Linkai Niu

Dynamic Modeling and Vibration

State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing
Systems Engineering,
Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, PR China
e-mail: niulinkai@stu.xjtu.edu.cn
Hongrui Cao1
Associate Professor
State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing
Systems Engineering,
Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, PR China
e-mail: chr@mail.xjtu.edu.cn
Zhengjia He
Professor
State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing
Systems Engineering,
Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, PR China
e-mail: hzj@mail.xjtu.edu.cn
Yamin Li
State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing
Systems Engineering,
Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an 710049, PR China
e-mail: huishita.liyamin@stu.xjtu.edu.cn
Response Simulation for High
Speed Rolling Ball Bearings
With Localized Surface Defects
in Raceways
A dynamic model is developed to investigate vibrations of high speed rolling ball bear-
ings with localized surface defects on raceways. In this model, each bearing component
(i.e., inner raceway, outer raceway and rolling ball) has six degrees of freedom (DOFs)
to completely describe its dynamic characteristics in three-dimensional space. Gyro-
scopic moment, centrifugal force, lubrication traction/slip between bearing component
are included owing to high speed effects. Moreover, local defects are modeled accurately
and completely with consideration of additional deflection due to material absence,
changes of Hertzian contact coefficient and changes of contact force directions due to
raceway curvature variations. The obtained equations of motion are solved numerically
using the fourth order Runge–Kutta–Fehlberg scheme with step-changing criterion.
Vibration responses of a defective bearing with localized surface defects are simulated
and analyzed in both time domain and frequency domain, and the effectiveness of fault
feature extraction techniques is also discussed. An experiment is carried out on an aero-
space bearing test rig. By comparing the simulation results with experiments, it is con-
firmed that the proposed model is capable of predicting vibration responses of defective
high speed rolling ball bearings effectively. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4027334]
Keywords: dynamic modeling, high speed rolling bearing, localized defects, vibration
response, fault diagnosis

1 Introduction dynamics of rolling bearings with localized defects. The quasi-

static model was firstly proposed by Jones [13]. In this model,
High speed rolling bearings are widely used in aero-engines,
force and moment equilibrium equations were given for raceways
high speed spindles, and other rotational machinery. Localized
and rolling elements. These equations include centrifugal forces
defects, such as pits, cracks, and spalls, may be generated in bear-
and gyroscopic moments, together with the externally applied
ings during operations. When rolling elements roll over defects,
forces and moments which were then solved by Newton–Raphson
shock pulses with short duration are generated and excessive
method. Based on the quasi-static model, the effects of bearing
vibration may be excited, which may lead the whole system to
raceway’s distributed faults on system vibration responses were
failure. Therefore, condition monitoring and fault diagnosis of
studied by Jang [14] and Bai [15]. Recently, Cao [16] simulated
rolling bearings are crucial for the prevention of system failure. In
vibration responses of a machine tool spindle system with local-
practice, vibration signals are used widely for the fault diagnosis
ized bearing surface defects by using Jones’ model, and sensor
of rolling bearings [1–11]. Fault features are extracted from meas-
placement optimization was also discussed. However, the quasi-
ured data with the aid of advanced signal processing techniques.
static model is based on the ‘raceway control’ hypothesis, which
However, when bearing defects occur, the generated impacts can
restricts the ball to roll either on outer raceway or inner raceway.
cause system vibration at many frequencies from different struc-
This kinematic constraint limits the model in dealing with prob-
tures. Therefore, sometimes it is difficult to explain the results of
lems involving lubricant behaviors and transient motions for high
data processing.
speed conditions.
For the defect detection and fault diagnosis, fault mechanism
In a dynamic model, equilibrium equations used in the quasi-
analysis is essential, which is similar to the anatomy and the pa-
static model are replaced by differential equations of motion for
thology that give reasons and characteristics of pathological
each bearing component, which solves most problems in the
changes in the medical science. In order to study the fault mecha-
quasi-static model. All transient behaviors and lubrication effects
nism, mathematical models are usually employed to reveal the
can be simulated with the dynamic model. The simplest dynamic
generation mechanism and characteristics of defects, which pro-
model of rolling bearing was firstly proposed by Sunnersj€o [17],
vide theoretical proofs for running state identification of rolling
which has two DOFs. In this model, only the two translational
bearings. By now, many models of rolling bearings have been pro-
DOF of inner raceway in radial directions were included, and con-
posed, and they can be classified into quasi-static and dynamic
tacts between balls and raceways were treated as nonlinear contact
models [12], both of which were adopted by researchers to study
springs by using Hertzian theory. Many researchers investigated
dynamic modeling of rolling bearings with localized defects based
1
Corresponding author. on the 2-DOF model [18–27]. Shao [18] investigated both the
Contributed by the Manufacturing Engineering Division of ASME for publication
in the JOURNAL OF MANUFACTURING SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Manuscript received
time-varying deflection excitation and the time-varying contact
December 28, 2013; final manuscript received March 27, 2014; published online stiffness excitation produced by localized surface defects for
May 21, 2014. Assoc. Editor: Tony Schmitz. cylindrical roller bearings. Rafsanjani [19] studied nonlinear

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 dynamic behaviors of rolling bearing systems with surface
defects. Liu [20] expressed the amplitude and time duration of the
impulse generated when a ball passes over a local defect by using
piecewise response functions. Patil [21] studied the effects of
defect size and position on vibration amplitudes and spectral com-
ponents. Kankar and Pandya analyzed dynamic responses of high
speed rotor-ball bearing systems due to raceway waviness [22]
and combined localized defects [23], respectively. In order to
investigate the interaction between bearing ring and housing,
Feng [24] added another two translational DOFs to the 2-DOF
model to describe the ring/housing contact. Sawalhi [25,26] added
an extra DOF to Feng’s model to represent a typical high fre-
quency for bearings with localized surface defects, and this model
was further integrated into a bearing-gear-rotor system to simulate
dynamic behaviors of a gearbox with localized bearing faults.
More recently, Babu [27] added a rotational DOF to the inner
raceway based on the 2-DOF model to study vibration responses
of a rotor supported by two angular contact ball bearings.
Since only two DOFs of the inner raceway were considered in
the above dynamic models and transient motions of each bearing
component cannot be studied accurately, more complicated mod-
els were developed in the past [28–38]. Harsha proposed a
dynamic bearing model based on Lagrange’s equations [28]. On
the basis of this model, Harsha studied the stability of a rotor bear-
ing system due to surface waviness and number of balls [29], and
the nonlinear dynamics of balanced rotor supported by bearings
with surface waviness and internal clearance [30]. Arslan [31]
proposed a bearing-rotor system dynamic model, which treated
the shaft and balls as masses and raceways as contact springs.
Vibrations of the bearing with and without defects were studied in
both time domain and frequency domain. Patel [32] studied
dynamic characteristics of deep groove ball bearings with single
and multiple surface defects. In this model, each bearing compo-
nent has two translation DOFs in a plane. Nakhaeinejad [33]
developed a dynamic model of rolling element bearing using bond
graph method, in which each element has one rotation DOF and
one translation DOF. Cao [34] investigated the effects of localized
surface defects on vibration responses of a double-row spherical
roller bearing. Tadina [35] modeled the outer raceway using finite
element method to take its flexible deformations into account. In
order to consider lubrication effects, Sassi [36] and Choudhury
[37] proposed a lumped mass model of a bearing-rotor system to
take damping effects due to oil films into account, but lubrication
tractive forces were not considered. Bogdevičius [38] investigated
five cases of various defects, including single and multiple defects
on different components based on a dynamic model established
by Lagrange scheme. In all of these models, rolling elements just
have planar motions, and relative slippage between rolling ele-
ments and raceways were not considered.
For high speed bearings which have intensive transient motions
during operations, a full three-dimensional dynamic model is nec-
essary. The earliest three-dimensional dynamic model for rolling
ball bearings was proposed by Gupta [12,39,40]. He completely
considered three-dimensional and time-varying transient motions
of each bearing component. The lubrication traction/slip effect
was also included. Later, Stacke [41,42] from SKF developed a
fully dynamic bearing model which can deal with not only Hertz-
ian contact, but also general contact as well. In Stacke’s model,
the parallel computation technique was introduced to increase the
numerical integration efficiency. Ghaisas [43] proposed a dynamic
model of rolling ball bearing by using discrete element method to
investigate three-dimensional motions of each bearing component.
Based on Ghaisas’ model, Ashtekar [44] studied the contact pres-
sure distributions between rolling elements and raceways due to
localized surface defects. In Ashtekar’s another paper [45], a
defect was modeled by changing Hertizan contact relationships.
Despite the fruitful achievements of dynamic modeling of
rolling bearings with localized defects, their effectiveness is usu-
ally weakened under high speed conditions by some limitations.
For high speed rolling bearings, their dynamic behaviors are
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significantly influenced by centrifugal forces, gyroscopic and spin
effects, relative slippage and lubrication traction between contact
bodies, which need detailed modeling of three-dimensional
motions of bearing components and behaviors of lubrications.
Moreover, as a ball rolls over defect areas, additional displace-
ments are induced due to material absence. Additionally, Hertzian
contact coefficients and contact force directions are changed in
defect zones due to the geometric characteristic variations of race-
ways. Therefore, in order to describe transient motions of high
speed rolling bearings with defects, a complete model considering
both high speed effects and influences of defects is needed.
In this paper, a dynamic model for high speed rolling ball bear-
ings with localized surface defects in raceways is proposed based
on Gupta’s model. The three-dimensional motions of bearing
components, relative slippage, and tractive forces are taken into
account. Furthermore, the variations when a ball rolls over defect
zones, i.e., additional displacements due to material absence,
changes of Hertzian contact coefficients and contact force direc-
tions are also considered. The simulation results are validated
with experiments on an aerospace bearing test rig. The compari-
sons show the ability and effectiveness of the present model in
predicting vibration responses for high speed rolling ball bearings
with localized surface defects.
2 System Modeling
In the present paper, some realistic assumptions and considera-
tions are listed below:
• Mass and geometric centers are all coincident with each other
for each bearing component.
• Bearing components are treated as rigid except for contact
zones.
• Thermal effects are negligible.
• Interactions between cage/balls and cage/raceways are
ignored.
2.1 Modeling of Bearing Dynamics. Geometric interactions
between balls and raceways are described to determine normal
forces firstly (Sec. 2.1.1). Then, relative slip velocities are
obtained by subdividing the contact ellipse into elementary strips
(Sec. 2.1.2). Moreover, lubricant tractive forces are determined by
using obtained normal forces, relative slip speeds and the traction
model of lubricant (Sec. 2.1.3). Finally, the net forces and
moments can be obtained (Sec. 2.1.4).
2.1.1 Ball/Raceway Interactions. The geometrical interaction
between a ball and a raceway is shown in Fig. 1. Position vector r r
Fig. 1 Ball/raceway interaction
Transactions of the ASME
 locates the center of the raceway Or to inertial frame i ðxi ; yi ; zi Þ.
Vector r cr locates the groove center of the raceway relative to the
raceway center, and this vector is described in raceway fixed
frame r ðxr ; yr ; zr Þ. Axis xr is the rotation axis of the raceway. The
center of the ball Oa is located relative to the inertial frame by
vector r b . In addition, it is convenient to define a ball azimuth
frame a ðxa ; ya ; za Þ such that za axis is parallel to the radial compo-
nent of r b , axis xa is parallel to the inertial xi axis, and axis ya is
determined by the right-hand screw rule.
Now, the interaction between the ball and the raceway will be
determined by locating the center of the ball relative to the race-
way center. This vector is denoted by r b r in Fig. 1 and is given as
rb r ¼ rb  rr
Using the superscript i for the inertial frame and r for the race-
way fixed frame, the transformation of vector r b r from the inertial
frame to the raceway fixed frame is written as
r rb r ¼ Tir r ib r
where Tir is the relevant transformation matrix.
Then, the azimuth angle of the ball described in the raceway
fixed frame is given as
 r 
r br2
hbrr ¼ arctan (3)
r rbr3
where subscripts 2 and 3 denote the second and the third compo-
nents of vector r rb r .
Moreover, another frame called azimuth-in-raceway frame ar
ðxar ; yar ; zar Þ can be defined by rotating the raceway fixed frame
along its x axis by angle hrbr . This frame is not shown in Fig. 1.
The relative position between the raceway curvature center and
the ball center is given by
r bc ¼ r br  r cr
Then, contact angle a will be given as
 ar 
r
a ¼ arctan bc1
r ar
bc3
where superscript ar denotes the azimuth-in-raceway frame, and
subscripts 1 and 3 denote the first and the second components of
vector r ar b c.
It is convenient to establish a new frame called contact frame c
ðxc ; yc ; zc Þ (Fig. 1) whose origin is located at the center of contact
ellipse. Once the vector r b c is transformed from the azimuth-in-
raceway frame to the contact frame by contact angle a, the elastic
deformation between the ball and the raceway is calculated with
d¼ r cbc3  ðf  0:5ÞD
where f is the raceway curvature factor and D is the ball diameter.
The contact force between the ball and the raceway is given by
Hertzian point contact theory [46]
( 2.2.1 Additional Deflection Introduced by Localized Defect.
Kd1:5 d > 0
Q¼ (7)
0 d0
where K is the Hertzian contact stiffness coefficient. In the contact
frame, contact force vector Qc is described as ð 0 0 Q Þ.
2.1.2 Relative Slip Velocities. Tractive forces between balls
and raceways mainly rely on their relative slip velocities. Since
the contact ellipse is quite narrow for most bearings, variations of
slip along yc axis are neglected in Gupta’s model [12].
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Furthermore, the contact ellipse is divided into several elementary
strips, and the slip velocity over an elementary strip is determined
by certain point in this strip [12,47].
Conveniently, ball velocities can be defined in the inertial cylin-
drical frame in terms of components x_ ball , r_ball , and h_ball . Then,
local slip velocity vrb at any point in a contact ellipse can be given
in terms of raceway and ball velocities. Detail expressions for
these velocities can be found in [12].
Once the relative velocity is calculated, the lubrication tractive
force can be obtained from the traction model of certain lubricant.
2.1.3 Lubrication Tractive Forces. In a contact ellipse, trac-
tive forces are determined according to the first and the second
(1)
components of relative velocity vcrb . Its second component vcrb2 is
located along the rolling direction and its first component vcrb1 is
normal to vcrb2 .
Given traction model of certain lubricant, traction coefficients
corresponding to the slip velocities can be determined.
(2)
j1 ¼ j1 ðvcrb1 ; vcrb2 Þ (8)
j2 ¼ j2 ðvcrb1 ; vcrb2 Þ (9)
Then, multiplication of the normal force by the traction coeffi-
cient will give the tractive force f cT .
2.1.4 Net Forces and Moments. Once the normal contact
force Qc and the tractive force f cT are known, the net force can be
given as
Fc ¼ Qc þ f cT (10)
The force acting on the raceway will be equal and opposite to
that acting on the ball. Then, the moments about mass centers for
balls and raceways are expressed respectively as
(4)
Mcb ¼ r ccp  ðFc Þ (11)
Mcr ¼ r cpr  Fc (12)
(5)
where r ccp and r cpr are position vectors locate a point in contact
zone relative to the ball center and the raceway center,
respectively.
2.2 Modeling of Localized Surface Defects. When a ball
rolls over the defect, normal motions of all bearing components
will be disturbed. Three main variations arise, i.e.,
• Additional deflection due to material absence is introduced
(Sec. 2.2.1).
• The change of curvature radius of a raceway in defect zone
(6)
alters the Hertzian contact coefficients (Sec. 2.2.2).
• An additional tangential component of the contact force in
defect zone is generated compared with the original normal
condition (Sec. 2.2.3).
As a ball rolls over the defect, the total deflection d0 between them
is the difference between defect characteristic dd (see Fig. 2, the
largest value of dd is equal the depth of the defect) and elastic de-
formation d
(
d  dd jhbd j < he
0
d ¼ (13)
d other
where hbd is the difference between angular positions of the ball
and the defect, and he is half the angle of the defect in the
AUGUST 2014, Vol. 136 / 041015-3
 The angle between plane O00 ABC and plane O0 AC is b. Angle he
is determined from the geometric relationship (see Fig. 3)
 
rd1 wd =2
he ¼ arcsin (15)
rd2 rd1

where rd1  ðdm =2=cos bÞ6ðD=2Þ and rd2  6ðD=2Þ cos b

þðdm =2Þ. The signs “6” refers to outer and inner raceways,
respectively.
Now, it is convenient
 to
 establish a new coordinate frame called
defect frame d xd ; yd ; zd whose origin is located at the center of
the defect zone, and the yd zd plane is located in plane O00 ABC (see
Fig. 3). The profile of the defect in yd zd plane can be described as
a function as zd ¼ zd ðyd Þ. The additional
 deflection induced by the
defect can be determined by zd 
( 
zd  jhbd j < he
dd ¼ (16)
0 other

2.2.2 Changes of Directions of Contact Forces. In defect

zone, the direction of contact force Qq0 between the ball and the
raceway is not coincident with OqOb which connects the ball cen-
ter Ob and the original curvature center Oq, and an additional trac-
Fig. 2 Angular position of the defect in bearing circumference tive force Qq0 1 along the tangential direction of the original
normal raceway can be decomposed from Qq0 . In other words, the
circumference of a raceway (see Fig. 2). The angle hbd at time t contact force Qq0 can be decomposed into two components, i.e.,
can be determined as the tractive and the normal components (Qq0 1 and Qq0 2 in Fig. 4)
in the original contact frame c. In order to introduce these two
(
modðhball ; 2pÞ  hdinitial for outer raceway forces into dynamic equations, the contact force Qq0 should be
hbd ¼ described in the original contact frame.
modðhball ; 2pÞ  modðhdinitial þ X i t; 2pÞ for inner raceway Once the function of defect curve is given,
 the position of the
(14) point Oq0 (its coordinate is xdoq ydoq zdoq in the defect frame) in
yd zd plane can be obtained by using differential geometry theory
where hdinitial is the initial position of the defect in raceway cir- [48].
cumference, X i is the shaft rotation speed, and mod() is the func- Position vector r d which locates
 the point  Oq0 relative to the
tion calculating the remainder after division. For the defect contact point q0 (its coordinate is xdq0 ydq0 zdq0 in the defect frame)
located in stationary outer raceway, its angular position hd always in yd zd plane can be expressed as
equals hdinitial . But for the inner raceway, angle hd changes with
   
the shaft rotation at each time step. The position relationship r dd ¼ 0 ydoq zdoq  0 ydq0 zdq0 (17)
between hball and hd will determine whether the ball rolls into the
defect or not.
As shown in Fig. 3, a defect is localized in a raceway. The cen- Then, the angle between vector r d and axis zd can be expressed
ter of the defect is Od, and its middle cross section in rolling direc- as
tion is plane ABC. Angle hd is defined in plane O0 AC which is  d
r d2
parallel to the rotation plane of the bearing. The width and the hddd ¼ arctan (18)
depth of the defect (wd and hd) are determined in plane O00 ABC. r dd3

Fig. 3 Geometric description of a defect in a raceway

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 Fig. 5 Geometry of contacting bodies
Fig. 4 Variations of contact force direction and raceway
curvature The translational motions of any raceway are described in the
inertial Cartesian coordinate
 qA0 new 0
coordinate frame called contact-in-defect frame q0 8
0
x ; yq ; zq whose origin is located at the contact point q0 can be > m x€ ¼ Fx
< r
defined by rotating the defect frame around its xd axis by hddd . mr y€ ¼ Fy (22)
Then, the contact force Qq0 can be transformed from the con- >
:
tact-in-defect frame to the original contact frame by the following mr €z ¼ Fz
expression:  
where mr is the mass of a raceway, and Fx ; Fy ; Fz are the com-
Qcq0 ¼ Tq0 c Qq0 (19) ponents of the applied force vector in inertial Cartesian
coordinate.
where Tq0 c is the transformation matrix from the contact-in-defect The rotational motion of any bearing component can be
frame to the original contact frame. described using Euler equations of motion
8
> I x_  ðI2  I3 Þx2 x3 ¼ M1
2.2.3 Changes of Hertzian Contact Stiffness Coefficient. As < 1 1
mentioned above, another important characteristic variation when I2 x_ 2  ðI3  I1 Þx3 x1 ¼ M2 (23)
a ball rolls over the defect is the Hertzian contact relationship. It >
:
is obvious that when a ball strikes the defect, the curvature proper- I3 x_ 3  ðI1  I2 Þx1 x2 ¼ M3
ties differ from those on the normal raceway. For the contact
between the ball and the defect depicted in Fig. 5, the radii of cur- where ðI1 ; I2 ; I3 Þ are the principal moments of inertia,
vature are ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ are the components of angular velocity vector, and
ðM1 ; M2 ; M3 Þ are the components of applied moment vector.
D D In order to simulate the vibration responses of measured points
rI 1 ¼ ; rI2 ¼ ; rII 1  1; rII 2 ¼ jr d j (20) on the pedestal of rolling bearing, another two translational DOFs
2 2 are introduced in the present model for the pedestal, as shown in
Fig. 6. The corresponding dynamic equations are expressed as
where vector r d is defined in Sec. 2.2.2.
(
Then, the Hertzian contact stiffness coefficient can be obtained mp y€p þ cpy y_p þ kpy yp ¼ Fpy
by Hertzian point contact theory [46]. (24)
mp €zp þ cpz €zp þ kpz zp ¼ Fpz
2.3 Dynamic Equations. The dynamic equations for different
bearing components will be described in different coordinates where mp is the mass, kpy and kpz denote the stiffness, cpy and cpz
according to their kinematic characteristics. The equations of denote the damping coefficients, and Fpy and Fpz are the loads act-
motion for a ball are conveniently written in the inertial cylindri- ing on the pedestal.
cal coordinate frame
8 3 Simulations and Discussions
> mball x€ball ¼ Fballx
<
mball r€ball  mball rball h_2ball ¼ Fballr The general solutions of the dynamic equations (Eqs.
(21)
>
: (21)–(24)) mainly involve position vectors and velocities of bear-
_ _
mball rball hball þ 2mball r_hball ¼ Fballh ing components, and these equations are solved numerically by
using fourth order Runge–Kutta–Fehlberg scheme with step-
where mball is the mass of a ball, and ðFballx ; Fballr ; Fballh Þ are the changing criterion. At each time step t, the relationship between
three components of the applied force vector in the cylindrical hball and hd is checked to determine whether a ball is in the defect
coordinate. zone. Then, forces and moments acting on each bearing

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Fig. 6 Pedestal model
Fig. 7 Flow chart for numerical computation
component are obtained based on their interactions. The flow
chart of the numerical computation is provided in Fig. 7.
In the simulation procedure, the outer raceway is considered to
be stationary, and the inner raceway rotation speed (shaft rotation
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Table 1 Parameters for the simulated bearing- pedestal
system
Number of balls (z) 14
Ball diameter (D), m 12.7  103
Pitch diameter (dm), m 70  103
Initial contact angle (a0), degree 30
Curvature factor of inner raceway (fi) 0.515
Curvature factor of outer raceway (fo) 0.52
Clearance, m 0
Damping due to lubricant (cbr), Ns/m 20
Stiffness of pedestal (kpy, kpy), N/m 15  106
Damping of pedestal (cpy, cpy), Ns/m 1800
Fig. 8 Traction model of the lubricant in simulation
speed) X i is constant. The numbering of the balls is anticlockwise
in the raceway circumference as shown in Fig. 2. Parameters for
the simulated bearings are listed in Table 1. The defect is modeled
as quadratic curves.
The lubricant model used in the current simulation is shown in
Fig. 8. Since the present analysis mainly focuses on the modeling
of localized surface defects, a simplified traction model of lubri-
cant is adopted (see Fig. 8). This traction model is applicable for
solid lubricants [12]. Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) effects, such as
oil film damping and stiffness, have a certain effect on the dynam-
ics of high speed rolling bearings. Oil film stiffness and damping
coefficients depend considerably on shaft speed and external
loads, which will result in different vibration characteristics for a
bearing under different operating conditions. The EHD effect is
beyond the scope of the current analysis, which will be investi-
gated in the future work.
In Secs. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3, a localized surface defect is located in
the outer raceway to investigate the motion characteristics when a
ball rolls over the defect. In Sec. 3.4, the effect of radial loads on
bearing dynamics is discussed. In Sec. 3.5, vibration characteris-
tics of bearings with outer raceway and inner raceway defects are
studied in both time domain and frequency domain.
3.1 Motion Characteristics of a Ball When It Rolls Over
the Defect. In ball bearings, every ball exhibits similar motion
characteristics when a pure axial thrust load is applied. Therefore,
in order to investigate the general motion of defective ball bear-
ings, a pure axial load of 3000 N is applied on the inner raceway
in this section. Moreover, the shaft rotation speed is 10000 r/min,
and the width and depth of the defect are 2.0 mm and 0.5 mm,
respectively.
As mentioned above, when jhbd j (jmodðhball ; 2pÞ  hd j for outer
raceway) is less than he, the ball is in the defect zone. As shown in
Fig. 9, points A and E can be related to entry and exit points,
respectively. Furthermore, the stage between A and C corresponds
to the defect angle he.
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Fig. 9 Relationship between jmodðhball ; 2pÞ  hd j and he
The contact forces between the ball and raceways when it rolls
over the defect are shown in Fig. 10. In Fig. 10, points A, C, and
E have the same meanings in Fig. 9. The contact force between
the ball and the outer raceway drops to 0 suddenly at the entry
point due to material absence (Figs. 10(a)–10(c)). Since the elastic
deformation between the ball and the inner raceway cannot disap-
pear immediately, the ball removes from the inner raceway gradu-
ally corresponding to the region from point A to point B. Then,
the ball neither contacts with inner nor outer raceways until it
impacts the trailing edge of the defect at point D (impact point).
This shows that a contact-separation stage exists when a ball rolls
over a defect zone. When the ball impacts the defect, the contact
force between them achieves a large value at this point in a very
short time, and this maximum contact force can be related to
impact force. Finally, the ball exits the defect zone at point E.
Fig. 10 Motion characteristics of a ball when it rolls over the defect: (a) contact forces, (b) the detail view of contact forces,
(c) the schema when a ball rolls over the defect, and (d) components of impact force
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It can be found from Fig. 10(a) that, after the ball impacts the
outer raceway at point D and then exits the defect at point E, con-
tact forces at ball/outer raceway and ball/inner raceway reduce to
0 successively, and they reach in phase motion after some revolu-
tions. This shows that, after the ball impacts and then exits the
defect, the ball jumps between inner raceway and outer raceway
successively. The origination of this phenomenon can be related
to the zi component of impact force (see Fig. 10(d)), which results
in corresponding accelerations for the ball to jump between these
two raceways.
3.2 Effect of Rotation Speed. In this section, the defect
width is still set as 2.0 mm, and a pure axial load of 3000 N is
applied on the inner raceway.
Figure 11 shows the relationship between the contact force at
ball/outer raceway and the shaft speed. It can be seen that the
impact effect becomes more severe as the shaft speed increases
until it reaches certain values (9000–10,000 r/min in this case, as
shown in Fig. 11(a)). From Fig. 11(b), it can also be observed that
the higher the shaft speed is, the earlier the ball drops into the
defect zone. This phenomenon can be explained in this way, as
the shaft speed increases, the ratio of ball orbit speed h_ball to shaft
speed also increases in lubricated angular ball bearings acted on
by pure axial loads [47].
Accelerations of the pedestal in zi direction under relatively low
speed (3000 r/min) and high speed (10,000 r/min) are shown in
Figs. 12 and 13, respectively. It can be found that at low speed,
acceleration exhibit abundant oscillation in unit revolution than
that at high speed. It can be seen from Figs. 12(b) and 13(b) that
the impulse in acceleration results from the impulse of contact
force at impact point. This can be recognized as the generation
mechanism of the impact pulse of faulty bearings. Since the
AUGUST 2014, Vol. 136 / 041015-7
 Fig. 11 Relationships between contact forces and shaft speeds: (a) the maximum contact force and (b) entry points at differ-
ent shaft speeds

Fig. 12 Vibration responses of pedestal at 3000 r/min (a) radial acceleration and (b) detail views of acceleration and contact
force

Fig. 13 Vibration responses of pedestal at 10,000 r/min (a) radial acceleration and (b) detail views of acceleration and contact
force

contact force at impact point is smaller in low speed case, the am-
plitude of acceleration is smaller consequently. When shaft speed
increases, the second impulse (i.e., the impulse at impact point)
becomes significant.
When a ball rolls over a defect, two impulses are generated.
The first one results from the entry of a ball into the defect, and
the second one originates from the impact between the ball and
the trailing edge of the defect, and these two impulses are 180 deg
shift in phase (see Figs. 12(b) and 13(b)). This phenomenon was
also reported by Sawalhi [49] and Dowling [50] based on experi-
ments. In Sawalhi’s paper [49], the first impulse (i.e., the impulse
at entry point) was explained as a step response generated from
the change of radial radius (i.e., rball described in Sec. 1) of the
rolling element. In the current analysis, the first impulse is mainly
caused by the sudden loss of contact between the ball and the
defect, and this will result in a corresponding acceleration for rball
to change.
In Ref. [49], the origination of the impulse at impact point was
treated as step changes in the rolling element’s travel path and ve-
locity. In the current analysis, it can be found that the impact force
will cause the ball to accelerate or decelerate instantaneously in
certain directions when the ball impacts the trailing edge of the

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 Fig. 14 Relationship between the maximum contact force and
defect width
defect. This will change the rolling directions and velocities of the
ball. Sawalhi also reported that another pulse existed behind the
impulse at the impact point. The space between them was reported
independent of the shaft speed. These two impulses were treated
as a “beating” effect related to a small difference in resonance fre-
quencies. However, the “beating” effect cannot be observed in the
present analysis. One possible reason is the vibration sources
which cause the “beating” effect are not modeled in the present
model.
Furthermore, when a ball exits a defect, a motion of high fre-
quency can be found in Figs. 12 and 13. This motion is mainly
caused by the jump of the ball between inner and outer raceways
after it exits the defect.
3.3 Effect of Defect Size. In this section, the shaft speed is
9000 r/min, and a pure axial load of 3000 N is applied on the inner
raceway.
Figure 14 shows the relationship between the impact force and
the defect width. When the defect width is small, the impact force
increases as the defect width increases. However, when the defect
width reaches a certain value, the impact force becomes lighter as
the defect width increases. It can be seen that the impact force and
the defect width have a nonlinear relationship with each other.
Accelerations resulted from different defect widths are shown
in Fig. 15. The maximum of acceleration and the defect width
also exhibit similar nonlinear relationship. Moreover, by compar-
ing Figs. 14 and 15, it can be found that, despite a small defect
and a large defect may generate equal impact force (such as
wd ¼ 1.0 mm and 3.0 mm in this simulation case), the oscillation
of acceleration after the ball exits the defect becomes more severe
as the defect width increases.
Fig. 15 Relationship between radial acceleration and defect
width
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Fig. 16 Contact forces of a radial loaded bearing
3.4 Effect of Radial Load. It is well known that, the vast ma-
jority of ball bearings are operated under dominant radial loads.
The main type of such bearings is the deep groove ball bearing
whose contact angle is 0 deg. Thus, the vibration characteristics of
a deep groove ball bearing applied by a pure radial load are dis-
cussed in this section. The simulated bearing has the same param-
eters as listed in Table 1 and Fig. 8 except for the contact angle.
The radial load is 1000 N, and the shaft speed is 10,000 r/min. The
width and depth of the defect are 2.0 mm and 0.2 mm,
respectively.
For a radial loaded bearing, contact forces are different with
respect to the ball’s position. Figure 16 shows the contact forces
between ball 1 and raceways. When the ball rotates around the
bearing’s center axis, contact forces change periodically. As a
result, the bearing can be divided into the loaded and unloaded
zones according to the contact force distribution, as shown in
Fig. 16. Moreover, it can be seen from Fig. 16 that the contact
force of outer raceway is always larger than that of inner raceway
due to centrifugal forces.
From the distribution of contact force, it can be expected that
the impact force when a ball rolls over a defect (the maximum
contact force at impact point in Sec. 3.1) will differ with different
defect positions (i.e., hd). Figure 17 shows the changes of the
impact force with respect to different hd. It indicates that the
impact force distribution is nearly the same as the contact force
distribution in Fig. 16. When the defect is located in the loaded
zone, the impact force is larger. Moreover, Fig. 17 shows that the
impact force at hd ¼ 2.094 rad is larger than that at hd ¼ 4.189 rad
although these two positions should result in the same contact
force. One possible reason is that the impact directions between
the ball and the trailing edge of the defect are different, which will
result in different coefficients of Hertzian contact stiffness.
Fig. 17 Relationship between the maximum contact force and
hd
AUGUST 2014, Vol. 136 / 041015-9

Fig. 18 Radial acceleration and contact force
Figure 18 illustrates the contact force and the acceleration of
pedestal in zi direction when ball 1 rolls over a defect located in
the outer raceway. In Fig. 18, the defect position hd ¼ 2.966 rad. It
can be found that the bearing exhibits the same dynamic charac-
teristics as discussed in Secs. 3.1 and 3.2.
3.5 Feature Extraction for Localized Defect in Raceways.
In this section, vibration responses simulation and analysis of roll-
ing bearing with localized defects in raceways are carried out to
provide proofs for defect detection and fault diagnosis. An axial
load of 4000 N and a radial load of 1000 N are applied on the inner
raceway. The width and depth of the defect are 1.0 mm and
0.2 mm, respectively. Parameters of the simulated bearing are
listed in Table 1. The shaft speed is 9900 r/min, and the corre-
sponding shaft rotation frequency fs is 165 Hz. Furthermore, char-
acteristic fault frequencies, i.e., ball pass frequency on outer
raceway (BPFO) and ball pass frequency on inner raceway
(BPFI), are about 973.5 Hz and 1336.5 Hz, respectively. These
frequencies are calculated on the assumption of pure rolling.
3.5.1 Defects on Outer Raceway. The acceleration of pedestal
in zi direction is shown in Fig. 19. As shown in Fig. 19(a), an
impulse is generated once a ball rolls over the defect. These
impulses exhibit regular patterns due to stationary defect. Figure
19(b) is the detail view of the impulse. The time between two
Fig. 19 Vibration responses of the bearing with defected outer raceway: (a) radial acceleration, (b) detail view of radial accel-
eration, (c) frequency spectrum, and (d) envelope spectrum
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impulses is about 1.02  103 sec. This indicates the BPFO here is
about 980.4 Hz.
Figure 19(c) is the frequency spectrum. From 0 Hz to
10,000 Hz, the maximum component is 5885 Hz, and the lower
and larger ones surround it are 4904 Hz and 6866 Hz, respectively.
Moreover, it can be found that the differences between 5885 Hz/
4904 Hz and 6866 Hz/5885 Hz are all both BPFO. These indicate
that the 5885 Hz is one of the natural frequencies and this fre-
quency is modulated by BPFO. In the envelope spectrum
(Fig. 19(d)), the dominant one is 980.7 Hz, and others are its
superharmonics. Frequency 980.7 Hz can be related to BPFO.
In order to understand the origination of this natural frequency
(5885 Hz in Fig. 19(c)), an impact force of 1000 N (the force is
modeled as a triangular form and its duration is about 104 s, as
shown in Fig. 20(a)) is added on the radial direction of the outer
raceway of a healthy bearing. Figure 20(b) is the vibration
responses, and the corresponding frequency spectrum is shown in
Fig. 20(c). Two distinct components can be found in the frequency
spectrum, one is 593.7 Hz (fel) in low frequency domain, and the
other one is 5488 Hz (feh) in high frequency domain. In order to
demonstrate that the 5488 Hz is one of the natural frequencies,
three different axial loads with the same radial impact force
(Fig. 20(a)) are applied to study the vibration responses. The two
distinct components, fel and feh, under different loading conditions
are listed in Table 2. It can be seen that, feh is proportional to axial
loads. However, fel still remains constant. In Gupta’s works
[12,51], the frequency feh which is proportional to external loads
was called ‘Bearing Kinematic Frequency’, and was recognized
as one of natural frequencies of ball motion. This frequency can
be defined on the assumption that response at this frequency is a
sinusoidal motion with a fixed frequency [12,51]
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 Q
fe ¼ (25)
2p mball l
where l is the effective length of the oscillating pendulum. Thus,
the origination of frequency 5885 Hz in Fig. 19(c) can be
explained by Eq. (25). The difference between 5885 Hz in
Fig. 19(c) and 5488 Hz in Fig. 20(c) may be caused by the reason
that the localized defect changes the contact force distribution and
effective length of ball motion in Eq. (25). Furthermore, in order
to understand the origination of fel, bearings with different
Transactions of the ASME
 Fig. 20 Investigation of fel and feh: (a) impact force, (b) the corresponding vibrations, and (c) frequency spectrum

Table 2 fel and feh under different external loads stiffness of pedestal under the action of the impact force are simu-
lated. As shown in Table 3, fel changes severely under the influ-
External loads (N) fel (Hz) feh (Hz) ence of pedestal stiffness. Thus, the pedestal stiffness can be
regarded as the main origination of fel.
Fa ¼ 3000, Fr ¼ 1000 594.5 5328 Moreover, it can be found that the characteristic fault frequen-
Fa ¼ 4000, Fr ¼ 1000 593.7 5488
Fa ¼ 5000, Fr ¼ 1000 593.1 5636
cies calculated here are different with those calculated on pure
rolling assumption. In a dynamic model, none of kinematic con-
straints and assumptions is used. Therefore, fault frequencies
obtained by dynamic analysis are more accurate and reasonable.
Table 3 fel and feh under different kpy and kpz (Fa 5 5000 N,
Fr 5 1000 N) 3.5.2 Defects on Inner Raceway. A localized defect on inner
raceway will rotate with the shaft’s rotation and go through the
Pedestal stiffness (N/m) fel (Hz) feh (Hz) loaded zone of bearing every rotation. This mechanism shows that
the vibration of inner raceway with defect will be modulated by
kpy ¼ 5  107, kpz ¼ 5  107 1038 5698 the shaft rotation. Figure 21(a) shows the acceleration of the ped-
kpy ¼ 15  106, kpz ¼ 15  106 593.1 5636
estal in zi direction, and its detail view can be found in Fig. 21(b).
kpy ¼ 5  106, kpz ¼ 5  106 380.4 5619

Fig. 21 Vibration responses of the bearing with defected inner raceway: (a) radial acceleration, (b) detail view of radial accel-
eration, (c) frequency spectrum, and (d) envelope spectrum

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 Table 4 Parameters of the tested bearing

Number of balls (z) 27

Ball diameter (D), m 11.12  103
Pitch diameter (dm), m 117  103
Initial contact angle (a0), deg 15
Clearance, m 0

Fig. 22 Orbit speed of ball 1 under both axial and radial loads

The maximum peaks of acceleration responses are related to the

positions where the maximum contact force occurs, and the inter-
val between two maximum peaks is related to one cycle of the
shaft. It can also be found that time intervals between two neigh-
boring impulses have some fluctuations (see Fig. 21(b)). This is
mainly because that the orbit speed (i.e., h_ball ) of a ball has oscilla-
tions under the action of both axial and radial loads (see Fig. 22).
The frequency spectrum is shown in Fig. 21(c). In this spec-
trum, the dominant component is the natural frequency which is
excited when a ball rolls over the defect. Figure 21(d) shows the
envelope spectrum. In the spectrum, shaft revolution frequency
(164.8 Hz) and its superharmonic (329.2 Hz) can be found. More-
over, frequency 1329 Hz is related to BPFI. Furthermore, other
components are superharmonics of BPFI and their sidebands.
Moreover, it can be seen from Fig. 21(a) that when the inner
raceway rotates, the sign of impulse of acceleration changes peri-
odically. This phenomenon can be explained that, as shown in
Fig. 23, the zi component of impact force due to inner raceway
defect changes its sign periodically when the inner raceway
rotates. Fig. 25 A spall of the failure bearing

Fig. 23 Components of impact forces result from inner raceway defect

Fig. 24 Setup of the aerospace bearing test rig

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 Fig. 26 Experimental results: (a) radial acceleration, (b) frequency spectrum, and (c) envelope spectrum

4 Experimental Verification
In order to show the capability of our proposed model, an
experiment is presented here. This experiment is a part of the
bearing life prediction program tested on an aerospace bearing
test rig held in Xi’an Jiaotong University [52,53]. The test rig is
shown in Fig. 24. The rig is driven by a motorized spindle con-
nected with the shaft through a coupling. The tested bearing is a
H7018C angular contact ball bearing. Parameters of the tested
bearing are listed in Table 4. The shaft rotation speed is 6000 r/
min. The characteristic frequency of inner raceway fault BPFI of
the tested bearing on the pure rolling assumption is about
1473.9 Hz.
A radial load of 11 kN and an axial load of 2 kN are applied to
the test bearing by the hydraulic loading system. Two accelerome-
ters are mounted on the sleeve that is connected with the outer
ring of the bearing. After about 146 h, the width of the spall is
measured about 1.0 mm as shown in Fig. 25.
The experiment results are shown in Fig. 26. In time domain
responses, we can find some distinct impulses in the loaded zone
of the bearing, and they are marked with red circles in Fig. 26(a).
In frequency spectrum (Fig. 26(b)), the dominant component is
4624 Hz, and none of distinct fault features can be found in this
spectrum. In envelope spectrum (Fig. 26(c)), fault feature BPFI
(1475 Hz) is evident, and this frequency has sidebands of shaft
rotation frequency.
In simulation procedure, the assumed traction model of lubri-
cant is shown in Fig. 8. The adopted loading condition is the same
as that in the experiment. Parameters of the simulated bearing are
listed in Table 4. Moreover, stiffness and damping coefficients of
the pedestal in Sec. 3 are adopted for this simulation procedure.
The detailed calculation of parameters of the pedestal is beyond
the scope of the current analysis.
Simulation results are shown in Fig. 27. Figure 27(a) is the con-
tact force distribution of the bearing which can be divided into
loaded and unloaded zones. It can be seen in Fig. 27(b) that

Fig. 27 Simulated results: (a) contact force distribution, (b) radial acceleration, (c) frequency spectrum, and (d) envelope
spectrum

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 acceleration responses in loaded zone are much more severe than Program of China (No. 2011CB706606), and the Fundamental
the ones in unloaded zone. However, the amplitude of accelera- Research Funds for the Central University.
tion is much larger than experiments. This is mainly because the
transfer path, which will result in attenuation of the signal, is
not considered in the present paper. In frequency spectrum Nomenclature
(Fig. 27(c)), the dominant component is the natural frequency a ¼ ball azimuth frame
(6161 Hz) which is excited by the fault when a ball rolls over it. ar ¼ azimuth-in-raceway frame
In the frequency spectrum, none of distinct fault features can be BPFI ¼ ball passing frequency on inner raceway
detected. Figure 27(d) is the envelope spectrum. The shaft rotation (Hz)
frequency fs (99.8 Hz) and its superharmonic (199.6 Hz) are evident BPFO ¼ ball passing frequency on outer raceway
in this spectrum. Furthermore, a component 1476 Hz which has side- (Hz)
bands spaced at fs exists. This frequency can be related to BPFI. This c ¼ contact frame
indicates that the vibration signals is modulated by fs. These fre- cbr ¼ damping coefficient at ball/raceway contact
quency components in simulation results can also be found in experi- (Ns/m)
ments. It should be noted that the differences between simulated and cpy, cpz ¼ damping coefficients of pedestal (Ns/m)
experimental results are mainly related to unknown oil lubricant pa- d ¼ defect frame
rameters and curvature factors of raceways, and also the transfer path D ¼ ball diameter (m)
and thermal effect neglected in this paper. f ¼ raceway curvature factor
fe ¼ natural frequency of ball motion (Hz)
5 Discussions on Limitations of the Present Model fel ¼ distinct component in low frequency
domain (Hz)
As demonstrated above, the proposed model is effective in feh ¼ distinct component in high frequency
modeling and predicting transient motion characteristics of high domain (Hz)
speed rolling ball bearings with localized raceway defects. But fi, fo ¼ curvature factor of inner and outer
some drawbacks and limitations still exist in the present model raceways, respectively
which will be improved and investigated in our future works. fs ¼ shaft rotation frequency (Hz)
• The width of the defect is assumed larger than the semi major f T ¼ tractive force vector (N)
axis of contact ellipse, which is suitable for large scale of F ¼ net force vector (N)
spalls. The vibration response due to surface damages with Fa ¼ axial load, N
small size such as micropitting is not covered in our model. Fr ¼ radial load (N)
Furthermore, the effect of the defect depth is not considered. ðFballx ; Fballr ; Fballh Þ ¼ components of the applied force vector in
• EHD effects, which could influence the dynamic characteris-   cylindrical frame (N)
tics of bearings, are not considered. Fx ; Fy ; Fz ¼ components of the applied force vector in
• Transfer path, which will modify the vibration signal from inertial Cartesian coordinate (N)
the point where it is generated to the point where it is meas- hd ¼ depth of a defect (m)
ured, is not considered in the present model. i ¼ inertial frame
• The effect of localized defects on cage instabilities and the ðI1 ; I2 ; I3 Þ ¼ three principal moments of inertia (Nm2)
result in bearing vibrations are ignored in the present model. K ¼ Hertzian contact stiffness coefficient
However, cage instability plays an important role in fault (N/m1.5)
evolutions of high speed bearings. kpy, kpz ¼ stiffness of pedestal (N/m)
l ¼ equivalent length of the oscillating
6 Conclusion pendulum (m)
mball ¼ mass of a rolling ball (Kg)
Dynamic modeling and vibration responses simulation are
mp ¼ mass of the pedestal (Kg)
essential for fault mechanism studies to provide proofs for defect
mr ¼ mass of a raceway (Kg)
detection and fault diagnosis. In this paper, dynamic characteristics
Mb ¼ moment vector acting on ball centers (Nm)
of high speed ball bearings with localized surface defects are system-
Mr ¼ moment vector acting on raceway centers
atically investigated on the basis of Gupta’s model. Variations of
(Nm)
three important factors, i.e., additional deflections, Hertzian contact
ðM1 ; M2 ; M3 Þ ¼ three components of applied moment
stiffness coefficient, and directions of contact forces due to localized
vector (Nm)
defects are all integrated into Gupta’s model to completely describe
q0 ¼ contact-in-defect frame
transient motions of defective high speed ball bearings. Based on the
Q ¼ contact force (N)
present analysis, the following conclusions are drawn.
Qq0 ¼ contact force in defect zone (N)
• The variations of contact forces between balls and raceways r ¼ radius of curvature of contacting body (m)
when a ball rolls over the defect zone demonstrate that there r ¼ raceway fixed frame
exists a contact-separation stage that the ball neither contacts r b ¼ position vector locating the center of a ball
with inner raceway nor outer raceway. to the inertial frame (m)
• Parametric studies are carried out for the effects of different r br ¼ position vector locating the center of a ball
defect widths and inner raceway rotation speeds on bearing to the center of a raceway (m)
vibration responses. These studies demonstrate that the sever- r bc ¼ position vector locating the center of a ball
ity of vibration responses exhibit nonlinear relationships with to the curvature center of a raceway (m)
both shaft speed and defect width. r cr ¼ position vector locating the groove center
• In a dynamic model, none of kinematic constraints and of a raceway relative to the raceway center
assumptions is used. Thus, fault frequencies obtained by (m)
dynamic analysis are more accurate and reasonable. r d ¼ position vector locating the curvature
center of a defect relative to the contact
point (m)
Acknowledgment rcp, rpr ¼ position vectors locating a point in contact
This work is supported by National Natural Science Foundation zone relative to the ball center and raceway
of China (No. 51105294 and 51035007), National Basic Research center, respectively (m)

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 rr ¼ position vector locating the center of a
raceway to the inertial frame (m)
t ¼ time (sec)
Tir ¼ transformation matrix between inertial
frame and raceway fixed frame
Tq0 c ¼ transformation matrix between defect
frame and contact-in-defect frame
vrb ¼ local slip velocity at a contact point (m/s)
wd ¼ width of a defect (m)
(x, y, z) ¼ coordinate axes
ðx_ ball ; r_ball ; h_ball Þ ¼ components of ball velocities described in
inertial cylindrical frame (m/s m/s, rad/s)
a ¼ contact angle (degree)
d ¼ elastic deformation (m)
dd ¼ geometric characteristic of defect (m)
d0 ¼ total deflection between ball and raceway
in defect zone (m)
Dt ¼ time increment (sec)
hbr ¼ azimuth angle of a ball described in
raceway fixed frame (rad)
hbd ¼ the difference between angular positions of
the ball and defect (rad)
hb ¼ ball azimuth position (rad)
hd ¼ angular position of a defect (rad)
hdd ¼ angle between vector r d and axis zd (rad)
hdinitial ¼ initial angular position of a defect in race-
way circumference (rad)
he ¼ half the angle of the defect in the circum-
ference of a raceway (rad)
ðx1 ; x2 ; x3 Þ ¼ components of a angular velocity vector
(rad)
Xi¼ shaft rotation speed (rad/s)
Subscripts
1, 2, 3 ¼ corresponding components of vectors
I1;I2; II1; II2 ¼ two bodies of revolution (I, II) in contact,
each has two principal planes (1,2).
Superscripts
a¼ ball azimuth frame
ar ¼ azimuth-in-raceway frame
c¼ contact frame
d¼ defect frame
q0 ¼ contact-in-defect frame
r¼ raceway fixed frame
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