appleton-Century

Hinacay, M. L. & Hinacay, M. B. (2004).Logic: A textbook-workbook for

Pinon, M. T. (1973). Fundamental logic. Rex Bookstore, Inc. Manila

Lesson 1: Preliminary Definitions and Concepts