Nonlinear Dyn (2017) 87:219–236

DOI 10.1007/s11071-016-3037-1

ORIGINAL PAPER

A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction

G. Kogan · J. Bortman · R. Klein

Received: 2 May 2016 / Accepted: 17 August 2016 / Published online: 25 August 2016
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract Evaluation of the spall size of a radially
loaded rolling-element bearing is required for the
assessment of the bearing damage severity and esti-
mation of its remaining useful life. A new multi-body,
nonlinear dynamic model of the interaction between the
rolling-element and a spalled outer race is presented.
The study focuses on the physics of rolling-element
contact in a broader range of spall sizes than has been
investigated to date, with intermittent contact between
rolling-element and the outer race, which is a relevant
defect size for diagnostics and prognosticsquery. The
analysis is performed in several time intervals accord-
ing to periods of rolling-element/race contact and peri-
ods when the rolling-element is not connected with the
outer race. An explicit expression of the spall size as
function of the time-to-impact has been developed by
considering radial load, shaft speed, and gravity. The
We gratefully acknowledge the invaluable support of the
Pearlstone Foundation.
G. Kogan · J. Bortman (B)
Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies and
Laboratory for Mechanical Health Monitoring, Department
of Mechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev, P.O. Box 653, 8410501 Beer Sheva, Israel
e-mail: jacbort@gmail.com
G. Kogan
e-mail: ggkogan@gmail.com
R. Klein
R.K. Diagnostics, P.O. Box 101, 20103 Gilon,
D.N. Misgav, Israel
e-mail: renata.klein@rkdiagnostics.co.il
expression of the spall size was used in a sensitivity
study of the effect of parameters such as geometry and
radial load. The results obtained from the new model
are in good agreement with a well-established general
bearing model. The acceleration of the outer ring dur-
ing the rolling-element/spall interaction with intermit-
tent rolling-element race connection is a novel con-
tribution, which allows verification of the model from
direct observations using vibration sensors mounted on
the structure
Keywords Vibration response · Rolling-element
bearing · Nonlinear dynamics · Contact model · Spall
size · Localized surface defect
List of symbols
ar Radial acceleration
Cd RE bearing clearance diameter
c Damping coefficient of each of the RE-
raceways contact
cB Damping coefficient of the bearing
cRE Damping coefficient of each RE
c0 Speed of sound in a solid material
Dp Bearing pitch diameter
d Spall depth
E Elasticity modulus
E Trailing edge relative to the outer ring
centre
F Force applied to the RE by the raceway

123
220
Fce Force applied to the RE that enters the
spall
Fn Normal force applied to an RE
Fp Force applied to the RE that is within the
loading zone but does not interact with
the spall
g Gravitational acceleration
e Coefficient of restitution
h Vertical distance between the centre of
the RE and the outer ring surface
I Moment of inertia tensor
j Index of the RE that is within the loading
zone
K Linearized bearing stiffness
k Hertzian contact stiffness coefficient
ke Equivalent Hertzian contact stiffness
coefficient
kRE−i Hertzian contact stiffness between the
RE and the inner raceway
kRE−o Hertzian contact stiffness between the
RE and the outer raceway
m Mass
mi Mass of the inner ring
mo Mass of the outer ring
m RE Mass of the RE
NRE Number of the REs in the bearing
n̂ Unit vector in the impact direction
n Hertzian contact exponent coefficient
no Location of the outer ring in the n̂ direc-
tion relative to the impact location
n RE Location of the RE in the n̂ direction
relative to the impact location
R RE centre location relative to the leading
edge; Location of a general body
Rdis Location of the RE centre at the moment
of its disconnection from the raceways
Rimp Location of the RE centre at the moment
of its impact on the trailing edge
Ro The distance between the centre of the
RE and the outer ring
RRE Radius of the RE
r General location
t Timescale from the RE’s disconnection
from the raceways
tb Timescale from the beginning of the RE-
spall interaction
td Time interval between the disconnec-
tion of the RE from the raceways and
its impact on the spall floor
123
G. Kogan et al.
tdis Time interval between the beginning of
the RE-spall interaction and the RE’s
disconnection
texit Time interval between the disconnection
of the RE from the raceways and it exit
from the spall
timp Time interval between the disconnec-
tion of the RE from the raceways and
its impact on the trailing edge
X̂ Unit vector in the vertical direction
x̂ Unit vector in the direction vertical to
the leading edge
xi Vertical location of the inner ring
xo Vertical location of the outer ring
Ŷ Unit vector in the horizontal direction
ŷ Unit vector in the direction parallel to
the leading edge
δ Hertzian contact force deflection
δi Hertzian contact force RE deflection
into the inner ring
δr Distance between the raceways’ centres
δrot Deflection of the RE into the inner ring
during its rotation around the leading
edge
δψ j Deflection of an RE into both of the rings
δ̇ (−) Impact speed
Ω Angular velocity of the body system
ω Angular speed
ωc Angular speed of the cage
ψ Azimuth of an RE
ψdis Azimuth of an RE at the disconnection
from the raceways
ψimp Azimuth of an RE at the impact with the
trailing edge of the spall
ρ Material density
Δs Spall size
1 Introduction
The rolling-element (RE) bearing is a vital machin-
ery component and suffers from rolling contact fatigue
that produces subsurface-originated spalls [19]. Esti-
mation of the damage severity and prediction of bearing
remaining useful life requires an evaluation of the spall
size. One of the recently practised methods for evalua-
tion of spall size is based on analysis of the measured
acceleration signal.
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction
Fig. 1 The movement of the RE into the spall and the outer ring response according to Epps [5]. a Direction of first movement for the
entry motion. b Location of the point of entry and the point of impact
A local fault such as a spall affects the acceleration
signal produced by the RE bearing. Prediction of this
outcome is vital for further diagnosis of the RE bearing
by vibration analysis. Numerous RE bearing models
have been constructed to predict this signal. This intro-
duction refers to several models reviewed by El-Thalji
and Jantunen [4] and Singh et al. [21].
A model by McFadden and Smith [18] is a signifi-
cant example of a large group of non-physical models.
They estimated the measured signal as a superposition
of several signals that reflect the influence of differ-
ent parameters, such as the loading zone and trans-
fer function. Since this approach is not based on a
solution of any dynamic equations, it cannot predict
the dynamic behaviour of the bearing. Therefore, this
approach gives neither accurate prediction nor suffi-
cient insight into the nature of the investigated phe-
nomenon.
Another group of models is based on numerical solu-
tion of a set of dynamic equations. Such dynamic mod-
els might be based on a lumped-parameter formulation
or solved by discretization of continuous models of
the bearing elements using the finite-element method.
Both methods are complex for implementation, com-
putationally expensive and have not given quantitative
estimation for the general case. Recently, newly pub-
lished bearing models that study the RE-spall interac-
tion phenomenon [1,22] illustrate those aspects. For
example, Singh et al. [22] dedicated a section to dis-
cussion of the numerical noise generated in the model
output.
221
There is growing interest in RE-spall interaction
and spall width measurement via time domain analy-
sis of the acceleration signature [3,8,10,13,20,23]. To
develop a method for spall width estimation, Epps [5]
investigated the kinematics of the RE outer ring spall
interaction. He noted that two events occur during the
RE-spall interaction (Fig. 1b). The first event occurs
during the entrance of the RE into the spall (Fig. 1a),
referred to in the literature as the step-response (de-
stress). The second event occurs during the exit of the
RE from the spall, referred to as the impact-response
(re-stress). The time distance between those two events
is referred as the “time-to-impact” (TTI).
Figure 2 shows the RE-spall interaction according
to Epps [5], whose model assumes that after the RE
reaches the spall (Fig. 2a) the RE starts to rotate around
the spall leading edge (Fig. 2b) until it comes into con-
tact with both the leading edge and the trailing edge
of the spall (Fig. 2c), after which the RE leaves the
spall. This approach was recently used by Khanam et
al. [9] to estimate the impact of the RE on the trail-
ing edge (Fig. 3a) and by Liu and Shao [16] to estimate
the edge topography impact on the RE-spall interaction
(Fig. 3b). More recent numerical simulations by Singh
et al. [22] and Ahmadi et al. [1] found that during the
RE-spall interaction, the contact between the RE and
the outer raceway does not have to be continuous and
the RE may disconnect from the outer raceway before it
touches the trailing edge. Therefore, the still-common
assumption of continuous contact between the RE and
the spalled raceway is generally invalid and the pre-
123
222 G. Kogan et al.

Fig. 2 Spall-RE interaction according to Epps [5]. a Normal race contact. b Entry motion. c The dual point

Fig. 3 Dual point contact approach application in recent studies. a Motion of the ball around the defect greater than the contact area
[9]. b Schematic of the contact type between a ball and the small surfaces at defect edges with different topographies [16]

sented description of the interaction is a special cases
of RE/spall contact where the spall is small or the RE
is moving slowly.
The present work introduces a new approach to for-
mulating the problem of nonlinear dynamic interac-
tions between a rolling-element and a spall. This for-
mulation does not rely on the assumption of continuous
contact between the RE and the raceways. The solution
is based on a general dynamic analysis of the RE-spall
interaction instead of a numerical solution for a spe-
cific case of kinematically constraining the RE to have
a dual point of contact. This generality allows TTI to
be related to the spall size and enables study of tenden-
cies such as the sensitivity of TTI to the radial load.
This derivation is also used to predict the acceleration
of the outer ring during the RE-spall interaction, which
enables direct observability.
A previously established general dynamic bearing
model [11] is used here for verification of the new
derivation. For this verification, a new hybrid contact
representation is created. All of the results that are
extracted from the new derivations show good agree-
ment with the results that are extracted from the gen-
eral model simulations. The analysis of the RE-spall
interaction that is following this derivation significantly
improves our understanding of the RE-spall interaction.
2 RE-spall interaction model
This section presents a derivation of kinematic and
dynamic expressions through the different stages of the
RE-spall interaction, in the following order of events:
normal RE-raceway interaction, beginning of RE rota-
tion around the leading edge, zero jerk of the outer ring
during the de-stress as the RE rotates and translates at
the edge, ending of the RE constrained rotation and its
disconnection from the raceways, free flight of the RE,
and its impact on the trailing edge of the spall. The
steps that follow the impact are not discussed here.
The RE-spall interaction consists of multiple steps.
The equations that define each step are based on a local
timescale, and the length of each step is defined by a
time interval. Each step is solved separately with the
starting condition determined by the previous step. All
of the local timescales and most of the time intervals are
organized as illustrated in Fig. 4. First, the RE location
and speed are determined at the moment of disconnec-

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction 223

Fig. 4 Definition of the

disconnection
Interaction
beginning
Unconstrained RE-exit edge RE exiting
time intervals and

RE
RE motion with impact the spall
timescales based on the Events constant cage
simplified order of the speed
events exit
Time
Intervals dis imp

Time full
Scales b

tion from the leading edge. Next, the location and speed
are used to express the fault size as a function of the TTI
Inner Ring
based on the time between the outer ring zero jerk dur-
ing the de-stress and the beginning of the RE-trailing
edge impact. This expression is used to create a sim-
plified model that estimates the outer ring acceleration
response to the RE-spall interaction, a derivation that is
made under the assumption of no RE-spall floor inter- Outer Ring
action. This section concludes with discussion of the
condition for avoiding the RE-spall floor interaction.

2.1 Location and speed of the RE at the disconnection

moment
Fig. 5 Rotation of the RE around the spall leading edge. Dashed
An RE entering a spall is considered. The spall is line RE at the beginning of the interaction
 with the spall; solid line
RE at a general moment, tb ; x̂, ŷ : coordinate system parallel
assumed to be located at the centre of the loading zone.  
to the leading edge; X̂ , Ŷ : horizontal coordinate system
And so the RE is under load and in contact with both
raceways at the beginning of the RE-spall interaction.
From Epps [5], after the RE reaches the spall, the RE
rotates about the spall leading edge.
where RRE is the radius of the RE, and tb is the time
The following derivation is expressed using an iner-
from the beginning of the RE-spall interaction (Fig. 5).
tial reference frame in Cartesian coordinates parallel
 For this RE-leading edge interaction to occur, dis-
to the leading edge, as shown in Fig. 5 as x̂, ŷ . Two
placement of the surface of each bearing raceway
assumptions are made: the tangent cage speed defines
should be negligible. To demonstrate that there is an
the speed of the RE in the ŷ direction, and the edge
insignificant contribution to RE motion due to these
radius is negligible. Hence, the cage speed is given by
ωc Dp displacements, an exaggerated case is considered. An
2 , where ωc is the rotational cage speed and D P is instant termination of the inner ring support by the RE
the bearing pitch diameter. Therefore, during the rota- that interacts with the spall leads to a vertical accelera-
tion of the RE around the edge, its centre location, rel- tion of the rings on the order of g or less. Particularly,
ative to the leading edge, R, is given by the vertical acceleration of the inner ring, ẍi ≤ g and the
⎛  ⎞ vertical acceleration of the outer ring, ẍo ≤ g mmoi ∼ g
 2 where m i is the mass of the inner ring and m o is the
ωc Dp ωc Dp
R(Rx , R y ) = ⎝− RRE
2 − tb , tb ⎠ mass of the outer ring.
2 2
The acceleration of the RE in the x̂ direction, R̈x , is
(1) given by

123
224 G. Kogan et al.

Table 1 Model parameters for the simulated cases where δ is the initial deflection of the inner raceway
Parameter Value Units into the RE.
The timescale denoted by tb starts at the beginning of
Pitch diameter 60 mm the interaction and ends at the RE disconnection from
Ball diameter 12 mm the raceways tdis . Assuming δrot = 0, tdis is given by
Inner raceway normalized curvature 0.52
√
Outer raceway normalized curvature 0.53 2 δ (2RRE − δ)
tdis = (4)
Contact stiffness exponent 1.5 ωc Dp
Friction coefficient 0.16
Clearance diameter 1.5 × 10−2 mm and since RRE  δinit , tdis becomes
Number of balls 9 √
Modulus of elasticity for balls and rings 208 GPa 2 2δ RRE
tdis = (5)
Ball mass 6.5 g ωc Dp
Mass attached to the inner ring 14.37 kg
Mass attached to the outer ring 9.5 kg At the moment of the RE disconnection from the
N raceways, its centre location Rdis can be expressed as
Pedestal radial stiffness 1 × 106 m
Pedestal radial damping 1 × 105 N sec   
m
m Rdis = δ − RRE , 2δ RRE (6)
Radial gravity 9.81 sec2
Inner ring rotation speed 20 rps
Derivation of Eq. (1) with respect to time and using
Time step 2−24 sec
N
Eq. (4) gives an approximation of the velocity of the RE
Stiffness of the contact between the ball 3.25 × 1010 m1.5 at the moment of its disconnection from both raceways
and the inner ring
as
Stiffness of the contact between the ball 2.84 × 1010 mN1.5
and the outer ring  
ωc Dp 2δ
Radius of the edge of the fault 6 × 10−3 mm Ṙdis = ,1 (7)
Distance between the edges of the fault 0:3 mm
2 RRE

2.2 Spall size as a function of the TTI

Dp2 ωc2 Dp2 ωc2 tb2
R̈ x = + 
 2  2 1.5 For diagnostics, the spall size must be observable. This
2 − ωc Dp t
4 RRE 16 R 2 − ωc Dp t
2 b RE 2 b section presents a derivation of the spall size as a func-
(2) tion of the TTI, formulated in both Cartesian and Polar
coordinates. Considering scaling that is based on Eq.
The minimum acceleration occurs at tb = 0. There- (2), both formulations neglect the displacement of the
D 2 ω2 outer ring.
fore, R̈x > 4Rp REc . Evaluation of the minimal R̈x for the
The simplified derivation in the Cartesian coordi-
case detailed in Table 1 produces 39g, which demon-
nates considers that the angle α shown in Fig. 5 tends to
strates that R̈x  g and justifies the neglect of the
zero. As a result, it is assumed
 that the previously used
displacement of the rings during the rotation of the RE
coordinate system x̂, ŷ , which is parallel to the spall
around the leading edge.
leading edge, coincides
 with the currently used coordi-
The displacement of the raceways is neglected, and
the deflection of the RE into the inner raceway δrot is nate system X̂ , Ŷ , which is horizontal (Fig. 5). The
assumed to be in the x̂ direction (Fig. 5). The deflection, derivation in Polar coordinates does not require such
δrot , is described by assumptions and therefore the results can differ.
The simplified derivation in Cartesian coordinates
⎛  ⎞
 2 provides an explicit expression for the TTI, which is
ωc Dp
δrot = δ − ⎝ RRE − RRE 1 − tb ⎠ (3) analysed and compared to previous results. The equa-
2RRE tions derived in the Polar coordinates are more compli-

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction 225

Fig. 6 The location of the

RE centre at the impact
(α ≈ 0) RE

imp

Leading Edge Δs Trailing Edge

cated and do not provide an explicit solution. However, (a)

the solution of the equations derived in the Polar coor-
dinates is more accurate. The case study will discuss
the differences.

2.2.1 Derivation in the Cartesian coordinates

The RE is referred to as a point mass in the cage refer-

 with ωc .Hence, its accelera-
ence frame which rotates
tion is given by R̈ = g + ωc2 Rdis (cos (ψ) , sin (ψ)),
where ψ is the azimuth angle (see Fig. 7a) of the
RE relative to the centre of the outer ring. Consider-
ing that the absolute azimuth angle is upper-bounded
by the angle α ≈ 0, the RE acceleration is given by
R̈ = g (ψ) + ωc2 Rdis , 0 .
It is assumed that the radius of the trailing edge is
infinitesimally small. Hence, at the moment of the RE-
trailing edge impact, the distance between the centre (b)
of the RE and the trailing edge is the radius of the RE
(Fig. 6):
 
Rimp − (0, Δs ) = RRE (8)

where Δs is the spall width and Rimp is the RE centre

relative to the leading edge at the moment of impact
(Fig. 6). Supposing a constant RE acceleration, the
location of the RE at impact Rimp is given by,
2
R̈timp
Rimp = Rdis + Ṙdis timp + (9)
2

where timp is the TTI.

Using Eqs. (8) and (9), the distance between the spall
edges, Δs , is given by,
 
ωc Dp
Δs = δ (2RRE − δ) + timp + RRE 2 − h2
Fig. 7 Geometric parameters of the RE-spall interaction. a Geo-
√ 2 metric parameters at the moment of the disconnection of the RE
ωc Dp δ(2RRE − δ) from the raceways. b Geometric parameters at the moment of the
h = δ − RRE + timp
2 RRE − δ RE impact on the trailing edge
  2
Dp 2 timp
+ g+ ωc (10)
2 2

123
226 G. Kogan et al.

where h is the vertical distance between the centre of where texit is defined to be the time between the outer
the RE and the outer ring surface. Assuming Rre  δ, ring zero jerk during the de-stress and the RE exit from
this distance becomes, the spall. Knowing texit allows for estimation of the
 
ωc Dp spall width, based on an assessment of when the RE
Δs = 2RRE δ + timp + RRE 2 − h2
enters and exits the spall.
2 
Substitution of timp = 0 into Eq. (10) provides the
δ
h = δ − RRE + ωc Dp timp lower-bound for the spall size in which the estimate is
2RRE valid:
  2
Dp 2 timp 
+ g+ ω (11) Δs = 2 2RRE δ. (14)
2 c 2
By assuming that timp is the TTI, two time intervals
For spalls smaller than this lower-bound, the kine-
are neglected. One refers to the time between the begin-
matics of the interaction include the dual point (Fig.
ning of the impact and the extreme value of the outer
2c) instead of the disconnection of the RE from the
ring’s acceleration during this impact. Neglecting the
raceways (Fig. 5). Similar substitution of texit = 0 into
duration of an impact is a common practice; therefore,
Eq. (13) is not possible, because there is no physical
neglecting part of it—as done here—is also acceptable.
interpretation of texit = 0. Geometrically, the RE can-
The second time interval is the one between the outer
not exit the spall at the instant of disconnection from
ring zero jerk during the de-stress and the disconnec-
the leading edge.
tion of the RE from the raceways. The justification of
The only parameter in Eq. (10) that is non-
neglecting this time interval is detailed in Sect. 2.4.
measurable or predefined is the initial deflection of the
Equation (10) is the first time that the spall size has
RE into the inner raceway. For most cases, the distrib-
been expressed as function of TTI, with respect to cen-
ution of the load between the REs might be evaluated
trifugal force, gravitation, and load. Moreover, the spall
satisfactorily by assuming a static bearing [7]. Based
size is expressed explicitly and it replaces the widely
on this assumption, Harris and Kotzalas [7] evaluate
used expression [3,8,10,13,20,22,23],
  the initial deflection by
Δs = ωc Dp + 2RRE timp (12)  
2π Cd
δψ j = δr cos j − (15)
NRE 2
which represents the second term of Eq. (11) multiplied ⎧    ⎫
by approximately 2. ⎪
⎪ ke δψn j cos N2π j = mig ⎪ ⎪
⎪
⎪  RE n ⎪
⎪
In Eq. (10), the first term reflects the horizontal dis- ⎨ ⎬
tance between the leading edge and the location of the ke = 1
1
1 (16)
⎪
⎪ (1/kRE−i ) n +(1/kRE−o ) n ⎪
⎪
RE at the disconnection from the raceways. The sec- ⎪
⎪   1 ⎪
⎪
⎩ δ = δ − Cd ke n ⎭
ond term is related to the horizontal free flight of the r 2 kRE−i
RE. The third term is equal to the horizontal distance where δr is the distance between the raceway centres,
between the RE centre at the impact moment and the δψ j is the deflection of the raceways into the jth RE that
spall trailing edge.
is located in the azimuth of ψ j = j N2π with the vertical
It is also important to note that the spall size in Eq. RE
direction, Cd is the RE bearing clearance diameter, ke
(10) is given as a function of the measurable time inter-
is the equivalent Hertzian contact stiffness, kRE−i and
val, timp , without referencing the non-measurable time
kRE−o are the Hertzian contact stiffnesses between the
interval tdis . This means that it can be further imple-
RE and the inner and outer raceways, respectively, and
mented for practical estimation of the spall size by mea-
NRE is the number of REs in the bearing. The azimuth
surement of the acceleration signal that is produced by
of the central RE is approximated as being zero.
a faulty bearing.
Assuming that we can locate the exact exit point, the
third term in Eq. (10) is integrated into the second term 2.2.2 Derivation in the polar coordinates
by
ωc Dp  Alternatively, derivation can be done in polar coordi-
Δs = texit + 2RRE δ (13) nates, the origin of which coincides with the centre of
2

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction 227

the outer ring. The RE is considered to be a point mass Similarly to the derivation of Eq. (10), the derivation
in the cage reference frame which rotates with ωc . The of the spall size as a function of the TTI in the polar
radial acceleration of the RE centre ar is given by coordinates is given by
⎧  2 ⎫
ar = R̈o − Ro ωc2 (17) ⎪ Δs /2 − Rimp sin ψimp ⎪
⎪
⎪  ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪  2 ⎪
⎪
⎪
⎨+ Ror − Δs /4 − Rimp cos ψimp
2 2 = RRE ⎪
2 ⎬
where Ro is the radial distance of the RE centre relative
D +2R +C /2
to the centre of the outer ring. The radial force on the ⎪
⎪ Ror = p RE d
⎪
⎪
⎪
⎪
2 ⎪
⎪
RE after the disconnection of the RE from the raceways ⎪
⎪ ψ = timp ωc − ψdis ⎪
⎪
⎩ imp ⎭
Fr is Rimp = Ro (t = timp )
(25)
Fr = mg cos (ψ) (18)
where Ror is the maximal radius of the outer raceway
Assuming constant cage speed ωc , Eq. (17) and 18 and ψimp is the azimuth of the RE at the impact with
produce the leading edge (Fig. 7b).

R̈o − Ro ωc2 = g cos (ψ) (19)

2.3 Outer ring acceleration response

where the azimuth angle ψ is given by Section 2.1 included a demonstration of the negligibil-
ity of the outer ring acceleration for estimation of the
ψ = tωc − ψdis (20) RE interaction with the spall. Nevertheless, this accel-
eration is important for estimation of the signal that is
and ψdis is the disconnection azimuth angle shown in measured by an accelerometer. This section presents
Fig. 7a. Using Eq. (6) and assuming a vertical direction a method for estimation of the outer ring acceleration
of the RE speed at the disconnection, ψdis is given as during the interaction with a RE.
illustrated in Fig. 7a: The section begins with the derivation of the outer
√ ring acceleration as a response to the RE entrance into
 
Δs − 2 2δ RRE the spall. Then, the derivation of the outer ring acceler-
ψdis = arcsin (21)
Dp + Cd /2 + 2δ ation as a response to the RE impact on the spall trailing
edge is presented. Both derivations are applicable for a
Equations (19) and (20) yield simplified estimation of the outer ring response to the
RE-spall interaction.
R̈o − Ro ωc2 = g cos (tωc − ψdis ) (22)
2.3.1 Step-response
and the initial conditions are
This derivation is based on the assumption that the inner
⎧ ⎫
Dp +Cd /2+2δ
⎨ Ro (t = 0) = ⎬ ring is supported by three REs (Fig. 8); the load applied

2
(23) on each of the RE by both rings is assumed to be equal.
⎩ Ṙo (t = 0) = ωc Dp 2δ ⎭
2 RRE The RE that is located inside the spall is referred to as
the central RE. The two other REs are referred to as
Equations (22) and (23) give the solution for R, being peripheral (Fig. 8).
  Let the acceleration of the rings ẍ be expressed by
g cos (ψdis )
Ro = Ro (t = 0) + cosh (tωc )
2ωc2 ⎧   ⎫
  ⎪
⎨ 2Fp cos N2π +Fce ⎪
⎬
Ṙo (t = 0) g sin (ψdis ) ẍi = RE
−g
+ + sinh (tωc ) mi  
ωc 2ωc2 ⎪
⎩ẍ + co ko 2Fp cos N2π +Fce ⎪
⎭
g o m o ẋ o + m o xo = −g − RE
mo
− 2 cos (tωc − ψdis ) (24) (26)
2ωc

123
228 G. Kogan et al.

where tstep is the time from the beginning of the RE-

spall interaction, and δi is the RE deflection into the
inner ring. The initial conditions for Eq. (26) are given
by,
⎧   ⎫
⎪
⎪ xi tstep = 0 = xo − δr ⎪
⎨x t m o +m i ⎪
⎬
o step = 0 = − ko g
  (30)
⎪
⎪ ẋi tstep = 0  = 0 ⎪
⎪
⎩ ⎭
ẋo tstep = 0 = 0

where δr is extracted from Eq. (15) and (16).

First, to solve RE-spall interaction, the acceleration
of the outer is assumed to be zero. Results of RE trajec-
tory are then used to refine the estimate for outer ring
acceleration. Refinement of the estimate can be done
by an iterative method.

2.3.2 Impact-response
Fig. 8 Assumed bearing model for estimation of the outer ring
acceleration as a response to the RE-spall interaction This section presents the impact response of the outer
ring,
 with
 respect to the vertical coordinate system,
where the indices i and o refer to inner and outer rings, X̂ 1 , Ŷ1 (Fig. 7b). The equations are solved using
respectively, x is the ring centre location, m is the ring
the results from the Polar coordinate derivation (Sect.
mass, Fp is the normal force by the peripheral RE, and
2.2.2) as initial conditions. Assuming that the radius
Fce is the normal force by the central RE.
of the trailing edge is infinitesimally small, the impact
Based on the kinematic expression in Eq. (15), the
direction n̂ (Fig. 7b) is approximated by
normal force Fn for the peripheral REs is given by the
spring-dashpot model represented by [2] E − Rimp
n̂(n 1 , n 2 ) = (31)
Fn = kδ + cδ̇
n
(27) RRE
where k is the RE-raceway contact stiffness and c is the where the trailing edge location E is given by
associated linear damping. Using Eq. (15) and (27), the
load acting on the peripheral RE Fp can be written as ⎛  ⎞
Δs Δ2s ⎠
a function of the ring locations:
  E=⎝ , 2 −
Ror (32)
2π 2 4
Fp = c (ẋi − ẋo ) cos
NRE
   
2π Cd n and the RE location at the impact Rimp is given by
+ kre−i (xi − xo ) cos − (28)
NRE 2      
Rimp = cos ψimp Rimp , sin ψimp Rimp (33)
Equation (3) gives a new expression of the normal force
acting on the central RE. By neglecting the damping,
The normal contact force between the trailing edge
Fce is given by,
 and the RE is given by the elastic impact model [14]:
kRE−i δi tstep < tdis
Fce =    
0 tstep ≥ tdis 3 1 − e2 δ̇
⎛ ⎛  ⎞⎞n Fn = kδ n
1+ (34)
 2 4δ̇ (−)
ωc Dp
δi = ⎝δ − RRE ⎝1 − 1 − tfull ⎠⎠
2RRE
where e is the coefficient of restitution, δ is the deflec-
(29) tion of the RE into the raceway, δ̇ is the deflection speed,

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction 229

 
and δ̇ (−) is the collision speed that is given by (Fig. 7b), ...
m o x o + co ẍo + ko ẋ = −2 Ḟp cos
2π
− Ḟc (39)
such that NRE

δ̇ (−) = Ṙimp · n̂ (35) To demonstrate the previously discussed equiva-

...
lence, the zero jerk condition x o = 0 is defined. Fur-
ther, the equation is simplified by neglecting all the
By neglecting the friction force between the RE and
terms except Ḟc and showing that the solution for the
the edge, the forces applied by the housing on the outer
last term is defined by the disconnection of the RE from
ring, and the cage-RE interaction, the motion equations
the inner raceway. Neglecting terms in the equation are
of the RE and the outer ring, in the direction of n̂, are
based on order estimation, and static approximation
given by
shows that the acceleration of both the rings is on the
⎧    ⎫ order of g. Thus, the second term, co ẍo , is in the order of
⎪
⎪ 3 1−e2 (ṅ RE −ṅr ) ⎪
⎪ co g; and the third term, k ẋo , is on the order of k g timp .
⎨ Fn = k (RRE −(n o −n RE ))n 1+ 4δ̇ (−) ⎬
The fourth term is given by
⎪
⎪ m RE n̈ RE = − (Fn + m RE gn 1 ) ⎪
⎪  
⎩ ⎭ 2π
m o n̈ o = Fn + m o gn 1 Ḟp = c2 (ẍi − ẍo ) cos
(36) NRE
  
2π
+ k (xi −xo ) cos
where the n o is the ring displacement in the direction NRE
n−1  
of n̂, n RE is the RE displacement in the direction of n̂, Cd 2π
− n (ẋi − ẋo ) cos (40)
and m RE is the mass of the RE. The values of those 2 NRE
parameters, at the moment of impact, are given by
By neglecting damping and using Eq. (28) and 15,
⎧ ⎫ the following approximation is achieved:
⎪
⎪ n RE = −RRE ⎪ ⎪  
⎨ ⎬
ṅ RE = δ̇ (−) 2π
(37) Ḟp = c2 (ẍi − ẍo ) cos
⎪ no = 0 ⎪
⎪ ⎪ NRE
⎩ ⎭  
ṅ o = 0 n−1
−n 1 2π
+ Fp k n (ẋi − ẋo ) cos
n
(41)
NRE
The vertical component of the outer ring accelera-
which is on the order of
tion, ẍo−v , is given by,
  
2π n−1 1
ẍo−v = n̈ o · n 1 (38) Ḟp ∼ 2g cos c2 + Fp n k − n ntimp (42)
NRE

The analytical derivation of the outer ring acceler- The time derivation of the force of the central RE
ation during the interaction with an RE is verified by (Eq. 29) is given by
a comparison with the general dynamic bearing model
results in Sect. 4.   n−1
Dp2 kRE−i nωc2 t δ + RRE
2 − D 2 ω2 t 2 /4 − R
p c RE
Ḟc = − 
2 4RRE − Dp2 ωc t 2
2.4 RE disconnection
(43)
This section analytically demonstrates the equivalence
of two events: the zero jerk during the de-stress and which, in this case, is higher than the rest of the terms by
the RE disconnection from the raceways. Showing that more than one order of magnitude. Based on this analy-
these two events are equivalent allows one to further sis, all the terms in Eq. (39) can be neglected compared
treat them as simultaneous. to Ḟc ; and so Eq. (39) becomes:
The acceleration of the outer ring is given by Eq.
(26). Its time derivation gives Ḟc = 0 (44)

123
230
The non-trivial solution of Eq. (44) is given by the
time for disconnection of the RE from the raceways.
The equivalence between the outer ring zero jerk
during the de-stress, which is indicated by the condition
...
of x o = 0, and the disconnection of the RE from the
raceways demonstrates that those events are very close
in time. This demonstration is very important since the
zero jerk is a measurable event, but the RE disconnec-
tion from the rings is not.
2.5 RE-spall floor interaction condition
Many of the derivations introduced in this section are
based on the assumption that the RE meets the trail-
ing edge before it collides with the floor of the spall.
Obviously, this assumption depends on the depth and
geometry of the profile of the spall, and so it is not nec-
essarily correct. This section presents the condition for
the validity of this assumption. Without loss of gener-
ality, the derivation is based on the solutions from Sect.
2.2.1, but a similar derivation can be evaluated based
on the solutions from Sect. 2.2.2.
The location of the RE relative to the leading edge,
Rimp , is given by Eq. (9). Assuming that the RE collides
with the bottom of the spall at a depth d (see Fig. 6)
that is larger than the initial deflection δ, the collision
will take place at time td that comes from the following
expression:
√ of the rolling-elements. Therefore, the small clearance
ωc Dp δ(2RRE − δ)
δ − RRE + td
2 RRE − δ
 
Dp 2 td2
+ g+ ω = d − RRE (45)
2 c 2
Hence,

G. Kogan et al.
3 General dynamic model
The RE-spall interaction is simulated by a general
dynamic ball bearing model. Such a model allows an
examination of the findings from Sect. 2 and provides
an insight into the bearing dynamics during the inter-
action.
The general model used for this study is based on
that presented by Kogan et al. [11], which allows sim-
ulation of a wide range of mechanical faults. Kogan
et al. [11] demonstrated a numerical convergence of the
model and its validity by comparison with the model
results to a known bearing behaviour and to experimen-
tal results. This section gives a brief description of this
model and a detailed description of a new hybrid con-
tact model that is used to describe the RE-spall inter-
action more accurately.
3.1 Original model background
The dynamic equations are based on the assumption
that the bearing parts behave as rigid bodies and that,
during contact, the local deformation of the bodies
can be neglected. Moreover, although both rings are
allowed to move in the axial and radial directions, their
movements are restricted such that they remain paral-
lel to their original position. The cage is modelled as
a constraint of a fixed angular distance between each
that exists between the cage and each RE, in an actual
bearing setup, is neglected.
The dynamics are based on the classical dynamic
equations,
  
Ff + Fn = m R̈, R×Ff = Iω x yz +Ω×(Iω)
  (47)
δ
ωc2 Dp2 2RδRE + 2 g +
Dp 2
−ωc Dp 2RRE + 2 ωc (d − δ)
td =  
D
g + 2p ωc2
where Ff and Fn are, respectively, the friction and the
normal forces that act  on a body with mass m and
(46) acceleration R̈, and R × Ff is the total moment of
force acting on a body with a moment of inertia tensor
and the spall width is limited by Eq. (10) where timp = I, angular velocity ω, body system x yz with angular
td . velocity Ω, and rotational acceleration within the body
For a practical case with a naturally developed spall, system is ω̇ x yz . The relative velocity is described by
a satisfactory approximation of the largest spall condi-
tion may be based on a spall depth that is equal to the vb = va + ω × ab (48)
location of the maximum shear stress according to the where v x is the velocity of the body at x and ω is
Hertzian solution. the angular velocity of ab. Equations (47) and (48)

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction
Fig. 9 Algorithm flowchart [11]
describe the motion of all the modelled bodies and are
solved numerically in MATLAB using fixed time steps
(Fig. 9). Solution of the equations in each time step is
based on the solution of the previous time step and the
constant acceleration assumption.
3.2 Contact model
Gilardi and Sharf [6] classified the existing contact
dynamic models as discrete and continuous. Contin-
uous models are implemented in this study to avoid
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10 Hybrid damping model selection flowchart. a Main flowchart. b Model choice flowchart
231
the assumption of short contact time. Contact models
are separated into three groups: spring-dashpot, elastic
impact, and impact with permanent indentation (plastic
impact). While the linear spring-dashpot model gives
a sufficient damping representation of a stable contact,
the impact models are favoured for the impact represen-
tation. Love [17] suggested to determine the existence
of plasticity by a collision speed limit of 10−5 c0 , where
c0 is the speed of sound in a solidmaterial (in our case,
steel), which is defined by c0 = Eρ (E is the elasticity
modulus and ρ is density).
A hybrid contact model (Fig. 10) is used to choose
the proper contact model for each circumstance. The
choice of the contact model is based on three exter-
nal inputs, the first and second time derivatives of
the deflection and the impact initiation condition
(Fig. 10a), and a recursive variable of the current model
index (Fig. 10b).
The impact initiation condition indicates the need to
switch the contact model to one that is impact related.
The choice between the impact-related models is based
on the impact speed, which is extracted from the deriva-
tion of the deflection (Fig. 10a). Since, during the
impact, the contact force is a reversal of the contact
direction, it is assumed that the second time deriva-
tive of the deflection is negative. Hence, a positive sec-
ond deflection derivation is used as an indication that
the impact is finished and the contact is continuous
(Fig. 10a).
Two model choice procedures act simultaneously
(Fig. 10a). Each procedure is related to a different
123
232
impact model and gives an output that indicates the
operation state of this model. The procedure has two
inputs (Fig. 10b): the impact index and the negativ-
ity of the second derivative of the deflection. In the
case that the model index equals zero, a unit impact
index changes the model output to one. Afterwards,
the impact index switches back to zero, but the model
index remains one until the deflection second derivative
becomes positive.
A unit output from one of the model choice proce-
dures indicates the proper impact model; a zero out-
put from the model choice procedures indicates that
the proper model is the spring-dashpot. Since, during
an impact initiation, only one of the impact indices
receives the value of one, a unit output from both of the
model choice procedures is not possible.
The spring-dashpot model is represented by Eq.
(27). The value for the RE-raceway contact damping c
is extracted from the damping of the bearing cB given
by Krmer, [12]
cB = (0.25 ∼ 2.5) 10−5 K (49)
G. Kogan et al.
A spring-dashpot model does not guarantee a positive
normal force [6]; but a negative contact force is not a
physical phenomena in systems with no adhesion or
elastohydrodynamic lubrication. In order to avoid the
negative contact, a positive force condition is added.
Using this condition, if the contact force appears to be
negative, then it is corrected to be zero.
The permanent indentation impact type contact is
used in the case of an impact that is followed by a plas-
tic deformation. In this case, until receiving the max-
imum deflection, the normal contact force is defined
by the classical Hertz contact model, F = δ n k. After
the maximum deflection, the normal contact force is
defined by Lankarani and Nikravesh [14],
 n
δ − δp
Fn = Fm (54)
δm − δp
where δm is the maximum deflection, Fm is the maxi-
mum normal contact force, and δp is the plastic deflec-
tion.
The maximum deflection, δm , is defined by

where K is the linearized bearing stiffness, which is   2  n+1

1
n+1
extracted from Lim and Singh [15] δm = m eff δ̇ (−) (55)
2k

3
 
K = nke δψn−1 cos2 ψ j (50)
j where m eff is the equivalent mass, which is defined by
j

where the deflection of both the raceways into the RE, m1 + m2

m eff = (56)
δψ j , is defined by Eq. (15). The bearing damping cB is m1m2
given by
where the index denotes the colliding bodies.

3
  The maximum normal contact force, Fm , is defined
cB = cRE cos2 ψ j (51) by
j=1

Fm = kδm
n
(57)
where cRE is the damping of each RE, and it is defined
as
and the plastic deflection, δp , is defined by
cRE = 2c (52)  2  
(n + 1) m eff δ̇ (−) 1 − e2
δp = (58)
Equations (49)– (52) give the value for the RE-raceway 2Fm
contact damping c by
where e is the coefficient of restitution and δ̇ (−) is the
   collision speed.
(0.25 ∼ 2.5) 10−5 nke 3j=1 δ n−1
j cos2 ψ j
c=    In the case of an impact that is not followed by a
2 3j=1 cos2 ψ j plastic deformation, the normal contact force is defined
(53) by Eq. (34) [14].

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction 233

Outer Raceway eral bearing model simulations, showing the TTI sen-
sitivity to the working conditions.
Edge Radius
The time parameter and the shaft speed are related
Distance Between Edges
through the shaft angle. Since the time parameter is a
Fig. 11 Bearing fault parameters function of the shaft speed, all the results are displayed
as a function of the shaft angle φ [Rad].
Figure 12 shows the outer ring acceleration dur-
3.3 Simulated case ing the RE-spall interaction and shows the acceleration
signal derived using the general bearing model and a
A radially loaded bearing is simulated, including a spall simulated acceleration based on the RE-spall interac-
located on the outer race at the centre of the loading tion model. The comparison of the complete outer ring
zone. The simulation parameters are listed in Table 1. response (Fig. 12a) illustrates the compatibility of the
The last two parameters in the table relate to the defini- models.
tion of the spall (see Fig. 11). Those parameters are the Figure 12b expands the estimated acceleration sig-
radius of the edges and the distance between their cen- nal, during the beginning of the interaction. The mag-
tres (Fig. 11). Since the radius of the edges is assumed nified image enables the examination of the time lag
to be very small, the distance between their centres is between two moments; the moment of disconnection
chosen to be the parameter that represents the varying of the RE and the moment of zero jerk. Both simula-
size of the fault. tion (general model and the RE-spall interaction model)
show that those moments are close in time, verifying
the analytical derivation from Eqs. (39) to (44).
Figure 13 exhibits the spall size estimation as a func-
4 Comparison of the model and the analytical
tion of the angular distance φ. The estimation that is
results
based on the RE-spall interaction model is compared
to the simulation results of the general bearing model.
An expression of the spall width, as function of TTI,
Each sample that represents a general bearing model
shaft speed and radial load, as well as a method to esti-
result is extracted from a complete simulation. In such
mate the outer ring response to RE-spall interaction
a simulation, all the parameters are predefined and the
were developed. Both are based on justified assump-
angular distance is evaluated from a continuous signal
tions but have not been verified yet. This section intro-
of acceleration of the outer ring.
duces a comparison between those results and the gen-

(a) (b)
1
Vertical Outer Ring Acceleration [g]

1
Vertical Outer Ring Acceleration [g]

0.5

0 0.8
B−RE disconnection
−0.5 from the raceways
0.6
−1 C−beginning of
the impact
−1.5
0.4 A−zero jerk during
−2 D−zero jerk the de−stress
during the impact
−2.5 0.2
Generic Model Generic Model
−3 RE−spall Interaction Model RE−spall Interaction Model
0
0 0.01π 0.02π 0.03π 0.04π 0.05π 0.06π 0 0.002π 0.004π 0.006π 0.008π 0.01π
φ [rad] φ [rad]

Fig. 12 Vertical outer ring acceleration response to the RE-spall of the RE-spall interaction. The solid lines indicate the interac-
interaction. a Vertical outer ring acceleration during the com- tion before the disconnection of the RE from the raceways
plete RE-spall interaction. b Acceleration during the beginning

123
234 G. Kogan et al.

Fig. 13 Spall size as a (a) 5

function of the shaft angle: Polar Coordinates
Cartesan Coordinates
comparison and error 4 General Model

Spall Size [mm]

estimation. a Spall size as Reference Expression
function of the angular 3
distance. b Spall size
estimation error relative to 2
the general model results as
function of the spall size 1

0
0.01π 0.02π 0.03π 0.04π 0.05π 0.06π 0.07π 0.08π
Δφ [rad]

(b)
40
Estimation Error [%]

30
20
10
0
−10
−20 Polar Coordinates
Cartesan Coordinates
−30
Reference Expression
−40
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Spall Size [mm]

(a) (b) 0.03π

General Model
0.028π Polar Coordinates
Cartesan Coordinates
0.029π

0.026π
Δφ [rad]

0.028π
Δφ [rad]

0.024π
0.027π

0.022π
0.026π General Model
Polar Coordinates
Cartesian Coordinates
0.02π 0.025π
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Mass of the Inner Ring [kg] Shaft Speed [RPS]

Fig. 14 Angular distance sensitivity to the working conditions. a Angular distance as a function of the inner ring mass. b Angular
distance as a function of the shaft speed

Figure 13 presents a comparison of the new derived due to the small angle approximation and the assump-
expressions (in Cartesian and in Polar coordinates), ref- tion of a constant magnitude of the centrifugal force.
erence expression given by Eq. (12), and general bear- Figure 13a shows a small and stable offset between
ing simulations. The comparison shows that the results the general model and the Polar coordinate derivation.
of both derivations are match the general bearing model Most of this offset is related to the definitions: the angu-
simulations better than the reference expression. Fig- lar distance that is estimated in the general model is
ure 13 also shows that for narrow spalls, both deriva- related to the distance between A (Fig. 12b) and D
tions fit the results from the general model. As the spall (see Fig. 12a); and the angular distance that is esti-
size grows, the Cartesian coordinate derivation slightly mated based on the expressions is related to the distance
drifts from the general model results. This drift may be between B (Fig. 12b) and C (see Fig. 12a). Two angu-

123
A new model for spall-rolling-element interaction
lar segments (A–B, C–D) are neglected, producing an
offset.
Another interesting aspect is the sensitivity of the
angular distance to the working conditions. The sensi-
tivity to the radial load and the shaft speed was investi-
gated by the estimation based on the RE-spall interac-
tion models and the general model (Fig. 14). The angu-
lar distance as a function of load and shaft speed is intro-
duced as an absolute value and as a relative error. The
error is calculated relative to the general model simu-
lation at the reference working condition of a 20 RPS
shaft speed and 14.37 kg inner ring mass, as detailed
in Table 1.
Figure 14a shows good compatibility between the
general model and the RE-spall interaction models, all
showing that the angular distance is sensitive to the load
and it decreases as the load grows. This result is of value
because usually the load is not taken into account.
The compatibility between the models is preserved
in Fig. 14b, which demonstrates a low influence of the
shaft speed on the angular distance.
5 Conclusions
A solution for the nonlinear problem of the interac-
tion between a rolling-element and a spall in an outer
bearing race has been developed by generating a new
dynamic model that predicts the RE and the outer ring
accelerations. This solution is used to estimate the spall
size in the outer ring by measuring the time between
observable events in the outer ring acceleration. The
study is focused on an important range of spall sizes
that is more relevant for diagnostics and prognostics,
that is, larger spalls in which the RE contact with the
race is intermittent.
The analysis was performed at several time intervals
according to periods of RE-races contact and discon-
nections. This new model improves the spall size esti-
mate accuracy because it avoids the assumption of a
continuous contact between the RE and the raceways.
The presented model gives an analytic solution for time
interval from start of the RE-spall interaction until dis-
connection, time-to-impact (TTI) caused by the first
RE-trailing edge contact, and minimal and maximal
spall sizes for which the analysis is valid. The spall size
is estimated based on two different sets of assumptions:
one is solved in Cartesian coordinates and the other in
Polar coordinates. Each formulation led to a slightly
235
different solution. A simple explicit expression of the
spall size as a function of the TTI was obtained based on
the derivation in the Cartesian coordinates; and a com-
plex realistic model was obtained based on the deriva-
tion in the Polar coordinates. The two solutions are
verified by comparison to a well-established general
numerical bearing model. The presented derivation of
the RE pathway is used for two purposes: first, to deter-
mine the spall size for which the RE avoids contact
with the spall floor; and second, to create a dynamic
model that is based on a reduced number of equations
and gives an estimation of the outer ring acceleration
during the RE-spall interaction. The comparison of the
estimated acceleration signals shows good agreement
between the models, though the computational time
for the general bearing model is more than one order of
magnitude larger. Therefore, the new reduced dynamic
model is a fair alternative for estimation of the bear-
ing response to the rolling-element-spall interaction.
Initially, RE motion is calculated neglecting outer ring
acceleration. RE-race interaction is then calculated to
estimate the outer ring acceleration. The method could
be modified to include further iterations using a relax-
ation technique to improve the estimate of the outer
ring acceleration. In this case, iteration was not needed
as the result is seen to be close to the acceleration pre-
dicted by the generic model.
The study shows that the TTI is sensitive to the load
and that TTI decreases as the load grows. This result is
an improvement because other formulations usually do
not take the load into account. The shaft speed has low
influence on the angular distance. Future work will val-
idate the model using experimental data and develop-
ment of spall size estimation algorithms. Future theory
development will include implementation of the newly
found relationships for a better estimation of the spall
size, and extension to additional cases, such as an RE-
spall floor interaction or a spall located on the inner
ring. The integrated hybrid contact model represents
well plastic/elastic impact contacts. Therefore, it can
be integrated into future contact-related simulations.
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Michael
Lipsett for his constructive comments.
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