1

LECTURE 11

REFRIGERATION
Chapter 15
 2

Refrigeration in HVAC
• Every HVAC system depends on a refrigeration system to provide either
a cold liquid such as water or brine or a direct removal of sensible and
latent heat from an airstream.

• Refrigeration systems that also provide heating for HVAC systems are
commonly called heat pumps.

• Refrigeration is a specialization separate from HVAC system design,

but the control and performance of HVAC systems are significantly
affected by the performance of the refrigeration system.

• All HVAC engineers need to have a basic knowledge of refrigeration.

• This knowledge helps HVAC engineers in selection of refrigeration

equipment and allows to fit the equipment properly into overall system.
 3

Greenhouse effect
• Certain refrigerants widely used in the HVAC industry contribute to
the depletion of atmospheric ozone and global warming.

• Major industrial countries have agreed on schedules to stop or reduce

the production of those refrigerants.

• Restrictive regulations on refrigerant production, recovery, and

release have been issued and taxes have been assessed to
discourage the use of some refrigerants.

• Manufacturers are attempting to find substitutes for the refrigerants

that must be replaced and to design equipment that will function
acceptably with these new substitutes.

• There has been renewed interest in ammonia and absorption systems

because of environmental concerns.
 4

Coefficient of Performance
• Instantaneous performance of any refrigerating system when used for cooling
is expressed in terms of the cooling coefficient of performance defined as:

𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡

𝐶𝑂𝑃𝑐 =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

• Refrigerating systems used for heating are referred to as heat pumps, and
may be evaluated in terms of heating coefficient of performance:
𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
𝐶𝑂𝑃ℎ =
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

• I ton of refrigeration is equal to removal of 12,000 Btu of heat per hour, or

removal of 12,660 kJ of heat per hour

ℎ𝑝 12000 𝐵𝑡𝑢/(𝑡𝑜𝑛 − ℎ𝑟) 4.72

= =
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑂𝑃 [2545Btu/(hp-hr)] 𝐶𝑂𝑃

𝑘𝑊 12000 𝐵𝑡𝑢/(𝑡𝑜𝑛 − ℎ𝑟) 3.52

= =
𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑂𝑃 [3412Btu/(kW-hr)] 𝐶𝑂𝑃
 5

Reversible cycle
• In studying the performance of refrigeration cycles, the concept
of the thermodynamically reversible cycle is useful.

• Two important characteristics of a reversible cycle are as

follows:

1. No refrigeration cycle can have a higher COP than that of

a reversible cycle operating between the same source and
sink temperatures.

2. All reversible refrigeration cycles operated between the

same source and sink temperatures have identical COP’s.
 6

Carnot refrigeration cycle

• Carnot refrigeration cycle consists of two reversible isothermal processes and two reversible
adiabatic (or isentropic) processes

• All heat is absorbed at the lower (evaporator) temperature Te in process 2 →3 at constant

temperature

• All heat is rejected at a constant higher (condenser) temperature Tc in process 4→1 at

Correct in book. This
constant temperature should be Te

For heating (as with a heat pump), the cycle

would look the same but the objective would
be different and heating coefficient of
performance is: Correct in book.
This should be T
c

The refrigerating efficiency η is the ratio of

the coefficient of performance of a cycle/
system to that of an ideal cycle/ system:
 7

Theoretical single-stage vapor compression cycle

• This is a realistic cycle, not as efficient as the ideal Carnot cycle.

• Flow through the expansion valve, process 1→2, is an irreversible

throttling process where an opportunity to produce useful work is lost.

• Heat rejection in process 4→1 does not occur at constant temperature.

• Even this non-ideal cycle is not a practical reality.

• However, it is simple, shows useful trends

and it can be modified to closely
approximate real systems.

• Refrigerant entering the compressor (pt. 3)

is assumed to be dry saturated vapor at
the evaporator pressure.

• Point 3 is a convenient place to begin an

analysis, because we can easily determine
all fluid properties here.
 8

Theoretical vapor compression cycle contd.

• The compression process is assumed to be reversible adiabatic (isentropic),
and is continued until the condenser pressure is reached.

• Point 4 is obviously in the superheated vapor region. The process 4→1 is

carried out at constant pressure with the temperature of the vapor decreases
to get saturated vapor (point 4‘).

• Then the process is both at constant temperature and at constant pressure

during the condensation from 4' to 1.
 9

• At point 1 the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid.

• It is then expanded through a throttling valve, where partial evaporation
occurs as the pressure drops across the valve.

• The throttling process 1-2 is isenthalpic and irreversible, with an increase in

entropy.

• For this reason the process is shown as a dashed line in Fig. 15-2.
 10
Theoretical vapor compression cycle contd.
• To determine the coefficient of performance of this cycle, the useful refrigerating
effect and the net energy input must be determined.

• For steady flow of one unit mass of refrigerant, as throttling is isenthalpic, i2 = i1

• Useful refrigerating effect = q23 = i3 – i2 = i3 - i1

• Net energy input = w34 = i4 – i3

𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖3−𝑖𝑖1

• Therefore, 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑐𝑐 = =
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑖𝑖4−𝑖𝑖3
 11

Ex. 15-2
A vapor compression refrigeration cycle uses R-22 and follows the theoretical
single-stage cycle. The condensing temperature is 48 C, and the evaporating
temperature is -18 C. The power input to the cycle is 2.5 kW, and the mass flow
rate of refrigerant is 0.05 kg/s. Determine (a) the heat rejected from the
condenser, (b) the coefficient of performance, (c) the enthalpy at the
compressor exit, and (d) the refrigerating efficiency.

48 C

-18 C
12
13
 14

Refrigerant
• Fluid used for energy exchanges in a refrigerating or heat pump system is
called the refrigerant.

• Refrigerant usually absorbs heat while undergoing a phase change (in the
evaporator) and then is compressed to a higher pressure and a higher
temperature, allowing it to transfer that energy (in the condenser) directly or
indirectly to the atmosphere or to a medium being purposefully heated.
• A refrigerant's suitability for a given application
depends on many factors including its
thermodynamic, physical, and chemical
properties, and its safety.

• Significance of each characteristic varies from

one application to the next.

• There is no ideal refrigerant for all applications.

 15

Thermodynamic characteristics
1. High latent enthalpy of vaporization. This means a large refrigerating effect
per unit mass of the refrigerant circulated. In small-capacity systems;
however, the resulting low flow rate may actually lead to problems.

2. Low freezing temperature. The refrigerant must not solidify during normal
operating conditions.

3. Relatively high critical temperatures. Large amounts of power would

otherwise be required for compression.

4. Positive evaporating pressure. Pressure in the evaporator should be above

atmospheric to prevent air from leaking into the system.

5. Relatively low condensing pressure. Otherwise expensive piping and

equipment will be required.
 16

Physical and chemical characteristics

1. High dielectric strength of vapor. This permits use in hermetically sealed
compressors where vapor may come in contact with motor windings.

2. Good heat-transfer characteristics. Thermo-physical properties (density,

specific heat, thermal conductivity, and viscosity) should be such that high heat
transfer coefficients can be obtained.

3. Satisfactory oil solubility. Oil can dissolve in some refrigerants and some
refrigerants can dissolve in oil. This can affect lubrication and heat-transfer
characteristics and lead to oil logging in the evaporator.

4. Low water solubility. Water in a refrigerant can lead either to freeze-up in the
expansion devices or to corrosion.

5. Inertness and stability. The refrigerant must not react with materials that will
contact it, and its own chemical makeup must not change with time.
 17

Safety
1. Non-inflammability. The refrigerant should not burn or support combustion
when mixed with air.

2. Non-toxicity. The refrigerant should not be harmful to humans, either directly

or indirectly through foodstuffs.

3. Non-irritability. The refrigerant should not irritate humans (eyes, lungs, skin).

Effect on the environment

1. Ozone depletion potential (ODP). The refrigerant's potential to deplete the
ozone in the upper atmosphere should be low.

2. Global warming potential (GWP).The refrigerant's potential to persist in the

upper atmosphere and to trap the radiation emitted by the earth (the
greenhouse effect) should be low.
 18

• The safety of all types of products has received increased emphasis lately,
and refrigerants are no exception.

• Figure 15-3 shows refrigerant safety group classifications, consisting of two

alphanumeric characters.

• The capital letter indicates the level of toxicity, and the Arabic numeral
denotes the level of flammability.
• Refrigerants generally are from one of
four classes of elements or compounds:

(i) halocarbons,
(ii) hydrocarbons,
(iii) organic, and
(iv) inorganic.

• Halocarbons make up the bulk of the

refrigerants used in the HVAC industry.

• Many of these refrigerants are referred to

as "Freons”.
19
 20

ASHRAE designation system

1. The first digit on the right is the number of fluorine (F) atoms in the compound.

2. The second digit from the right is one more than the number of hydrogen (H)
atoms in the compound.
3. The third digit from the right is one less than the number of carbon (C) atoms
in the compound. When this digit is zero, it is omitted from the number.
4. Blends are designated by their respective refrigerant numbers and weight
proportions, named in the order of increasing normal boiling points of the
components, for e. g. R-22/12.

Example: R-11
The one carbon atom indicates a methane, and since there is only one fluorine
atom and no hydrogen atoms, there must be three chlorine atoms to complete
the structure. Thus R-11 is trichlorofluoromethane, or CCl3F.
 21

Ex. 15-3 solved.

Determine the ASHRAE number designation for dichlorotetrafluoroethane,
CClF2 - CClF2

Sol. There are four fluorine atoms, no hydrogen atoms, and two carbon atoms
per molecule:
(2- 1) (0 + 1) (4)

Thus the ASHRAE designation is R-114.

 22

Zeotropes and Azeotropes

• Zeotropes are blends comprising of multiple components of different volatilities
that, when used in refrigeration cycles, change volumetric composition and
saturation temperatures as they evaporate (boil) or condense at constant pressure.

• Should some of the refrigerant blend leak from a system, the composition of the
remaining refrigerant is changed.

• Temperature of the refrigerant changes as it boils or condenses at constant

pressure.

• An azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its composition
cannot be changed by simple distillation. This is because when an azeotrope is
boiled, the resulting vapor has the same ratio of constituents as the original mixture.

• The glide (usually defined for a zeotrope) is the absolute value of the difference
between the starting and ending temperatures of a phase change process by a
refrigerant within a component of a refrigerating system, exclusive of any
subcooling or superheating.
 23

ASHRAE designation system contd.

5. Zeotropic blends that have been commercialized are assigned an
identifying number in the 400 series accompanied by the weight
proportions of the components, for example R-400(90/10) for mixtures of
R-12 and R-114.
6. Azeotropes that have been commercialized are assigned an identifying
number in the 500 series with no composition shown.
7. Organic refrigerants are assigned serial numbers in the 600 series.
8. Inorganic compounds are designated by adding 700 to their molecular
mass; for example, water is 718.
9. The letter C is used before number designations to identify cyclic
derivatives. Lowercase letters are appended after numbers to distinguish
isomers - refrigerants with the same chemical composition but with
differing molecular structures.
24
 25

Refrigeration equipment components

• First distinction among different types is whether the evaporator is used
to directly cool the airstream as in direct-expansion (DX) coil systems, or
whether the evaporator cools water or brine as in chillers.

• The use of chillers is more common in larger commercial equipment,

especially where the energy is to be moved over large distances.

• Second classification is based on whether the equipment operates on

the compression or the absorption principle.

• Both types of systems have evaporators and condensers.

• Compression systems differ from the absorption system in having one or

more compressors, and in their expansion and refrigerant control
devices.
 26

Compressors
• Two basic types: positive displacement and dynamic.

• Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the

refrigerant vapor by reducing the volume, e.g. reciprocating, rotary,
scroll, and trochoidal.

• Dynamic compressors increase the pressure of refrigerant vapor by a

continuous transfer of angular momentum to the vapor from the
rotating member followed by a conversion of this momentum into a
pressure rise, e.g., centrifugal compressor.

• Most reciprocating compressors are single-acting, using pistons

driven directly through a pin and connecting rod from the crankshaft.

• Double-acting compressors are not extensively used.

 27

Reciprocating Compressors
• The pressure in the cylinder is assumed constant during the exhaust process
(Pc = Pd) and during the intake process (Pa = Pb).

• The gas remaining in the clearance volume Vd expands in a polytropic process

from state d to state a.

• State b is generally different from

that at a because of the mixing of
the expanded clearance volume
vapor and the intake vapor.

• The vapor is compressed from state

b to state c in a polytropic process.

• Heat transfer may occur during the

exhaust process c-d .
 28

Assumptions
1. The same polytropic exponent n applies to the compression process b-c
and the expansion process d-a.

2. Heat transfer during the exhaust process is negligible; therefore, states c

and d are identical.

3. The state of the mixture of re-expanded

clearance volume gas a and the intake gas 3
is the same as state b and is designated as a'.

• Assumption 3 is a result of assumptions 1 and

2 above.

• Note that the work required to compress the

clearance volume vapor is just balanced by the
work done in the expansion of the clearance
volume vapor.
 29

Volumetric efficiency
Volumetric efficiency ηv = Actual mass of the vapor compressed / mass of
vapor that could be compressed if intake volume equaled the piston
displacement and vapor at the beginning of the compression were at state 3.

Error: Change this subscript to b

 30

Compressor work

• Although the polytropic exponent n must be determined experimentally, it may

be approximated by the isentropic exponent k when other data are not
available.

• Typical values are k = 1.30 for R-134a and k =1.16 for R-22.
 31

• Figure 15-7 shows

representative performance
data for a hermetic compressor
operating with Refrigerant 22.

• Manufacturers furnish
performance data in this form or
as a table.
 32

Ex 15-4
Consider a reciprocating compressor operating with R-134a. Refrigerant
enters the cylinder at 20 psia and 20 F, but leaves the evaporator saturated at
0.5 F. The vapor is discharged from the cylinder at 180 psia. Compute the
volumetric efficiency for
(a) a clearance factor of 0.03, and
(b) a clearance factor of 0.15.
(c) Compare the mass flow rates for parts (a) and (b), and
(d) compare the power input to the compressor in parts (a) and (b).

180 psia

20 psia, 20F
33
 34

3
20 psia