fCH-C=CH-CH, 7 elastomeric polymers, the polymer chains are held together by the

weakest intermolecular forces. These weak binding forces permit the

CI
polymer to be stretched. A few 'crosslinks' are introduced in between
Neoprene the chains, which help the polymer to retract to its original position
after the force is released as in vulcanised rubber. The examples
are buna-S, buna-N, neoprene, etc.

2. Fibres
Fibres are the thread forming solids which possess high tensile
strength and high modulus. These characteristics can be
attributed to the strong intermolecular forces like hydrogen
bonding. These strong forces also lead to close packing of chains
Nylon 6.6 and thus impart crystalline nature. The examples are polyamides
(nylon 6, 6). polyesters (terylene), etc
3. Thermoplastic polymers
These are the linear or slightly branched long chain molecules
Ci capable of repeatedly softening on heating and hardening on cooling
cH,PVCH These polymers possess intermolecular forces of attraction
intermediate between elastomers and fibres. Some common
thermoplastics are polythene, polystyrene, polyvinyls, etc.
4 Thermosetting polymers
0-H Q-H These polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules
CH which on heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and
again become infusible. These cannot be reused. Some common
Bakelite examples are bakelite, urea-formaldelyde resins, etc.

15.1.5 Classifica The addition and condensation polymers are nowadays also referred as
tion Based chain growth polymers and step growth polymers depending on the
on Growth type of polymerisation mechanism they undergo during their formation.
Polymerisa-
tion

ntext Hestions
15.1 What are polymers ?
15.2 How are polymers classified on the basis of structure?

15.2 upes of There are two broad types of polymerisation reactions, ie., the addition
Dolymerisation or chain growth polymerisation and condensation or step growth
polymerisation.
Keactions
15.2.1 Addition In this type of polymerisation, the molecules of the same monomer or
diferent monomers add together on a large scale to form a polymer. 1he
Polymerisa-
tion or monomers used are unsaturated compounds, e.g., alkenes, alkadienes
Chain Growth and their derivatives. This mode of polymerisation leading to an increase
in chain length or chain growth can take place through the formation
Polymerisa of either free radicals or ionic species. However, the free radical governeu
tion
addition or chain growth polymerisation is the möst common mode.

Chemistry 428
 1. Free radical mechanism
A dienes and their derivatives are
variety of alkenes or polymerised
in the presence of free radical generating initiator (catalyst) like
a
benzoyl peroxide. acetyl peroxide. tert-butyl peroxide, etc. For
consists of
example, the polymerisation of ethene to polythene
small amount
heating or exposing to light a mixture of ethene with a
addition
the
of benzoyl peroxide initiator. The process starts with
ethene double
of phenyl free radical formed by the peroxide to the
bond thus generating a new and larger free
radical. This step is
with another
called chain initiating step. As this radical reacts
The
is formed.
molecule of ethene, another bigger sized radical
radicals carries the
repetition of this sequence with n e w and bigger
step.
reaction forward and the step is termed a s chain propagating
radical thus formed reacts
Ultimately, at some stage the product This step is
with another radical tò form the polymerised product.
called the chain terminating step. The sequence of steps may be
depicted as follows:
Chain initiation steps

cH-CO6t-cH, . 2cH,-Co- 2 H,
Phenyl radical
Benzoyl peroxide

C.H+CH-CH, CH,-CH,- CH,

Chain propagating step

C.H,-CH,- CH+ CH, =CH, CH,-CH-CH-CH,- CH

CH,fCH,- CH,,CH- CH,

Chain terminating step
For termination of the long chain, these free radicals can combine
in different ways to form polythene. One mode of termination of
chain is shown as under:

CH,+CH,-CH, CH, CH,

-

C.H,fCH,- CH,T, CH,-CH,- CH,FCH-CHC.H,

C,H,+CH,-CH, CH, -

CH,
2 Preparation of some important addition polymers

(a) Polythene
There aretypes of polythene a s given below:
two
Low density polythene: It is obtained by the polymerisation
of ethene under high pressure of 1000 to 2000 atnospheres
at a temperature of 350 K to 570 K in the presence of traces
of dioxygen or a peroxide initiator (catalyst). The low density

429: Polymers
 through the free
obtained addition
radical
n
polythene (LDP) branched structure.
and H-atom abstraction has highly
inert and tough but flexible
Low density polythene is chemically
Hence, it is used in the
and apoor conductor of electricity.
wires and manufacture of
insulation of electricity carrying
flexible pipes.
squeeze bottles, toys and
is formed when addition
(ii) High density polythene: It
in hydrocarbon solvent
polymerisation of ethene takes place
a
G. Natta of Inmperia and triethylaluminium and
in the presence of a catalyst such
as
Karl Ziegler of Germany at a temperature
titanium tetrachloride (Ziegler-Natta catalyst)
were awarded the Nobel
of 6-7 atmospheres.
Prize for Chemistry in of 333 K to 343 K and under a pressure
consists of linear
1963for the developnent High density polythene(HDP) thus produced,
of Ziegler-Natta catalyst. due to close packing. It is
molecules and has a high density
and hard. It is used for
also chemically inert and more tough
etc.
manufacturing buckets, dustbins. bottles, pipes,
(b) Polytetrafluoroethene (Teflon)
tetrafluoroethene with a free
Teflon is manufactured by heating
radical or persulphate catalyst at high pressures. It is chemically
Teflon coatings undergo corrosive reagents. It is used in
decomposition at inert and resistant to attack by
temperatures. above seals and and also used for n o n stick surface
gaskets
making oil
300 C. coated utensils.

Catalyst
n CF, CF High pressure Cr- CF,
Teflon
Tetrafluoroethene

(c) Polyacrylonitrile
The addition polymerisation of acrylonitrile in presence of a
Acrylic fibres have good peroxide catalyst leads to the formation of polyacrylonitrile.
resistance to stains,
chemicals. insects and
CN
fungi Polymerisation
n CH,CHCN
Peroxide catalyst CH-Hj.
Acrylonitrile Polyacrylonitrile
Polyacrylonitrile ís used as a substitute for wool in making
commercial fibres as orlon or acrilan.

15.2.2 Condensa- This type of polymerisation generally involves a repetitive condensation

tion Poly- reaction between two bi-functional monomers. These polycondensation
merisation reactions may result in the loss of some simple molecules as water.
or Step alcohol, etc., and lead to the formation of high molecular mass
Growth poly- condensation polymers
merisation In these reactions, the product of each step is again a bi-functional
species and the sequence of condensation goes on. Since, each step
produces a distinct functionalised species and is independent of each
other. this process is also called as step growth
polymerisation.
The formation of terylene or dacron by the interaction of ethylene
glycol and terephthalic acid is an example of this type of polymerisauo"

ChemistUy 430
 HOHC-CH,OH + n HOOC-K
n

Ethylene glycol
coOH
Terephthalic acid
oCH CH, o -t
(Ethane-1, 2 - diol) Terylene or dacron
(Benzene-1,4 di
carboxylic acld)
Some important condensation polymerisation reactions
characterised by their linking units are described below:
1. Polyamides
These polymers possessing amide linkages are important examples
of synthetic fibres and are termed as nylons. The general method of
preparation consists of the condensation polymerisation of diamines
with dicarboxylic acids and also of amino acids and their lactams.

Preparation of nylons
1) Nylon 6,6: It is
prepared by the condensation polymerisation
of
hexamethylenediamine with adipic acid under high pressure
and at high temperature.
H HO
nHOOC(CH,),COOH + n H,N (CH), NH, 553KtCH)J-
High pressure
CCH)-
Nylon 6,6

Nylon 6, 6 is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and

in textile industry.
(ii) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at
a high temperature.

HC C-O
HC CH 533-543K
H,O - (CH), N
HC-CH,
Caprolactam Nylon 6
Nylon 6 is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and
ropes.
2. Polyesters
These are the polycondensation products of
and diols. Dacron or terylene is the best known dicarboxylic acids
It is manufactured by heating a mixture of
example of polyesters.
ethylene glycol and
terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-
antimony trioxide catalyst as per the reaction given earlier. Dacron
fibre (terylene) is crease resistant and is used in
cotton and wool fibres and also as glass blending with
safety helmets, etc. reinforcing materials inn

431 Polymers
 (Bakelite and
polymers)
related
3. Phenol formaldehyde polymer
are the oldest synthetic polymers.
Phenol- formaldehyde polymers reaction ol phenol with
condensation
obtained by the
These are
acid o r a base catalyst,
of either a n
1ormaldehyde in the presence
formation of o-and/or
starts with the initial
further react with phenol
reaction
he derivatives, which
P-hydroxymethylphenol
to each other
joined through
form compounds having rings
to could be a linear product - Novolac
CH, groups. The initial product
used in paints.
OH
OH
OH OH
CH,OH HOH,C CH,OH
CH,OH
+CH,OHor +
OH
CHOH CH,OH

OH OH
OH OH
CH,OH
OH CH -CH CH, -CH
n

Novolac

c r o s s linking to
Novolac on heating with formaldehyde undergoes
form an infusible solid mass called bakelite. It is used for making
switches and handles of
combs, phonograph records, electrical
various utensils.
OH OH OH

HC- -CH,- -CH,1 CH

CH CH CH
- CH
HC CH- CH
OH OH
Bakelite
4. Melamine - formaldehyde polymer

Melamine formaldehyde polymer is formed by the condensation

polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde.

H,N NH H,N NHCH,OH

+HCHO
NN N
NH NH
Melamine Formaldehyde Resin intermediate

Chemistry 432
 Polymerlsation
HN NH-CH
NN
NH

Melamine polymer

It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.

ntext uestions
15.3 Write the names of monomers of the following polymeTs:

H H7
00tN-(CHJ-N-C-(CHJ,-C ((i) -(CH),-N()tCF,-CF, T
15.4 Classify the following as addition and condensation polymers: Terylene, Bakelite,
Polyvinyl chloride, Polythene.

15.2.3 Copolyme- Copolymerisation is a polymerisation reaction in which a mixture

of more than one monomeric species is allowed to polymerise and form
risation
a copolymer. The copolymer can be made not only by chain growth
polymerisation but by step growth polymerisation also. It contains
multiple units of each monomer used in the same polymeric chain.
For example. a mixture of 1, 3 - butadiene and styrene can forma

copolymer.

CH CH
CH-CH CH CH,-CH - CH,
n CH= CH CH CH, +

1.3-Butadiene Styrene Butadiene styrene copolymer

Copolymers have properties quite different from homopolymers. For

example, butadiene styrene copolymer is quite tough and is a good
substitute for natural rubber. It is used for the manufacture of autotyres,
floortiles, footwear components, cable insulation, etc.

15.2.4 Rubber 1. Natural rubber

Rubber is a natural polymer and possesses elastic properties. It
is also termed as elastomer and has a variety of uses. It is
manufactured from rubber latex which is a colloidal dispersion of
rubber in water. This latex is obtained from the bark of rubber tree
and is found in India, Srilanka, ndonesia, Malaysia and South
America.
Natural rubber may be considered as a linear polymer of
isoprene (2-methy1-1, 3-butadiene) and is also called as cis -1, 4.

polyisoprene.
433 Polymers
 H,C H
H,C
H,C
c =C CH,. CH C CH,
CH, CH
H,C
C-C H
Natural rubber
CH The cis-polyisoprene molecule consists of various chains held together
H,C C-CH CH, by weak van der Waals interactions and has a coiled structure. Thus,
Isoprene it can be stretched like a spring and exhibits elastie properties.
Vulcanisation of rubber: Natural rubber becomes soft at high
temperature (>335 K) and brittle at low temperatures (<283 and
shows high water absorption capacity. It is soluble in non-polar solvents
and is non-resistant to attack by oxidising agents. To improve upon
these physical properties, a process of vulcanisation is carried out. This
process consists of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and

an appropriate additive at a range between 373 K to 415 K.

temperature
On vulcanisation, sulphur forms cross links at the reactive sites of
double bonds and thus the rubber gets stiffened.
In the manufacture of tyre rubber, 5% of sulphur is used as a
crosslinking agent. The probable structures of vulcanised rubber
molecules are depicted below:
CH CH
CH-C = CH -CH,
CH,-C-CH-CH,
ww

S S S
CH,-C-CH -CH CH-CH = CH-CH
CH
2. Synthetic rubbers
Synthetic rubber is any vulcanisable rubber like polymer. which is
capable of getting stretched to twice its length. However, it returns
to its original shape and size as soon as the external stretching force
is released. Thus, synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of
1, 3 - butadiene derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its
derivatives with another unsaturated monomer.
Preparation of Synthetic Rubbers
1. Neoprene
Neoprene or polychloroprene is formed by the free radical
polymerisation of chloroprene.

CI CI
n CH C-CH-CH, PolymerisationC H c CH-CH,
Chloroprene
Neoprene
2-Chloro-1. 3-butadiene

It has superiór resistance to vegetable and mineral oils. It is used

for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses.

Chemistry 434
 2. Buna - N
You have already studied about Buna-S.
in Section 15.1.3. Buna
is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1, 3 - butadiene and
-N
acrylonitrile in the presence of a peroxide catalyst.

CN
CN
n CH, CH-CH CH+ nCH, H Copolymerisation CH-CH CH-CH,-CH-H
1.3-Butadiene Acrylonitrile Buna-N

It is resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic

solvents. It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc.

Intext uestions
15.5 Explain the difference between Buna-N and Buna-S.
15.6 ArTange the following polymers in inereasing order of their intermolecular forces.
(0 Nylon 6,6, Buna-S. Polythene.
i) Nylon 6, Neoprene. Polyvinyl chloride.

53 lolecular Polymer properties are closely related to their molecular mass, size and
structure. The growth of the polymer chain during their synthesis is
lass of
dependent upon the availability of the monomers in the reaction mixture.
Polmers Thus, the polymer sample contains chains of varying lengths and hence
its molecular mass is always expressed as an average. The molecular
mass of polymers can be determined by chemical and physical methods.

54 Biodegradable A large number of polymers are quite resistant to the environmental

degradation processes and are thus responsible for the accumulation
Dolymers of polymeric solid waste materials. These solid wastes cause acute
environmental problems and remain undegraded for quite a' long
time.
In view of the gerneral awareness and concern for the problems createed
by the polymeric solid wastes, certain new biodegradable synthetic
polymers have been designed and developed. These polymers contain
functional groups similar to the functional groups present in
biopolymers.
Aliphatic polyesters are one of the important classes of biodegradable
polymers. Some important examples are given below:
1. Poly B-hydroxybutyrate co-ß-hydroxy valerate (PHBv
-

It is obtained by the
copolymerisation of
and 3 - hydroxypentanoic acid. PHBV is used3-hydroxybutanoic
acid
in speciality
orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs. packaging.
PHBV
undergoes bacterial degradation in the environment.
PH H
CH,-CH-CH-COOH +
CH,CH,-CH-CH,-COO1 -CH-CH,C 0-CH-CH, C
CH CH,CH, Oo
3-Hydroxybutanoic acid 3-Hydroxypentanoic acid
PHBV

435 Polymers
 2.Nylon 2-nylon6 of glycine (H,N-CH, -COOH
It is an alternating polyamide copolymer and is biodegradable
COOH)
and amino caproic acid [H,N (CH,)
of this copolymer?
Can you write the structure

discussed, some other commercially

I5.5 Polymers of Besides, the polymers already
their structures and uses are given
important polymers along with
Commercial below in Table 15.1.
Importance
Table 15.1: Some Other Commercially Important Polymers

Name of Polymer Monome ructn

CH Manufacture of
Polypropene Propene
fCH CH ropes, toys, pipes
fibres, etc.
CHs As insulator, wrapping
Polystyrene Styrene
fCH CH material. manufacture
of toys, radio and
television cabinets.
CI
Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl chloride Manufacture of rain
(PVC) fCH H coats, hand bags, vinyl
flooring. water pipes.
Urea-formaldehyle (a) Urea For making unbreak-
Resin (b) Formaldehyde fNH-CO-NH-CH, able cups and
laminated sheets.
Glyptal (a) Ethylene glycol-foCH-CH,O0C
(b) Phthalic acid coManufacture of
paints and lacquers.

Bakelite (a) Phenol 0-H -H For making combs

(b) Formaldehyde CH, electrical switches,
handles of utensils and
computer discs.