Zamorin

The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: Sāmūtiri,

Arabic: Sāmuri,[2] Portuguese: Samorim, Dutch: Samorijn, Zamorin of Calicut
Chinese: Shamitihsi[3]) was the hereditary monarch of the 1124 CE–1806 CE
kingdom of Kozhikode (Calicut) on the South Malabar region of
India. Calicut was one of the important trading ports on the
south-western coast of India. At the peak of their reign, the
Zamorins ruled over a region from Kollam (Quilon) to
Chera king's Sword given to the
Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy).[4][5]
Zamorin of Calicut. Engraved from an
original sketch.
It was after the dissolution of the kingdom of Cheras of
Kodungallur in the early 12th century, the Samanthan Nair Eradis
of Nediyiruppu (originally autonomous chiefs of Eranadu)
demonstrated their political independence under the title of
Zamorin.[6] The Zamorins maintained elaborate trade relations
with the Muslim Middle-Eastern sailors in the Indian Ocean, the
primary spice traders on the Malabar Coast in the Middle Ages.
Calicut was then an important entrepôt in south-western India
where Chinese and West Asian trade met.[1]

The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political

position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and
Kochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the
traders from various parts of the world would gather.[7] The
Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama visited Quilandy in 1498,
opening the sailing route directly from Europe to South Asia.[8]
The port at Kozhikode acted as the gateway to medieval South The Zamorin of Calicut (1495–1500)
Indian coast for the Arabs, the Chinese, the Portuguese, the on his throne as painted by Veloso
Salgado in 1898
Dutch, and finally the British.[9] The Portuguese efforts to lay the
foundations to Estado da Índia, and to take complete control over Status Kingdom
the commerce was repeatedly hampered by the forces of Zamorin Capital Calicut
of Calicut. The Kunjali Marakkars, the famous Muslim warriors,
were the naval chiefs of Calicut. By the end of the 16th century Common languages Malayalam
the Portuguese – now commanding the spice traffic on the Religion Hinduism
Malabar Coast – had succeeded in replacing the Muslim
Government Feudal
merchants in the Arabian Sea. The Dutch supplanted the Monarchy
Portuguese in the 17th century, who in turn were supplanted by
the British.[10] History
• Dissolution of the 1124 CE
Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by Cheras of
defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Cranganore[1]
Purakkad in 1755.[11] In 1766, Haider Ali of Mysore defeated • East India Company 1806 CE
the Zamorin of Calicut – an East India Company ally at the time Currency Kozhikode
– and absorbed Calicut to his state.[5][12] After the Third Mysore Panam
War (1790–1792), Malabar District was placed under the control
Preceded Succeeded by
of the company. Eventually, the status of the Zamorin was
by
reduced to that of a pensioner of the company (1806).[5][13]
 Chera Company
dynasty rule in India
Contents
Today part of India
Etymology
Seats of power
Calicut
Panthalayini Kollam
Caste and line of succession
History
Rulers of Eranadu
Expansions to central Kerala
Expansions to Kochi
Vijayanagara conquests
Relations with Yuan and Ming China
Relations with the Portuguese
Relations with the Dutch and English
Mysore occupation and settlement negotiations
Governance
Sarvadhi Karyakkar
Shahbandar Koya
Revenue and trade
Military
Kunjali Marakkars
List of Calicut Zamorins
First dynasty
Second Dynasty
Zamorin family today
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The title zamorin first appears in the writings of Ibn Battuta in 1342.[14] In the Portuguese Book of Duarte
Barbosa (c. 1516), the title of the ruler of Calicut is given as çamidre or zomodri, derived from the local
Malayalam sāmūtiri. In Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II in 16th century CE, the
word is pronounced as Sāmuri.[2] This was once thought to be derived from Sanskrit samudra ("sea") and
have the meaning "lord of the sea". In fact, the term derives from Sanskrit svami and sri (which in combined
form becomes tiri),[15] which Krishna Iyer glosses as "emperor". He gives the complete title as Svami Tiri
Tirumulapad ("august emperor").[14]
The Zamorins used the title Punturakkon or Punthurakon
(Victor/Lord of Punthura?) in inscriptions from c. 1100, Mangalore

in palace records known as the Granthavaris, and in Bangalore

Chandragiri
official treaties with the English and the Dutch. No Hosdurg
Bekal
Seringapatam
Mysore
records indicate the actual personal name of the ruler.[5]
Mount D'eli
Punthura may be the place of their origin, or a battle- Cannanore

field, or a port of great fame. The title "Kunnalakkon" Tellicherry

Mahé
Puthupattanam/Kottakkal Sultan's
Battery
("Lord of Hills and Waves") and its Sanskrit form (Quilandy)Panthalayani Tamarassery
Kollam
"Shailabdhishvara" are mostly found in later literary Calicut Nilambur
Nediyiruppu
works (such as Manipravalam and Sanskrit poems).[16] Tanur Malappuram
Tirunavaya Angadippuram
Coimbatore

Karimpuzha
Ponnani Palghat
Perumpadappu

Seats of power Chetwai Trichur

Dindigul
Pappinivattom
Cranganore
Pallipuram
Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani served as a second Cochin
Edapally
Diamper
home for the Zamorins of Calicut.[5][17] Other secondary
seats of the Zamorin of Calicut, all established at much Alleppey
later time, were Trichur (Thrissur) and Cranganore Porca

(Kodungallur).[5] Kayamkulam Quilon

(Kurakkeni
Kollam)

The chief Kerala ports under control of the Zamorins in Tangasseri

Attingal Tinnevelly

the late 15th century were Panthalayini Kollam, and Trivandrum

Anjengo
Calicut. The Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of
Colachel
his revenues by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Cape
Comorin
Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam Major locations associated with the history of the
(Kottakkal), Parappanangadi, Tanur (Tanore), Ponnani Kingdom of Calicut
(Ponani), Chetuva (Chetwai) and Kodungallur
(Cranganore). The port of Beypore served as a
ship building center.[5][17]

Calicut
The port at Calicut held the superior
economic and political position in
Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi
and Kannur (Cannanore) were
commercially confined to secondary
roles.[7] Travellers have called the city
by different names – variations of the
Malayalam name. The travellers from
Middle-East called it "Kalikooth",
Tamils called the city "Kallikkottai", for
the Chinese it was "Kalifo" or "Quli".[18] Thali Temple (1901), Calicut
In the Middle Ages, Calicut was
dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role
as the major trading point of Asian spices.[19] The Chinese and Middle-Eastern interests in
Malabar, the political ambition of the newly emergent rulers, i.e., the Zamorins, and the decline
of port Kodungallur (c. 1341 AD[7]), etc. boosted the prosperity of the port.[13] The rise of
Calicut, both the port and the state, seems to have taken place only after the 13th century
AD.[18]
Calicut, despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot, owed much of its
prosperity to the economic policies of the Zamorins of Calicut.[18][20]
 Trade at port Calicut was managed by
the Muslim port commissioner known
as the Shah Bandar Koya. The port
commissioner supervised the customs
on the behalf of the king, fixed the
prices of the commodities and
collected the share to the Calicut
treasury.[17]
The name of the famous fine variety of
cotton cloth called calico is also
thought to have derived from Calicut.[5]

Panthalayini Kollam
Also known as "Fandarina" (Ibn Thali Temple, present day, Kozhikode
Batutah), and "Shaojunan" (Daoyi
Zgilue).[21]
Located north of Calicut, close to a bay. The geographical location is ideal for the wintering of
ships during the annual monsoon rains.[22]
Presence of Chetti, Arab and Jewish merchants among others.[23]

Caste and line of succession

According to K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Calicut, the members of the royal house of Zamorin
belonged the Eradi sub caste of Nair aristocracy.[24][6] The Samantas claimed a status higher than the rest of
the Nairs.[5] The Hindu theological formula that the rulers must be of Kshatriya varna may have been a
complication for the Samantas of the Kodungallur Chera monarch. So the Samantas – already crystallized as a
distinctive social group, something of a "sub-caste" – began to style themselves as "Samanta Kshatriyas".[13]
The Samantas have birth, marriage and death customs identical to other Nair community.[16]

In the royal family, thalis of the princesses were usually tied by Kshatriyas from Kodungallur chief's family,
which the Zamorin recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The women's sambandham partners
were Nambudiri Brahmins or Kshatriyas.[25][26] Royal men married Samantan or other Nair women.
Zamorin's consort was dignified by the title "Naittiyar".[27]

The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the swaroopam. The rulers
of Calicut belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest
male member of Nediyirippu swaroopam became the Zamorin of Calicut. There was a set pattern of
succession, indicated by sthanams in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Calicut. These positions
were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different thavazhis of the swaroopam and
constituted what is called in the records as "kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Cochin (Kochi), there was no
rotation of position among the thavazhis. Thus no particular thavazhi enjoyed any privilege or precedence in
the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.[13]

Five sthanams existed in Calicut, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior
members of the three kovilakams of the family.[5]

1. 1st sthanam: the Zamorin of Calicut

2. 2nd sthanam: Eranadu Ilamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Eralppadu). Second in line
successor to the throne. Eralppadu's seat was in Karimpuzha (in the northeastern region of the
 present-day Palakkad district). This area of Malabar was annexed from Valluvanadu in the
leadership of the then Eralppadu.
3. 3rd sthanam: Eranadu Moonnamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpad (the Munalpadu)
4. 4th sthanam: Edattaranadu Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Etatralpadu) - mentioned in the
Manjeri Pulapatta inscription as the overlord of the "Three Hundred" Nairs.[16] The Etatralpadu
used to reside in a palace at Edattara near Manjeri.[16]
5. 5th sthanam: Nediyiruppu Mootta Eradi Thirumulpadu (the Naduralpadu). Naduralpadu was
the former head of the house (Eranadu chief under the Cheras of Kodungallur[5]).

The three thavazhis were:

1. Kizhakke Kovilakam (Eastern Branch)

2. Padinhare Kovilakam (Western Branch)
3. Puthiya Kovilakam (New Branch)

The senior female member of the whole Zamorin family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a sthanam with
separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.[5] Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Calicut,
and the oldest male member traced the female becomes the next Zamorin.[5]

A panorama of port Calicut, shows several types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy traffic and a rugged,
sparsely populated interior (Georg Braun and Franz Hogenbergs atlas Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572).

History
Brahmanic legends such as the Keralolpathi (compiled in its final form c. 17th - 18 century) and the Calicut
Granthavari recount the events leading to establishment of the state of Calicut.[5]
There were two brothers belonging to the Eradi ruling
family at Nediyiruppu. The brothers Manichan and
Vikraman were the most trusted warriors in the militia of
the Kodungallur Cheras.[28][29] They distinguished
themselves in the battles against the foreigners. However,
during the partition of Chera kingdom, the Chera
monarch failed to allocate any land to Nediyiruppu.
Filled with guilt, the king later gave an unwanted piece
of marshy tract of land called Kozhikode to the younger
brother Vikraman (the elder brother died in the battle).
The king also gifted his personal sword and his favourite
prayer conch – both broken – to him and told him to
occupy as much as land as he could with all his might.
The Chera king granted the Eradi warrior, as a
So the Eradis conquered neighbouring kingdoms and
mark of favour, a small tract of land ("Kozhikode
created a large state for themselves. As a token of their and Chullikkadu").
respect to the Chera king, they adopted the logo of two
crossed swords, with a broken conch in the middle and a
lighted lamp above it.[5][16]

Durate Barbosa, in the early 16th century, mentions the

Cheraman sword among the three swords and other royal
emblems of the Zamorin usually taken out in ceremonial
processions. The sword was worshipped by the
Zamorins in their private temple everyday and especially
at the time of the coronation. The Cheraman sword was
burnt in a surprise attack by the Dutch at Kodungallur
(1670) while the Zamorin was residing with Velutha
Nambiyar. A new sword was made in 1672 out of the
fragments of the old. The broken parts of the 1672
sword, kept in a fully sealed copper sheath, are still
worshipped daily in the Bhagavathi temple attached to
the palace of the Zamorins at Thiruvachira.[16]

Rulers of Eranadu
India in early 1320 CE. Note that most of the parts
Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorin of of present-day state of Kerala was under the
Calicut are obscure. However, it is generally agreed influence of the Zamorin of Kozhikode.
among historians the Eradis were originally the
autonomous rulers of Eralnadu/Eranadu region of the
Kodungallur Chera kingdom.[5][1][16] The Kodungallur Chera kingdom was a congeries of chiefdoms, which
were ruled by local chiefs. The office of the chief/senior prince of Eranad (Eralanadu Utaya) is assumed to be
the hereditary.[5][1] The earliest reference to the chief and chiefdom of Eranad is the Cochin Jewish copper
plate (c. 1000 AD). Old Malayalam inscriptions name two titles for the rulers of Eranad - Manvepala
Manaviyata ( c. 11 century) and Manavikrama (c. 12th century). In the later period, Manavikrama, Manaveda
and Viraraya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always being
known as Manavikrama. Historians assume that Manaveda might be a corruption of the old Malayalam title
"Manaviyata".[16] Scholars tentatively identify Manaviyata and Manavikrama with the titles of the elder and
younger brothers of the famous origin legend.[16]
The strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu was "Six Hundred". Hundred
organisations with same capacity are also found in Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu, and Venadu.
Scholars comes across only one nadu with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven
Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred of Purakizhanadu, Three Hundred of Nantuzhanadu,
etc., are available.[5][1]

The following table shows available inscriptions mentioning the rulers of Eranad.
Inscription[30] Year Notes
An old Malayalam royal charter in
Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts. Among
others, the chief of Eralanadu, Eralanadu
Utaya "Manavepala Mana Viyatan", is a
signatory in the charter.[16]

As per the charter, while residing at

Chera capital Kodungallur, king
Bhaskara Ravi granted Jewish
merchant Joseph Rabban a plate
giving him the proprietorship of the
merchant guild Anchuvannam and
other 72 special trade privileges.
Rabban was also exempted from all
Cochin payments made by other settlers in the
Jewish town to the king, and in-turn, all the
copper plate
of Kodungallur c. 1000 AD rights of other settlers in the town were
Chera king extended to him. The document was
Bhaskara Ravi attested by the chief feudatories of the
(c. 962–1021) Chera king - Govardhana Marthanda
(Venadu), Kotha Chirikanthan
(Venpalinadu), Manavepala Mana
Viyatan (Eralanadu), Rayiran Chathan
(Valluvanadu), Kotha Ravi
(Netumpurayur-nadu) - and Murkan
Chathan the commander of the eastern
forces.[16]

Anchuvannam was a merchant guild in

Kerala organised by Jewish, Christian
and Muslim merchants from the Middle
East.[16]

Kollam AD 1102 An old Malayalam royal order in Vattezhuthu

Rameshwaram and Grantha scripts.[16]
temple
inscription of The Chera king Rama Kulasekhara,
Kodungallur residing at Kollam, sitting in royal
Chera king
Ramavarma council with Arya Brahmins of the
Kulasekhara (c. temple, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the
1089 - 1122) Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the
Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of
Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama -
the chief of Eranadu, and other
 feudatories, made amends for (some)
offence against the Arya Brahmins by
donating paddy for daily feeding the
Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal
for that purpose to Venadu chief
Kumara Udaya Varma.[16]

A temple inscription recording a resolution

of the village council (Urutayavai) of
Karimukku. The council prescribed a
punishment for those who obstructed the
Anandapuram
Anandapuram temple functionaries or
temple Immediate post-Chera
pilfered away temple properties and
inscription, Period
prevented the temple rituals. In addition to
Thrissur
paying a fine, the offenders would forfeit
their place in the assembly and their right to
protection from the Eranadu Nizhal
(warriors).[31]
An old Malayalam inscription in Vattezhuthu
and Grantha scripts.[16]
Undated
Trichambaram The chief of Eranadu Manavepala
temple Mana Viyatan creates an endowment
inscription
(c. 11th century AD)
for Tiruvilakku at Trichambaram
temple.[16]

An old Malayalam temple inscription in

Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.[16]

The Six Hundred of Eralanadu and the

Three Hundred of Etattirai Nadu,
Pulpatta among others, make provision for "uttu"
temple Undated (c.11th century by assigning land to the Pulpatta
inscription, AD)
Manjeri temple. Fine is prescribed for the
violation of the rules. The Uralar are
authorised to take over from Pattavalan
(officer in charge of collection) in case
of obstruction.[16]

The plates records the grant of certain

privileges, concessions and monopolies to
Iravi Korthan, the chief of merchant guild
Manigramam in Kodungallur. It closes with
the statement that it was "issued with the
Syrian knowledge of Venadu, Odanadu, Eranadu
Christian
AD 1225 and Valluvanadu"[16][13]
copper plates
of Viraraghava Manigramam was a famous merchant
guild (active in southern India and
south-east Asia) organised by native
Indians.[16]

Muchundi 13th century An old Malayalam - Arabic stone inscription

mosque in Vattezhuthu and Arabic.[16] Punthurakkon
inscription of (ruler of Eranad) creates an endowment for
Punthurakkon the Muchundi Mosque.[32] As per the Arabic
 portion certain Shihab-ud-Din Raihan - a
freed slave (atiq) of late Mas'ud - purchased
land and constructed the mosque.[33]
Although there is no solid basis for the famous partition legend (the
Cheraman Perumal tradition) surrounding the end of Kodungallur
Cheras, it is a possibility that following the mysterious disappearance
of the ruler, the land was "partitioned" and that the governors of
different nadus asserted independence, proclaiming it as their gift from
the last overlord.[5][1]

There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led
to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Calicut, their later seat. Some
historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the
Pepper
last Kodungallur Chera king as he was at the forefront of the battles
with the Chola–Pandya forces in south Kerala. The Eradi seems to
have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as
a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast Calicut in
addition to his hereditary possessions [Eralanadu province]. The
Eradis subsequently moved their seat to the coastal "marshy lands"
and established the city of Calicut.[16]

To corroborate his assertion that Eradi prince was a member of the

inner circle of the last Chera king Rama Kulasekhara (c. 1089 - 1122),
scholars cites an old Malayalam inscription (AD 1102) found on a
granite pillar set up in the courtyard of the Ramashwaram temple,
Kollam. According to the inscription, the king, residing at Panainkavu
Palace at Kurakkeni Kollam, sitting in council with Arya Brahmins,
the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the
Ginger Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon
Manavikrama - the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made
prayaschittam for (some) offence against the Arya Brahmins by
donating paddy for daily feeding the Brahmins and leasing out a
Cherikkal for that purpose to Venadu chief Kumaran Udaya
Varma.[34][35][16]

Expansions to central Kerala

Keralolpathi describes the events following the gift of Calicut to the

Cardamom Eradi prince.[36]

Kozhikode and its suburbs formed part of Polanadu ruled by

Polarthiri. The Eradi marched with his Nairs towards Panniyankara and besieged the Polarthiri at his base,
resulting in a 48-year-long standoff. The Eradi was unsuccessful, and then he propitiated the Bhagavati,
bribed the followers of Polarthiri and even the consort of the ruler of Polanadu and won them to his side.
Learning of this treachery Polarthiri fled from Kozhikode. The Eradi emerged victorious and shifted his seat
from Nediyiruppu to Kozhikode - then also called "Thrivikramapuram". The Eradis built a fort (Koyil Kotta)
at a place called "Velapuram" (port) to safeguard their new interests.[36][5]

The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Calicut. The Zamorin became
one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala.[5] In some of his military campaigns – such as that into Valluvanadu
– the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors.[13] It seems that the
Muslim judge of Calicut offered all help in "money and material" to the Zamorin to strike at Thirunavaya.[5]
Smaller chiefdoms south of Calicut – Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur (Vettam) – soon had to
submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, Kurumbranadu, and other Nair
chiefs on the suburbs of Calicut also acknowledged the supremacy of Calicut. There were battles between
Calicut and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in
early times, and was eventually given as a "royal gift" to Calicut. Calicut easily overran the Kurumbranadu
warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.[5]

The ruler of Calicut next turned his attention to the valley of Perar.
Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the
ancient hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of
Calicut was the capture the sacred settlement of Thirunavaya. Soon
the Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called
kurmatsaram between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur.
In the most recent event, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu
had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of
Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and
raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by
its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri
appealed to the ruler of Calicut for help, and promised to cede the port
of Ponnani to Calicut as the price for his protection. Calicut, looking
for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.[5]

Assisted by the warriors of their subordinate chiefs (Chaliyam,

Beypore, Tanur and Kodungallur) and the Muslim naval fleet under Modern replica of the stele installed
the Koya of Calicut, the Zamorin's fighters advanced by both land at Calicut by Zheng He. Seen along
and sea.[5] The main force under the command of Zamorin himself with other steles in the Stele Pavilion
attacked, encamping at Thripangodu, an allied force of Valluvanadu of the Treasure Boat Shipyard in
and Perumpadappu from the north. Meanwhile, another force under Nanjing.
the Eralppadu commanded a fleet across the sea and landed at
Ponnani and later moved to Thirumanasseri, with intention to descend
on Thirunavaya from the south with help of the warriors of the Thirumanasseri Brahmins. Eralppadu also
prevented the warriors of Perumpadappu joining Valluvanadu forces. The Muslim merchants and commanders
at Ponnani supported the Calicut force with food, transport and provisions. The warriors of the Eralppadu
moved north and crossed the River Perar and took up position on the northern side of the river.[5] The Koya
marched at the head of a large column, and stormed Thirunavaya. In spite of the fact that the warriors of
Valluvanadu did not get the timely help of Perumpadappu, they fought vigorously and the battle dragged on.
In the meantime, the Calicut minister Mangattachan was also successful in turning Kadannamanna Elavakayil
Vellodi (junior branch of Kadannamanna) to their side. Finally, two Valluvanadu princes were killed in the
battles, the Nairs abandoned the settlement and Calicut infested Thirunavaya.[5]

The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Calicut's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Zamorin continued
surges over on Valluvanadu. Malappuram, Nilambur, Vallappanattukara and Manjeri were easily occupied. He
encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a
long time. Further assaults in the east against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Calicut.[5]

The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and
crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Calicut only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a
minister of Calicut by the chief minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked
the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Zamorin's
warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province (Ten Kalams, including Kottakkal and Panthalur)
were occupied by the Zamorin. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this
campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Zamorin as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal
chief minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of Tirunavaya and Ponnani.[5]
Expansions to Kochi

Calicut faced defeat in their next assault on Perumpadappu

swaroopam. The combined forces of Perumpadappu and Valluvanadu
resisted Calicut warriors and a vicious battle ensued for three days, at
the end of which Calicut forces was on the retreat.[5]

After a period of uneasy calm in Kerala, Calicut occupied

Nedunganadu, a small polity between Valluvanadu and Palakkad
(Palghat). Nedunganadu was overran without striking even a single
blow. The chief of Nedunganadu surrendered to the Calicut forces at
a place called Kodikkuni. Then the Calicut warriors captured a
number of smaller villages around Thirunavaya – such as
Thiruvegappuram – from Valluvanadu. The Valluvanadu governor
tried to overcome the Calicut prince's advance at Kolakkadu. Near
Karimpuzha in Valluvanadu, the untouchables – the Cherumas and
Panans of Kotta – resisted the advancing Calicut forces. The Calicut
won their affection by gifts and presents. Calicut prince was met by
an ancestor of Kavalappara Nair, a vassal of Valluvanadu, at
Karakkadu. The chiefs under Palakkad surrendered to Calicut at
Vengotri, Nellayi and Kakkathodu. Zamorin of Calicut appointed the Muccunti Mosque Inscription.
Eralppadu as the ruler of southern Malabar region during this time. Inscription specifically mentions the
The provincial seat was at Karimpuzha. Talappilli (present day taluk word "Punturakkon"
of the same name and coastal regions from Ponnani to Chetwai) and
Chengazhinadu submitted to Calicut without any resistance.[5]

Calicut then completed the

subjugation Ponnani taluk
from Valluvanadu and
captured Vannerinadu from
Perumpadappu. The
Perumpadappu ruler was
forced to shift their base
further south to
Thiruvanchikkulam. [5] When
Thrikkanamathilakam near
Thiruvanchikkulam came
under the Calicut control and
Perumpadappu ruler again
Portuguese fort at Calicut shifted their base further south
to Kochi (Cochin, in 1405
AD[7]).[5]

Calicut subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder
and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Zamorin of Calicut. The intervention
was initiated as Calicut’s help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Kodungallur,
Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam [Thrissur] and Chittur supported or joined Calicut forces in this
occupation of Kochi. Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at
Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to
south, the Calicut forces under Zamorin penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the
attacks, Kochi finally accepted Calicut's rule. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of
Kochi as vassal.[5]
The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a
Calicut prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Calicut during the time.
The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Calicut continued. But even after the loss of his superior
ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Calicut. The ruler of Calicut followed a custom of settling Muslim
families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of
Valluvanadu. Calicut occupied Valluvanadu (now shrunk to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad,
Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna) but could not make much progress into its hinterland.[5]

Calicut was also successful in bringing the polity of Kolathunadu (Cannanore) under their control. During his
expansions, the Zamorin occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolathiri
immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Calicut might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the
regions already occupied to Calicut and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the
Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the
Zamorin swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu
(Cannanore) – one of the Zamorin's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the
Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between
Kolathunadu and Calicut.[37] Some land and Hindu temple rights were transferred to Calicut during a visit to
Kollam by a ruler of the Calicut.[38]

Vijayanagara conquests
Deva Raya II (1424–1446 AD), king of
the Vijayanagara Empire, conquered the
whole of present-day Kerala state in the
15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers
of Venadu (Kollam, Quilon), as well as
Calicut. Fernão Nunes says that the
Zamorin and even the kings of Burma
ruling at Pegu and Tenasserim paid
tribute to the king of Vijayanagara
Empire. Later Calicut and Venadu seems
to have rebelled against their
Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya
II quelled the rebellion.

As the Vijayanagara power diminished

over the next fifty years, Zamorin of Large boats built in Calicut
Calicut again rose to prominence in
Kerala. Zamorin built a fort at Ponnani in
1498.[5]

An embassy from the Zamorin of Calicut, in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim, came to
the Timurid court of Mirza Shahrukh at Herat in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier,
on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Calicut, and on this occasion had
been received by the Zamorin of Calicut. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Zamorin
decided to send his own embassy to Herat.[39]

Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Calicut (November 1442 – April
1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a pelisse, headgear and ceremonial robes.
"As for duties [at Calicut], at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower that at Hormuz [in
the Persian Gulf]", says Abdur Razzaq.[39]
While in Calicut, Razzaq was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived
from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Zamorin to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the
king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the kingdom of Calicut, but the Zamorin was
apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".[39]

Relations with Yuan and Ming China

"In the fifth year of the Yongle emperor It is known that the Tang Chinese ships frequently visited the
[1407], the court ordered the principal then major Kerala ports such as Kollam for spices (in the 9th-
envoy ... Zheng He ... to deliver an 10th centuries). According historians, the "Nanpiraj" mentioned
imperial mandate [a statement of formal in the Ling daida can be identified with Calicut.[18]
investiture] to the king of [Calicut] and to
bestow him a patent conferring a title of From the 13th century, Calicut developed into the major trading
honour ... Zheng He went these in centre where the Middle-Eastern and Chinese sailors met to
command of a large fleet of treasure-ships, exchange their products. Marco Polo who visited Calicut in
and he erected a tablet with a pavilion over
1293– 1294 records that the trade in Kerala was dominated by
it and set up a stone which said:
the Chinese. Ibn Batutah refers to the brisk Chinese trade at
"Though the journey from this country Calicut. Wang Ta-yuan – during the Yuan period – describes the
[Kingdom of Calicut] to the Middle pepper trade in Calicut in his work "Tao-i-Chih".[18][41][42]
Kingdom is more than a hundred
Zheng He (Cheng Ho), the renowned Ming Chinese admiral,
thousand li, yet people are very similar,
happy, and prosperous, with identical visited Calicut several times in the early 15th century.[18] Zheng
customs." most probably died at Calicut in 1433 AD during his seventh
voyage to the West.[41][42]
Account of the members of Zheng
A major objective of the first Ming expedition (1405–1407) was
He's entourage[40]
the kingdom of Calicut. Historians presume that the fleet stayed
from December 1406 to April 1407 at Calicut. Ambassadors
from Calicut, among envoys from other states, accompanied the
returning (first expedition) fleet bringing articles of "tribute" to Nanking in 1407. On the second expedition, in
1408–09, Zheng He again visited Calicut—stopping as well in "Chochin" (Kochi). The envoys in the second
expedition (1408–1409) carried out the formal "investiture" of the Zamorin of Calicut "Mana Piehchialaman".
A memorial inscription was erected in Calicut to commemorate the investiture. The Chinese titles and gifts
(brocades and gauzes) were given to the Zamorin and his retinue by the Chinese envoys. Presumably a stay of
about four months was made at Calicut, possibly from December 1408 to April 1409. The third expedition
(1409–1411) - the first one to sail to beyond India - also visited Calicut. The fleet sailed on from Calicut to Sri
Lanka in 1411. The fourth (1413–1415), fifth (1417–1419), sixth (1421–22) and seventh (1431–33) fleets also
visited Calicut.[43][3] A number of tribute delegations – in 1421, 1423, and 1433, among others – were
dispatched by the Calicut rulers to Nanking and Peking. Presents from Calicut included horses and black
pepper.[18] Brocades of several types were presented to the some of the Calicut envoys.[44] Ma Huan visited
Calicut several times, and describes the trade in the region. Fei-Hsin also notices the brisk trade at
Calicut.[18][40][45][46][47]

The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Calicut. This include a
Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque
("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam).[18][40][48]

Relations with the Portuguese

"No one has tried to clear that
misconception [that Vasco da Gama landed
The landing of Vasco da Gama in Calicut in 1498 has often
been considered as the beginning of a new phase in Asian
history during which the control of the Indian Ocean spice trade
passed into the hands of the Europeans from Middle Eastern
Muslims. The strong colony of foreign merchants settled in
Calicut was hostile, but Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese and
allowed them to take spices on board. In Portugal, the goods
brought by da Gama from India were computed at "sixty times
the cost of the entire Asia expedition".[51]
at Kappad]. The government has even
installed a memorial stone at the Kappad
beach. Actually [Vasco da] Gama landed at
Panthalayini (Koyilandy) in the
[Kozhikode] district because there was a
port there and Kozhikode did not have one.
It does not have a port even now."[49]
M. G. S. Narayanan

The Portuguese initially entered into hostile conflicts with the

Zamorin of Calicut and the Middle Eastern (Paradesi) merchants "He was taken to a place [in Kozhikkode]
in Calicut. Within the next few decades, the Estado da Índia also where there were two Moors [Muslims]
found themselves fighting with several leading Mappila trading from Tunis, who knew how to speak
families of Kerala (esp. the Kannur Mappilas, lead by Mammali Castilian and Genoese.
and the Marakkars of the Pearl Fishery Coast). Kingdom of
Calicut, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the "What the Devil! What brought you
Portuguese, evolved into a centre of resistance.[52] The here?"
Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports "We came in search of Christians and of
and continued their raids on departing native fleets.[53] Mappila spices!"
and Marakkar traders actively worked in the kingdoms of
Malabar Coast and Ceylon to oppose the Portuguese.[54] Naval Velho 1987: 54–55[50]
battles broke out across Konkan, Malabar Coast, southern Tamil
Nadu, and western Sri Lanka. Marakkars transformed as the
admirals of Calicut and organised an effective collection of
vessels to fight the Portuguese.[55]

The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval
defense of the Indian coast.[56] Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by
Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-
century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of
Kerala to be authored by a Keralite.[57][58][59] It is written in Arabic
and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the
navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from
1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast.
It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has
been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.

Francisco de Almeida (1505–1509) and Afonso de Albuquerque

(1509–1515), who followed da Gama to India, were instrumental in
establishing the Império Colonial Português in Asia.[51] By the mid-
Vasco da Gama landing in Calicut –
16th century, the Portuguese managed to curtail the vital trade
a modern depiction (1911) by Allan
between Calicut and the Middle East. In the end of the century, Kochi
Stewart
was the dominant seaport in Kerala, having surpassed both Kannur
and Calicut.[54] The Portuguese set about breaking the monopoly
which Venetians and the Egyptians had so long enjoyed in the trade with Asia. The Egyptians and the
Ottoman Turks realised the danger, but internal complications between them gave the Portuguese an
opportunity.[60] Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali Marakkar was eventually executed by the combined effects of
the Kingdom of Calicut and the Portuguese state in 1600.[61]
 Date Event
May 1498 Vasco da Gama lands in Calicut, and is
warmly welcomed by the Zamorin of
Calicut. Much to the delight of the
discontented Middle Eastern merchants,
da Gama's "ordinary" trade goods were
hardly suitable for trade in Calicut. The
merchandise he carried – no gold and
silver – only came handy in the trade on
the West African coast.[51] However, the
Zamorin of Calicut gave his sanction for
opening trade, and assigned a small
warehouse with Nairs to guard it and
Portuguese coin issued to
brokers sell their goods.[62]
commemorate Vasco da Gama's
Sale and purchases fails to meet the landing in Calicut
expectations. Da Gama demands
Kerala spices in return for his
unsalable wares. The Zamorin
replied that he should buy what he
needed for gold and silver instead of
dumping his stock in exchange, and
he must pay the usual Calicut
customs duties. After some confusion
– the warehouse was robbed once –
the fleet leaves Calicut in August.
They also took with them some on-
board Mukkuvar.[62]

It is also known that da Gama

erected a padrão in the kingdom of
Calicut.[8]

The fleet makes interactions – and

trade – with Zamorin's rival chief, the Vasco Da Gama
Kolathiri (Cannanore) on their return
journey.[62]

September 1500 Pedro Alvares Cabral reaches Calicut,

rich presents were exchanged, and a
treaty of friendship, "as long as the sun
and moon should endure", was entered
upon. The Zamorin was pleased with
return of the Mukkuvas whom da Gama
had taken to Portugal.[62][63] Cabral
manages to obtain the permission to
construct a trading post in Calicut.[62][63]
The Zamorin nominates a Mappila
named Koya Pakki as the Portuguese
broker in Calicut.[5] At the request of the Nairs of Malabar in 'Les Voyages du
Zamorin, Cabral captures a Kochi vessel sieur Albert de Mandelslo' by Pierre
passing the port Calicut. The vessel is van der Aa in Leiden
subsequently restored to the chief of
Kochi.[62][63]
December 1500 The merchants of Calicut appear to have
 effectually prevented the Portuguese
from obtaining any large supply of spices.
Cabral accused the Muslim merchants of
deliberately outbidding them, and
sending away all the spices that came to
the market. The Zamorin permitted
Cabral to search the Middle Eastern
ships and "take whatever he found them
after paying to the owners what they had
themselves had paid and the customs
duties to Calicut officers".[5] Cabral seized
a Middle Eastern ship at midnight and
Arabs and Malabar locals attacking
transfers all its spices to his depot. A
general riot is broken out in Calicut. the Portuguese in Calicut
Around 50 Portuguese sailors at the
depot are massacred, a few taken
captive, by the Muslims. The depot is
razed.[5]

The Portuguese seize ten of the

Zamorin's Muslim ships, at Calicut,
execute their crews, and set fire to
them and leave port Calicut by
bombarding it. Around 600
Malabarians are killed.[62][63]
Duarte Pacheco's victory at the
Battle of Cochin (1504)
24 December 1500 The Portuguese, led by Pedro Álvares
Cabral, reach the port of Kochi.[62] Kochi
Raja, a chieftain at the time, was
subordinate to the Zamorin of Calicut.[54]
January 1501 The Portuguese conclude a treaty with
the chief of Kochi Tirumalpadu; an
alliance of friendship was signed, allowing
them to open a trading depot (factory).
Cabral is permitted to trade for spices,
with which he loads his six remaining
ships.[63]

A Calicut fleet, carrying around 1500

men, appears off the harbour of
Kochi. The Calicut fleet holds off.
Cabral chases them, but is overtaken
by a violent storm which carries him
to the sea. He later sails to Kannur,
and from there proceeds to
Europe.[62]

March 1501 João da Nova is despatched from

Portugal to India. He anchors at Anjediva
in November and from there sails to
Kannur. While travelling from Kannur to
Kochi the fleet attacks and captures a
Muslim vessel opposite to the Calicut.[62]
December 1501 About 180 Calicut vessels filled with
Muslims arrive at Kochi from Calicut, for
the purpose of attacking the Portuguese.
 John de Nueva fires cannon at them,
sinking a large number of vessels.[62]

The Muslims persuade native

merchants all of over Kerala to refuse
to trade their spices and textiles with
the Portuguese.[62]

Owing to the generosity of the chief

of Kochi alone, his ships are soon
loaded with spices and textiles, and
the fleet departs for Europe.[62]

August 1502 Vasco da Gama returns to India to try to

control Calicut. He burns a ship full of
Muslim pilgrims – around 700 – from
Mecca off the coast of Madayi. The ship
also carried a chief merchant from
Calicut. This individual – fairly rich – was
the brother of Khoja Kasim, the Factor of
the Sea to the Zamorin of Calicut.[64]
However, the burning and sinking of the
ship is not related by any contemporary
and reliable sources. Some assume that
the description may be "legendary or at
least exaggerated".[8] The sword used by Kunjali Marakkar,
preserved at Kottakkal Mosque,
Da Gama is warmly welcomed by Vadakara
Kolathiri at Kannur, and arranges a
treaty of commerce. Kolathiri agrees
to supply spices at the Kochi prices
and obtain "passes" (cartazes) for the
ships his subjects. He next divides
his fleet; one portion of it is to wage
war on all native vessels except
those of Kannur (Kolathunadu),
Kochi (Permpatappu) and Quilon
(Kollam ), which are to be protected
by "passes" obtained from the factors
at Kannur and Kochi respectively.[62]

Vincent de Sodre mistreats Khoja

Muhammed Marakkar – a wealthy
Muslim from Cairo – who had
insulted the Kolathiri.[62]

Sailing southwards, da Gama is

informed by a Brahmin messenger
that the Zamorin have arrested the
Muslims who were guilty of the
outrage on the trading depot. Da
Gama was offered a large sum to pay
for the factory goods. He sent back
word to say that he did not want
money, and also mistreated the
 Brahmin messenger. Some
historians assume that this was an
attempt to lure da Gama to Calicut,
and then to apprehend him. Da
Gama – who certainly thought so –
fires cannon at the port Calicut, and
kills around 40 natives. The Zamorin
tries to counterattack in vain. To
starve the city of Calicut the
Portuguese plunders rice shipments
from Mangalore.[62][8]

November 1502 Da Gama reaches Kochi and signs a

treaty of commerce with the rulers of
Kochi and Kollam. A factory is set up at
Kochi by da Gama; its first factor is Diogo
Fernandes Correia.[50] The fleet then
sails to Kannur, defeating two squadrons
of a Calicut Arab[8] Muslim fleet on the
way, and then for Europe on 28
December.[62]

While at Kochi (1502), da Gama was

visited by a deputation of Christians
from Kodungallur.

Zamorin of Calicut, after the

departure of the Armada, demands to
the ruler of Kochi the Portuguese
factors left at Kochi should be given
to him. The demand is refused by the
ruler of Kochi.[62]

1503 The Portuguese crown the new ruler of

Kochi, effectively making him a vassal of
the King of Portugal.
March–April 1503 Calicut forces of more than 50,000 Nairs
attack Kochi. The forces enter the Kochi
territory, and occupy Edappalli in
March.[62] In a series of engagements,
the Calicut forces defeat around 5,500
Kochi Nairs lead by Narayanan, the heir
apparent of Kochi, near Kodungallur.
Narayanan, and his two nephews, are
slain in the battle and the Calicut forces
cross the backwater to Kochi. The
wounded Kochi chief escapes to the
island of Vypin with the Portuguese. The
Calicut forces burn Kochi. As the
monsoon has begun, the Calicut forces,
leaving a strong detachment at Kochi,
retreat to Kodungallur.[62]
 Two Italians desert to the side of the
Calicut during these battles (these
men later construct five big guns for
the Calicut).[62]

September 1503 Francisco de Albuquerque, sailing from

Kannur, reaches Kochi. The Calicut's
blockading forces are easily defeated at
Vypin island, and are driven back to
Kodungallur. The Portuguese take
Edappalli (Repelim).[62]

Albuquerque obtains permission to

build a fort – Fort Manuel, the first
Portuguese fort in Asia – at Kochi.
Soon, Afonso de Albuquerque, his
brother, arrives at Kochi with three
more ships.[62]

The Portuguese are starved of spices

and textiles at Kochi by the Zamorin
of Calicut and the Muslims
merchants. Their fleet moves south to
Quilon, and with aid of local Christian
merchants easily procure the spices,
and obtain permission to open a
factory.[62]

January 1504 Albuquerque leaves Malabar, his ships

laden with spices. Before doing so he
concludes a short-lived treaty with the
Zamorin of Calicut. The peace is broken
by the murder of six Malabarians by the
Portuguese.[62]
March–July 1504 Pacheco and a small garrison of 150 men
guard Fort Manuel. Around 57,000 Nairs
from all over the kingdom of Calicut,
assisted by 5 cannon guns and 160
paraos, attack Pacheco at the Edappally
ferry. He manages to drive back the
enemy several times. The Kochi Nairs
provide little help in opposing the Calicut
forces. As the monsoon sets in, cholera
breaks out among the Calicut forces. The
Zamorin of Calicut at last gives up the
attempt in despair.[62]
July 1504 Pacheco quells a partial outbreak at
Kollam.[62]
August 1504 Pacheco defeats the Calicut troops at
Chetwye.[62]
September 1504 Suarez de Menezes arrives in Kannur. He
unsuccessfully tries to rescue some of
the prisoners taken at Calicut in Cabral's
 time. He cannons the city of Calicut and
sails to Kochi.[62]

The fleet raids and burns the city of

Kodungallur, held by Patinjattedam
chief under the Calicut. The
Portuguese spare the Christian
houses, shops and churches, but
they loot those of the Jews and
Muslims.[62]

March 1505 A large Muslim fleet at Pantalayini Kollam

in the kingdom of Calicut is destroyed. It
had assembled there to take back a large
number of Muslims to Arabia and Egypt,
who were leaving the kingdom of Calicut
disappointed at the trade losses caused
to them recently. De Menezes captures
17 vessels and kills 2,000 men.[65][62]
September 1505 Francisco de Almeyda commences
building of Anjediva Fort.[62]
October 1505 Building of St. Angelo Fort, Kannur
commences. De Almeyda is visited by a
Vijayanagara delegation. Francisco de
Almeyda arrives at Kochi.[62]
November 1505 Murder of the Portuguese factor António
de Sá and his 12 men by a mob in
Kollam. Lorenzo de Almeyda, finding 27
Calicut vessels at Kollam, engages and
sinks them all. Francisco de Almeyda is
crowned the new chief in Kochi.[62]
February 1506 The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt sends a
fleet, commanded by Amir Hussain al-
Kurdi al-Askar, into the Indian Ocean.
The Ottomans help in the construction of
the fleet. The fleet leaves Jiddah only in
August/September 1507 and sets sail to
Diu (ruled by Malik Ayaz).[66]
March 1506 Lorenz de Almeyda intercepts an armada
of 210 large vessels of Turks (Ottoman)
and Muslims whom the Zamorin had
launched against Kannur. Around 3,000
Muslims are killed in the assault and the
Portuguese loss is very trifling.[62]
April 1507 Joined forces of Kannur and Calicut
attack St. Angelo Fort. The old Kolathiri –
the original friend of Vasco da Gama –
has died and the new ruler is already
displeased with the Portuguese for
harming prominent Muslims merchants at
Kannur. Combined forces, including
around 60,000 Nairs, lay siege to the St.
Angelo Fort. Brito, the Cannanore
Commandant, resists the Malabaris for
four months.[62]
August 1507 The Portuguese, assisted by eleven ship
under da Cunha freshly arrived from
Europe, break the blockade. The ruler of
Kannur is forced to accede to the
sailors.[62]
November 1507 The Portuguese under Almeyda attack
Ponnani, destroying the town and
shipping. 18 Portuguese are killed in the
assault on the place. A number of
Muslims take an oath to die as "matrys"
on this occasion.[62]

As per some historians, as result of

the assault, the family of Marakkars
relocated from Ponnani to
Puthupattanam (in North Malabar).
The Zamorin of Calicut later
appointed Marakkar I as his admiral.
Kutti Ali served under Marakkar I.[67]
Some scholars identify the first
Marakkar Kutti Ahmed Ali with
Muhammed of Kochi.[60]

March 1508 Albuquerque is imprisoned by Almeyda.

The Egyptian navy, under the command
of Admiral Amir Hussain and supported
by the forces of Mahmud Begarha
(Sultan of Gujarat), defeat the
Portuguese at the Battle of Chaul, killing
Lorenzo de Almeyda in the process. The
Egyptian force of 1500 Mamluks also
includes Calicut's ambassador to Cairo,
Mayimama Marakkar. Mayimama
Marakkar is also killed in the
action.[62][55] The alliance between Amir
Hussain and Malik Ayaz begins to fall
apart. Ayaz enters into secret
negotiations with de Amleyda.[66]
November 1508 De Almeyda – with a fleet carrying 1300
Europeans, among others – sails to
Kannur.[62]
February 1509 De Almeyda counter-attacks and defeats
the Egyptian navy, which is assisted by
Calicut forces, at the Battle of Diu.[62] The
defeat off Diu is a major blow to the
Muslims.[68] Amir Hussain, though
wounded, flees to the Gujarat capital. He
eventually reaches Cairo in December
1512.[66]
November 1509 A new fleet arrives from Europe.
Albuquerque takes charge as Capitão-
Mor.[55]
1510 Fernando Coutinho arrives at Kannur. He
brings instruction from Lisbon that Calicut
should be destroyed. Such had been, it is
 said, the counsel sent to Europe by the
Kolathiri and by the chief of Kochi.[62]

Governor Albuquerque and

Fernando Coutinho lands in the city
of Calicut. Fernando Coutinho and
his men are slain in this misguided
adventure, Albuquerque is shot, and
the Mananchira palace is sacked and
set on fire.[62]

September 1510 The Chief of Kochi decides to relinquish

the throne. Albuquerque eventually
succeeds in preventing the abdication.[62]
November 1510 Governor Albuquerque takes Goa – Adil
Khan is absent from the place – and it
finally supplants Kochi as the chief
Portuguese settlement in India. Among
others he is assisted by the 300 hand-
picked Nairs from Kannur.[51][62]
July 1511 Albuquerque takes Malacca in the East
Indies.[51]
February 1511 Albuquerque establishes schools for the
benefit of 400 natives who have
converted to Christianity in Kochi.[62]
1513 Albuquerque lands at Calicut and has an
interview with the Zamorin. Calicut and
the Portuguese sign a treaty giving the
Portuguese the right trade as "they
pleased", and to erect a fort in the
kingdom of Calicut.[62][55]
1514–15 Fort Calicut is built on the right bank of
the Kallayi river near the city of
Calicut.[62] Albuquerque grants the
Zamorin a certain number of cartazes for
the merchants based at Calicut, enabling
them to resume trade with Aden, Jiddah
and Gujarat.[54][60] The Zamorin sends
envoys to the King of Portugal with a
letter expressing his readiness to supply
goods.[5]
1515 Albuquerque takes Hormuz (Ormus) in
the Persian Gulf.[51]
1515–17 Lopo Saores demands that the Zamorin
should repair to Fort Calicut and wait
upon him. Hostilities are averted only by
the good sense of the captains posted in
the fort.[5]
1517 Assassination attempt on the Zamorin.
The Portuguese invite the Zamorin to a
house within their fort under the pretext
of presenting the king with some gifts.
The Zamorin, with the help of a
Portuguese officer, escapes from the fort.
 The officer is later banished with all kin to
Kannur.[5]
1519 One of Kochi chief's nobles invades some
lands belonging to one of the Zamorin's
barons. This leads to a general battle,
and the Kochi chief suffers a defeat.[5]
Kochi Nairs, assisted by some men sent
by Governor Sequeiro, invade Chetwai.
1521
But the Kochi chief is soon outnumbered,
and is pursued right up to his capital.[5]
1523 The Muslims, under the leadership of
Kutti Ali, capture ten Portuguese vessels,
and raid Kochi and Kodungallur harbours.
The Muslims later insult the Governor
Duarte de Menezes. In 1524 he
bombards Fort Calicut.[5]
1524 Duarte de Menezes comes to Fort
Calicut. The Zamorin is dead and his
successor (1522–1531) does not favour
the Portuguese alliance. Kutti Ali anchors
his fleet of 200 vessels at Calicut, to load
eight ships with spices, and to dispatch
them with a convoy of 40 vessels to the
Red Sea before the very eyes of the
Portuguese.[62]
1524 The King of Portugal sends Vasco Da
Gama again to India. His mission is to
reform the abuses which had crept into
the administration in India. The ruler of
Kannur (Kolathiri) surrenders a "pirate"
chief called Bala Hassan to da Gama,
who is thereupon thrown into a dungeon
in Cannanore Fort. This man is related to
the family of the Arakkal chief. Martu
Alfonso de Souza under his orders
relieves Calicut, engages the famous
Kutti Ali's fleet and drives it to Kannur.
Kutti Ali finally abandons his ships.[62][60]
December 1524 The Muslims, with Calicut's approval,
make an onslaught on the Kodungallur
Jews and Christians. They kill many Jews
and drive out the rest to a village to the
east. When the fleet attacks Christians,
the Nairs of the place retaliate, and drive
all Muslims out of Kodungallur.[62]
1525 Henry de Menezes reaches Kannur and
executes Bala Hassan. The Kolathiri asks
the Viceroy to punish those Muslims who
have taken refuge at Dharmapattanam
Island. An expedition is organised, and
the towns, bazaars and shipping at
Dharmapattanam and at Mahe are
destroyed.[62]
February– March A Portuguese navy led by new Viceroy
1525 Henry Menezes raids Ponnani and
Pantalayini Kollam, and burns the towns.
 Pantalayini Kollam is defended by 20,000
Nairs and Muslims. On reaching Calicut,
he earlier found that the place had been
attacked by the Calicut forces.[62] Kutti Ali
in retaliation storms the port of Kochi,
sets fire to the Portuguese ships, and
manages to get away unhindered.[60][62]

The Nairs of the chief of

Kurumbranad and Calicut forces
invest Fort Calicut (Siege of Calicut).
They are helped by a band of
Muslims under the command of a
European engineer. Kutti Ali's ships
blockade the port. Captain Lima, with
300 men, defends the fort.[62][60]

June 1525 The Zamorin himself marches in with an

additional force.[62]
October 1525 The Viceroy arrives with 20 ships and
relieves the garrison; the besiegers are
driven back. Around 2,000 Calicut men
are killed in this effort. The fort is later
abandoned and destroyed by the
Portuguese.

[62]

June-September Zamorin laid siege and captured the

1526 Calicut fort of the Portuguese.[2]
October 1528 Viceroy Sampayo attacks Purakkad, a
Calicut ally, and obtains a very rich
booty.[62]

Kutti Ali is taken prisoner after a

battle off Barkur. The Zamorin's fleet
suffers severe reverses. Pachachi
Marakkar and Ali Ibrahim Marakkar
leads the Zamorin's fleet. The first
foray of the fleet is against the
Portuguese settlement in Ceylon.[60]
[50]

1531 Thirty Portuguese ships blockade the

Calicut coast.[60] A peace treaty is signed
between Nunho de Acunha and the
Zamorin of Calicut. Fort Chaliyam, south
of Calicut, is constructed. The fort is "like
a pistol held at the Zamorin's throat" as it
is a strategic site, only 10 km south of
Calicut.[62]
 Kutti Ahmed Ali Marakkar (Marakkar
I) is killed. His place is taken up by
Marakkar II.[60] Kutti Pokker Ali, son
of Kutti Ali, can be identified as the
second Marakkar.[67]

1532 Mass conversion of the Paravas of the

Pearl Fishery Coast.[50]
1533 The Marakkar raids the Nagipattinam
settlement of the Portuguese.[67]
1535 The Portuguese fleet withdraw their
forces to face Turkish admiral Suleiman
Pasha.[60]
1537 The Portuguese kill Kutti Ibrahim
Marakkar. Fort Cranganore is erected.[62]
Mappila leaders Ibrahim and Pattu
1538 Marakkar are defeated by the
Portuguese at Vedalai.[61]
1539 Calicut enters into an agreement with the
Portuguese. The Malabarians again
agree to accept the Portuguese "passes".
The wedge between the Zamorin and the
native Muslims widens.[62]
1540 Pattu Kunjali Marakkar (died c. 1575.[60])
leads the Calicut navy. He is assisted by
Ponnani Kutti Pokkar.[67] Chinna Kutti Ali
sues for peace with the Portuguese
(Goa). The defeat of Ibrahim and Pattu
Marakkar and the killing in Ceylon of a
third notable was one factor that forced
Chinna Kutti Ali to this move.[50]
Afonso de Sousa launches expeditions
1542 against Bhatkal, apparently as "anti-
Mappila" measure.[61]
1545 The Portuguese assassinate Abu Bakr
Ali, the qazi of Kannur.[54]
1550 Battles by Calicut near Kochi. The
Portuguese make descents on the
coastal towns, particularly on Pantalayini
Kollam, destroying mosques and houses,
and killing one-third of the inhabitants.[62]

The Portuguese manage to reach an

accommodation with some Middle
Eastern merchants, such as Khoja
Shams ud-Din Gilani of Kannur.[54]

1552 The Zamorin receive assistance in heavy

guns landed at Ponnani, brought there by
Yoosuf, a Turk who sailed against the
monsoon.[62]
1555 Peace between the Zamorin and the
Portuguese on the condition that
"passes" should be taken by traders.[62]
1557–1559 Muslims of North Malabar begin
hostilities, and then make the usual
submission and agree to take out the
"passes". The Muslim sailors come under
enormous pressure under these stringent
measures. The Muslims organise in small
fleets of boats to engange with the
Portuguese shipping. The Portuguese
continue hostilities against the Zamorin
and the Malabarians.[62]
1560 The Inquisition is established at Goa.[51]
1564 The Portuguese are besieged in their fort
at Kannur, but the attack is repulsed.[62]
1564 The Zamorin and his Muslim allies attack
the Kochi chief at or near Kodungallur.
Two Kochi princes are killed in the
engagement. The Portuguese enlarge
and strengthen the Fort Cranganore.
Jews finally desert Anchuvannam and
migrate to Kochi. They reside within the
fort limits.[62]
1566 Kutti Poker of Ponnani captures a
Portuguese ship.[62]
1567 Jew's Town is built, and the Jews in a
body moved into the town from the Kochi
fort limits.[62]
1569 Kutti Poker of Ponnani captures a second
Portuguese ship. Around 1000
Portuguese sailors from these ships are
killed.[62]
1569 Kutti Poker makes a successful raid on
Mangalore Fort. His fleet falls in with a
Portuguese fleet as he is returning south
off Cannnanore, and he and all his sailors
are killed.[62]

Zamorin of Calicut forms alliances

with rulers of Ahmadnagar and
Bijapur.[62]

1571 Siege of Fort Chaliyam.[62] The Zamorin

is assisted by the naval forces of
Marakkar III (Pattu Kunjali Marakkar).[67]
September 1571 Fort Chaliyam surrenders to Calicut. The
Zamorin destroys the fort.[62]
1572 Chaliyam is burnt by the Portuguese.[62]
1573 Parappanangadi town is burnt by the
Portuguese.[62] Pattu Kunjali Marakkar
(Marakkar III) obtains permission from
 Zamorin to build a fortress and dockyard
at Puthupattanam (Kottakkal). This fort
later came to be called "Fort
Marakkar".[67]"The rise in Ponnani of
Pattu Kunjali Marakkar appeared to have
signalled a real threat to rulers

such as the Kolathiri and the

Samoothiri as much as to the
Portuguese." – Sanjay
Subrahmanyam

in "The Political Economy of

Commerce: Southern India 1500–
1650", Cambridge University Press
(2002)[54]

1577 The fleet of Muslim ships, carrying rice, is

seized by the Portuguese and 3000
sailors are killed.[62]
1578 Peace negotiations between Calicut and
the Portuguese. The Zamorin refuses to
agree to construct a fort at Ponnani.[62]
1579 The Zamorin visits Kodungallur. The
Portuguese continue hostilities against
the Zamorin and the Malabarians. The
rice embargo results in the Famine of
1579.[62]
1584 Calicut shifts policy towards the
Portuguese because of his estrangement
with the Marakkar who begins to defy the
Zamorin. Treaty of peace with Viceroy
Mascarenhas.[62] He sanctions the
Portuguese to build a factory at Ponnani.
The decision is much resented by the
Marakkars, and they strengthen Fort
Marakkar.[67]
1591 Zamorin allows the Portuguese to build a
factory at Calicut. He lays the foundation
of the church, granting them the
necessary land and building materials.
1595 Possible date of the succession of
Marakkar IV (Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali
Marakkar[69]). Another date in the 1570s
a few years after the erection Fort
Marakkar is also proposed. Muhammed
is probably the nephew of the third
Marakkar.[67]
1597 The Zamorin has grown nervous about
the royal pretensions of the Marakkar.[50]
The Marakkar has styled himself "King of
Muslims" and "Lord of the Indian
Seas".[67] Father Franciso de Costa is
sent to Calicut. Agreement between the
Zamorin and the Portuguese on
 Marakkar IV. The allies decide to proceed
together against Fort Marakkar – the
Calicut forces by land the Portuguese by
sea.[67]
1599 Forcible subjection of the Syrian church
to Rome at the Synod of Diamper.[51]
The Archbishop of Goa, Alexis Menezis,
visits Kottakkal in 1599.[60]

(First) Siege of Fort Kottakkal (Fort

Marakkar) from land by the Calicut
forces alone. The siege ends in a
frustrating defeat of the Calicut
forces. Marakkar IV calls himself
"Defender of Islam" and the "Expeller
of the Portuguese".[67]

Treaty between the Zamorin of

Calicut and the Portuguese. He
declares that he would from then on
cease persecuting Christians, permit
the erection of churches in the
kingdom of Calicut, support the
Synod of Diamper, release all
Christian prisoners, and provide
spices for the ships of the
Portuguese at the usual prices. In
return the Portuguese agree to grant
him "cartazes" every year for ships
bound for Jiddah, Bengal, Aceh and
the Canara. Most importantly the
Zamorin anticipate their help in a
joint attack on Kunjali Marakkar's fort
at Ponnani.[54]

1600 (Second) Siege of Fort Marakkar by the

combined forces of the Portuguese
(under Andre Furtado) and the Zamorin
of Calicut. The assault on the fort is
begun by the Nair force consisting 6,000
men.[67]

The Portuguese execute Marakkar

IV, who surrendered in person to the
Zamorin, at Goa.[67] The Zamorin
took over Fort Marakkar and the town
of Kottakkal.[67]

The relations between the Zamorin

and the Portuguese again reverts.[54]

Relations with the Dutch and English

In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to Aceh, where the Verenigde Zeeuwsche Compagnie had a factory,
promising the Dutch a fort at Calicut if they would come and trade there. Two factors, Hans de Wolff and
Lafer, were sent on an Asian ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of Tanur, and handed
over to the Portuguese. These men were later hanged in Goa.[54]

A Dutch fleet under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived in Calicut in November 1604. It marked the
beginning of the Dutch presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Calicut on 11 November 1604.
By this time the kingdom and the port of Calicut was much reduced in importance, which was also the first
treaty that the Dutch East India Company made with an Indian ruler.[9][54] The treaty provided for a mutual
alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar. In return the Dutch East India Company was
given facilities for trade at Calicut and Ponnani, including spacious storehouses.

The Dutch, some fifteen years after the Zamorin first asked for help, had promised much and delivered almost
nothing. The Zamorin finally turned to the English.[54] In September 1610, the English factors at Mocha were
approached by the head of the Mappilas there to their shipping in the region from the Portuguese fleets.[54]

The arrival of British in Kerala can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of
Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships.[9] It was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe
went to visit Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, as British envoy.[9] The British concluded a treaty of trade
(1616) under which, among others, the English were to assist Calicut in expelling the Portuguese from Fort
Kochi and Fort Cranganore. The English set up a factory at Calicut, and a factor, George Woolman, is sent
there with a stock of presents. But the Zamorin soon found the English as unreliable as the Dutch where
military aid was concerned. The factory was wound up in March, 1617.[37][54]

Later in 1661, Calicut joined a coalition led by the Dutch to defeat the Portuguese and Kochi and conducted a
number of successful campaigns. Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the
powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in the battle of Purakkad in 1755.[11] As a result of the Kew Letters, the
Dutch settlements on the Malabar Coast were surrendered to the British in 1795 in order to prevent them being
overrun by the French. Dutch Malabar remained with the British after the conclusion of the Anglo-Dutch
Treaty of 1814, which traded the colony with Bangka Island.

Mysore occupation and settlement negotiations

It was in 1732, at the invitation of the chief of Palakkad, that Mysore

forces marched to Kerala for the first time. They appeared again in
1735, and in 1737 they raided the Zamorin's frontier outposts. In
1745, the Mysore forces fought three battles with the Calicut
warriors.[5][13] In 1756 they invaded Calicut for the fifth time. The
chief of Palakkad had placed himself under the protection of the King
of Mysore, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of 12,000 fanams. The
Faujdar of Dindigul, Hyder Ali, sent Mukhdam Sahib, with 2000
cavalry, 5,000 infantry, and 5 guns to Kerala. The Zamorin tried to
buy off the enemy by promising (Treaty, 1756) to refrain from
molesting Palakkad and pay 12 lakh rupees for the expenses of the
expedition. However the Zamorin was unable pay anything to Hyder
Ali.[5] In 1766, 12,000 Mysore forces under Hyder Ali marched to
Malabar from Mangalore. Mysore's intentions were made easy by the
help they received from the Muslims in Malabar. Ali Raja of Kannur,
Palghat Fort a Muslim ruler in northern Kerala, also helped the invading forces.
The Mysore army conquered northern Kerala up to Kochi with
relative ease. Hyder Ali inflicted a major setback on the Calicut
warriors at Perinkolam Ferry on the Kotta River.[5] As Mysore edged closer to the outer reaches of the city of
 Calicut, the Zamorin sent most of his
relatives to safe haven in Ponnani, and
from there to Travancore, and to avoid
the humiliation of surrender committed
self-immolation by setting fire to his
palace at Mananchira (27 April). Hyder
Ali absorbed Malabar district to his
state.[70][13]

But as soon as the Haider Ali marched to

Coimbatore, Nair rebellions broke out in
Malabar. Some members of the Zamorin
family rebelled against the Muslim
occupiers. This included the Eralpadu
Krishna Varma with his nephew Ravi
Calicut Railway Station was established during the Colonial rule Varma. The princes were aided by the
British East India Company.[71] In 1768
the Zamorin prince was restored in
Calicut, agreeing to pay an annual tribute to Mysore. For nearly six years till 1774 nothing was heard about
Hyder Ali.[5] In 1774, Mysore forces under Srinivasa Rao occupied the city of Calicut. The prince retired to
Travancore in a native vessel. The baton of resistance now passed to his nephew Ravi Varma. Ravi Varma
helped the Company occupy Calicut in 1782.[5] By the Treaty of Mangalore, concluded in 1784, Malabar was
restored to Mysore. In 1785 the oppression of revenue officers led to a rebellion by the Mappilas of Manjeri.
As a reward for aiding to put down the rebels, and partly as an incentive, Tipu Sultan settled upon Ravi Varma
a pension and a jaghir in 1786. The peace was soon broken and Tipu sent 6,000 troops under Mon. Lally to
Kerala.[5]

Lord Cornwallis invited the Kerala chiefs to join him in 1790, promising to render them in future entirely
independent of Mysore and to retain them upon reasonable terms under the protection of the company. Prince
Ravi Varma met General Meadows at Trichinopoly and settled with him the terms of the Calicut's cooperation.
After the Third Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar was placed under the control of the company by the Treaty
of Seringapatam.[13]

In the settlement negotiations with the Joint Commission in 1792, the Zamorin proved recalcitrant. To pressure
him, a portion of his former territories (Payyanadu, Payyormala, Kizhakkumpuram, Vadakkampuram and
Pulavayi) was leased to the ruler of Kurumburanadu as manager for the East India Company. Finally, after
prolonged negotiations, the hereditary territory of the Zamorin, together with the coin mint and the sea
customs, was leased back to him. He was also temporarily given jurisdiction over the petty rulers and, as a
mark of the Zamorin's exceptional position in Malabar, the revenue fixed for Beypore, Parappanadu and
Vettattunadu was to be paid through him. As previously noted, these tax-payment and jurisdictional
arrangements were terminated later and the Zamorin of Calicut became a mere pensioned landlord receiving
the "malikhana". On 1 July 1800, Malabar was transferred to the Madras Presidency. On 15 November 1806
the agreement upon which rested the future political relations between the Zamorin of Calicut and the English
was executed.[5][13]

Governance
According to historian M. G. Raghava Varier, at the peak of their reign, the Zamorin's ruled over a region from
Kollam to Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy).[4][54][13] The hereditary local chiefs, more or less independent in
their region, acknowledged the over-lordship of the Zamorin in Calicut. The local magnates - conferred with
privileges and titles by the Zamorin -
were more dependent on Calicut. In
times of battles the chiefs and magnates
provided the warriors to the Zamorin and
were protected in turn when an enemy
made encroachment to their
dominions. [13]

Some of the local chiefs had the

investiture ceremony, rather similar to
that of the Zamorin of Calicut, some
claimed kshatriya status, and some of
them even used the title "Raja".[13]
Vettam Udaya Mootha Kovil,
Thirumanassheri Namboothiri,
Thalappalli Punnathoor Nambadi,
Thalappalli Kakkattu Nambadi,
Vannilassheri Padinjare Nambadi, The Palace of the Zamorin of Calicut in 17th century - from Dutch
Parappur Karippuva Kovil, Chittoor archives
Namboothirippadu, Manakkulathil
Mooppil, Parappur Valavil Kovil,
Parappur Kayyavil Kovil, Venginnadu Nambadi, Kurumburanadu Madampu Unithiri were some of the local
chiefs of the kingdom of Calicut.[13]

K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Kozhikode, explains;[5]

Apart from the southern half of Kurumburanadu, Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu,
Venkadakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarakkadu, Karimpuzha, Nedunganadu, Naduvattom,
Kollangode, Koduvayur, and Mankara the kingdom of Kozhikode included the following territories as
tributary polities: Kottayam, Payyormala, Pulavayi, Tanore, Chaliyam, Beypore, Parappanadu, Thirunavaya,
Thalapalli-Kakkad, Thalapalli-Punnathoor, Chittoor, Chavakkad, Kavalappara, Edappally, Patinjattedam,
Cranganore, Kollengodu, Cochin and all of its vassal polities, Paravur, Purakkad, Vadakkumkur, Tekkumkur,
Kayamkulam and Quilon.[5]

The kingdom only included the following territories during the late 18th century:[5]

Payyanadu, Polanadu, Ponnani, Cheranadu, Venkattakkotta, Malappuram, Kappul, Mannarkkad,

Karimpuzha, and Nedunganadu. The Zamorin claimed to be – with more or less influence – the paramount
sovereign over Payyormala, Pulavayi, Beypore, Parappanadu, Tanore, Talapalli, Chavakkadu and
Kavalappara. Kozhikode had also taken possession of the more full and immediate sovereignty over
Kollangode-Venginnadu, Koduvayur and Mankara.[5]

The Zamorin was assisted in the work of government in Calicut by four hereditary chief ministers called
"Sarvadhi Karyakkar" and number of ministers called "Karyakkar" and "Polttis". The Karyakkar were
appointed and removed by the Zamorin. Adhikaris, Thalachennavars, Achanmar and temple functionaries also
belonged to the Polttis.[5] There were ritual specialists like Hindu priests of the palaces, astrologers etc. as well
as various occupational groups like physicians, weavers, and militiamen all of whom were attached to the
royal establishment.[5]

Sarvadhi Karyakkar
Mangattachan - the prime minister
 Tinayancheri Elayatu
Dharmothu Panikkar - the instructor-in-arms who commanded the Calicut forces
Varakkal Paranambi - treasury and accounts
Ramachan nedungadi

Shahbandar Koya

Although the Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenue from taxing the Indian Ocean spice trade,
but he still did not run a fully developed mercantilist state. The Zamorins left trade in the hands of Paradesi
(Middle Eastern) and Kerala Muslims.[61]

Shahbandar Koya (sometimes Khwaja, popularly known as the "Koya of Kozhikode") was a privileged
administrative position in Calicut.[60] The Shahbandar was the second most important official in most Asian
polities after the ruler.[72] Trade at the port of Calicut was controlled by this Muslim merchant-cum-port
commissioner. He supervised customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities, and
collected the share to the treasury. As the farmer of customs he also had right collect brokerage and poll tax at
the port.[17]

According to tradition, it was a merchant from Muscat, Oman who induced to the Zamorin to the conquer
Valluvanadu. The Koya was subsequently appointed as the "Shahbandar" by the Zamorin of Calicut. He is
also given "all the privileges and dignities of a Nair chief, jurisdiction over all the Muslims residing in the
bazaar of Calicut, the right to receive a present from the Ilavar (the Tiyyar), the Kammalar (the smiths,
carpenters, stone workers etc.) and the Mukkuvar whenever the Zamorin conferred any honours on them on
ceremonial occasions".[17]

Revenue and trade

The major sources of revenue for the kingdom of Calicut were:[5]

Taxing trade via ports

Cherikkal lands (royal estates, agricultural lands owned by the Zamorin)
Amkam (fee for permitting to hold a trial by battle)
Chunkam (tolls and duties)
Ela (proceeds of lands confiscated)
Kola (forced contribution for emergencies)
Tappu (mulets/unconditional offences)
Pizha (fines)
Purushantaram (vassal succession fee)
Pulyatta pennu (the proceeds from the sale of out-casted women) etc.
Tirumulkalcha (gifts on various occasions)
Virinnamittu panam (amount for the royal feast)
Kannukku panam (amount presented for the death rituals) etc.

The Zamorin of Calicut derived greater part of his revenues by taxing spice trade.[50][73] Trade – both coastal
and overseas – was dominated the Muslims, though Jews, Chettis from Coromandel Coast, and Vanias from
Gujarat all traded in and from Calicut. The Muslim traders included natives (Mappilas and Marakkars) as well
as Muslims from the Middle East. The foreigners dominated the lucrative Indian Ocean spice trade.[54][74]
The goods carried across the Arabian Sea included spices – pepper, ginger and cardamom – and trans-shipped
textiles, and coconut products. The import into Calicut consisted of gold and copper, silver, horses (Kannur
especially), silk, various aromatics, and other minor items.[54] The Indian coastal trade network encompassed
commodities such as coconuts, coir, pepper, cardamom, cinnamon and rice. Rice was a major import item into
the kingdom of Calicut from Canara and Coromandel Coast.[54] Low-value but high-volume trade in
foodstuffs that passed through the Gulf of Mannar was also handled by the native Muslims from Malabar
Coast. The local people were suppliers and consumers of goods in Kozhikde ports.[74]

Dominant
Maritime corridor Nature
community
West Asia – Malabar Coast (Red International Muslims from the
Sea, and the Persian Gulf) / overseas Middle East
East Asia – Malabar Coast (Pegu, Native Muslims
International
Mergui, and Melaka in Myanmar (Mappilas and
/ overseas
and Malaysia and points east) Marakkars)
Native Muslims
East Coast of India – Malabar Coast (Mappilas and
(Canara, Coromandel Coast and Domestic / Marakkars), and
Bay of Bengal shores) and Maldives, coastal Chettis from
and Ceylon Coromandel
Coast[7]
Muslims, and
Domestic /
Gujarat – Malabar Coast Vanias from
coastal
Gujarat
Domestic / Muslims –
Malabar coastal
coastal Mappilas

The coins minted in Calicut included Panam (made of gold), Taram (made of silver) and Kasu (made of
copper). The officer in-charge of the mint was called the "Goldsmith of Manavikraman". The royal mint was
destroyed in 1766.[5]

16 Kasu = 1 Taram[5]
16 Tarams = 1 Panam[5]

Ma Haun's Table (1409)[7]

1 Kochi Panam = 15 Tarams

Holzschuher's Table (1503)[7]

Gold coins:
Calicut/Kannur/Kochi Panam (15 carats gold)
19 Panams = 1 cruzado (Portuguese) or ducat (European)
Kollam Panam (19 carats gold)
12 Panams = 1 cruzado (Portuguese) or ducat (European)
Silver coins:
[All Malabar Coast] Taram
16 Tarams = 1 Panam
Copper coins:
 Kollam Kasu
15 Kasus = 1 Panam

Coins in circulation in the pre-Portuguese kingdom of Calicut included gold coins called Pagoda/Pratapa,
silver Tangas of Gujarat, of Bijapur, of Vijayanagara and the Larines of Persia, Xerafins of Cairo, the Venetian
and the Genoan ducats.[7] Other coins in circulation in the kingdom of Calicut - in sometime or other -
included Riyal ("Irayal"), Dirhma ("Drama"), Rupee ("Uruppika"), Rasi ("Rachi"), and Venadu Chakram.
Venadu coins - it seems - came to circulation after the Mysorean interlude.[13]

Rasi later gave way to the Kaliyuga Rayan Panam. Of Kaliyuga Rayan Panam there were two varieties. One
of these (issued by Kannur) was afterwards imitated by the Zamorin called Virarayan Putiya Panam, to
distinguish it from the coin of Kannur, which then became Pazhaya Panam. The four Pazhaya Panams made a
Rupee while three and half Putiya Panams equalled a Rupee.[13]

Military
Calicut's attitude towards the vanquished chiefs and
European governors was generally marked by
moderation. The whole conquered area was not ruled
directly from Calicut but was ruled by a Calicut official
(general, minister or Eradi prince). Sometimes, its
former rulers allowed to rule as a vassal or feudatory.[5]

Calicut forces consisted mainly of feudal levies,

brought by the vassal rulers and chiefs. The former
were divided into five classes (Commanders of the Five
Thousand, of the Thousand, of the Five Hundred, of Present day location of the Mananchira Palace. The
the Three Hundred, and of the Hundred). Standing Fort and Palace were destroyed by Tipu Sultan in the
armies were kept at strategic locations like Calicut, 18th century
Ponnani, Chavakkad, Chunganadu etc. Dharmottu
Panikkar – the instructor in arms – commanded the
warriors. The nominal cavalry was commanded by the Kuthiravattattu Nair. Nair militia was slow moving as
compared to the cavalry, and always fought on foot.[5]

The use of firearms and balls had been known before the advent of the Portuguese. As gunpowder and shot
made by the natives were poor quality, Calicut later employed the Europeans to manufacture them. The
Mappilas formed the main corps of musketeers, led by Thinayancheri Elayathu.[5]

Kunjali Marakkars

The Kunjali Marakkars effectively functioned the naval commanders of the Calicut Zamorin in the 16th
century. The Mappila seamen were famous for their naval guerrilla warfare and hand-to-hand fighting on
board.[5] The Mappila vessels, small, lightly armed, and highly mobile, were a major threat to the Portuguese
shipping all along the Indian west coast.[61] But the Mappila artillery was inferior, and the vessels were
incapable of large scale joint/organised operations.[5] Merchants drew Mappila corsairs and used them to
transport the spices past Portuguese blockades.[52]

Historians speculate that the Marakkars were primarily suppliers of food materials from the ports of the
Coromandel Coast and spices from interior Kerala and Sri Lanka.[75] Some assume that the Marakkars, before
the beginning of the hostilities with the Portuguese, were traders of rice from Konkan.[60][76] One Ismail
Marakkar seems to be a prominent rice trader in Kochi.[60] During the early years of Portuguese presence in
Kerala the native Muslim merchants of Kochi - such as Cherina/Karine Mecar (Karim Marakkar), Mamale
(Muhammed) Marakkar, Mitos Marakkarm, Nino Marakkar, Ali Apule, Coje Mappila and Abraham Mappila
etc. - acted as spice suppliers for them.[76] The Marakkars also supplied food materials for the Portuguese
settlements in Kerala. Mamale Marakkar of Cochin was the richest man in the country.[75] These traders, along
with the other big Mappila, and Syrian Christian merchants, also acted as brokers and intermediaries in the
purchase of spices and in the sale of the goods brought from Europe.[53]

It was the commercial Interests of the Portuguese private traders in Cochin that came into the conflict with
Mappilas and the (Tamil) Maraikkayar traders.[77] By the 1520s, open confrontations between the Portuguese
and the Mappilas, in southern India and in western Sri Lanka, became a common occurrence.[78][77][53] After
a series of naval battles, the once powerful Chinna Kutti Ali was forced to sue for peace with the Portuguese
in 1540. The peace was soon broken, with the assassination of the Muslim judge of Kannur Abu Bakr Ali
(1545), and the Portuguese again came down hard on the Mappilas.[79][53] By the end of the 16th century, the
Portuguese were finally able to deal with the "Mappila challenge". Kunjali Marakkar IV was defeated and
killed, with the help of the Zamorin, in c. 1600 AD.[80] Even after the execution of Marakkar IV, the title of
the Kunjali Marakkar continued to exist for almost century.[60]

The four key Kunjali Marakkars were:[67]

Kutti Ahmed Ali (Marakkar I)

Kutti Pokker Ali (Marakkar II)
Pattu Kunjali Marakkar (Marakkar III)
Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali (Marakkar IV)

List of Calicut Zamorins

Historical documents rarely mentions the individual names of the Zamorins of Calicut. Mana Vikrama, Mana
Veda and Vira Raya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always
being known as Manavikrama. Mana Veda might be a corruption of the Old Malayalam title "Mana
Viyata".[16] Portuguese historian Diogo de Couto was the first to attempt the construction of chronological
scheme.[81]

The following is a list of rulers of Calicut from "The Zamorins of Calicut" (1938) by K. V. Krishna Iyer. The
first column (No.) gives the number of the Zamorin reckoned from the founder of the ruling family, based
upon de Couto's assumption that there had been 98 Zamorins before the Zamorin reigning in 1610.[81]

First dynasty

The original seat of the aristocratic clan was Nediyiruppu and the head of the house was known as
Nediyiruppu Mutta Eradi, a title enjoyed by the fifth in rank from the Zamorin. Under the Kodungallur Chera
rulers the Mutta Eradi governed Ernad with the title of "Ernad Utaiyar". Later the clan abandoned its ancestral
house and transferred its residence to the present day Kozhikode.[81]
 No. of
Name Reign Important events
Zamorin
Mana
The legendary founder of
1 Vikrama N/A
the ruling family.
(Manikkan)
Kozhikode city is
27 8 years
established
1339– Ibn Battuta at Kozhikode
65
1347 (1342–1347)
1402– Ma Huan at Kozhikode
73
1410 (1403)
The visits of Abdur Razzak
1442–
78 (1442) and Niccolò de'
1450
Conti (1444)
Mana
1466– Athanasius Nikitin (1468–
81 Vikrama
1474 1474) visits Kozhikode. Zamorin of Calicut (1868–1892). In
the Great
1766 Haider Ali of Mysore defeated
1474–
82 Mana Veda the Zamorin of Calicut – an English
1482
East India Company dependant at
1495– The arrival of Vasco da the time – and absorbed Malabar
84
1500 Gama (1498) district to his state. After the Third
1500– The occupations of Kochi Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar
85 was placed under the control of the
1513 (1503–1504)
company. Later the status of the
Treaty with Portuguese Zamorins as independent rulers was
1513– (1513), and the erection of changed to that of pensioners of the
86
1522 the Portuguese fort at
company.
Calicut (1514)
1522– The expulsion of
87
1529 Portuguese from Calicut
1529– The building of Portuguese
88
1531 fort at Chaliyam (1531)
1531– Battles with the
89
1540 Portuguese
1540– Treaty with Portuguese
90
1548 (1540)
Adoption of the chief of
1548– Bardela (150) and the
91
1560 battles with the
Portuguese.
1560–
92 Viraraya
1562
The expulsion of the K. C. Manavedan Raja (1932–1937)
Mana 1572–
93 Portuguese from Chaliyam
Vikrama 1574
(1571)
1574– Battles with the
94
1578 Portuguese
1578– The Portuguese allowed a
95
1588 factory at Ponnani (1584)
96 1588– The settlement of the
1597 Portuguese at Calicut
(1591)
1597– Battles with Marakkar
97
1599 (1598–1599)
1599– Capture of Marakkar's
98
1604 stronghold (1600)
Siege of Cannanore
(1604–1617) and treaties
1604–
99 with the Dutch (1604 and
1617
1608) and the English
(1615)
Mana 1617–
100
Vikrama 1627
1627–
101
1630
1630–
102
1637
Mana
Vikrama 1637– The uncle of the author of
103
(Saktan 1648 the Krishnanatakam
Tampuran)
Tiruvonam 1648–
104
Tirunal 1655
1655– The author of the
105 Mana Veda
1658 Krishnanatakam
The expulsion of the
Asvati 1658–
106 Portuguese from
Tirunal 1662
Kodungallur (1662)
The expulsion of
Puratam
107 16621666 Portuguese from Kochi
Tirunal
(1663)
1666–
108 Battles with the Dutch
1668
1668– The destruction of the
109
1671 Cheraman Sword
Uttrattati 1671– Cession of Chetwai to the
110
Tirunal 1684 Dutch
Bharani
The terror of the Dutch.
Tirunal 1684–
111 Two Mamankams (1694
Mana 1705
and 1695)
Vikrama[82]
Adoptions from
Nileswaram 1705–
112 Nileswaram (1706 and
Tirunal 1711
1707)
1711– The Dutch War (1715–
113
1729 1718)
Mana 1729–
114
Vikrama 1741
Note: Italic names only indicate the asterism under which the Zamorin is born

Second Dynasty

It seems that the original ruling family came to an end with the 114th Zamorin of Calicut. The 115th Zamorin,
the first of the second ruling family, was the oldest of the princes adopted from Nileshwaram in 1706.[81]

No. of
Name Reign Important events
Zamorin
Zamorin from Kilakke 1741–
115
Kovilakam 1746
1746–
116 Putiya Kovilakam The Dutch War (1753–1758)
1758
1758– Battles with Travancore and the invasion of Mysore,
117 Kilakke Kovilakam
1766 committed suicide. Annexed by Mysore.
1766–
118 Putiya Kovilakam
1788

119 Kerala Varma Vikrama[82] 1788–

Treaty of Seringapatam (1792)
(Putiya Kovilakam) 1798

120 Krishna Varma[82] (Putiya 1798–

Agreement of 1806 with EIC (died in 1816)
Kovilakam) 1806

Zamorin family today

The Zamorins of Calicut returned to Calicut from Travancore by "Kerala had many royal families which
1800. During the British rule, Malabar's chief importance laid in together may have more than 10,000
producing pepper.[84] The Company reduced the Zamorins to descendants. The Kochi family alone has
the position of "pensioned" landlord by giving them an annual more than 600. All these families had
payment called mali khana. Payments (Mali khana) were taken properties taken over by governments
over by the Government of India after independence in without compensation. Many of them are
living in penury now. Shouldn't the state
1947.[83] The royal family has been trying to get a pension from
pay pensions to all of them then?"[83]
the various governments over fifty years. The Kerala
government decided to award a monthly pension to members of K. K. N. Kurup
the royal family in 2013.[83]

At present the Zamorin of Calicut is trustee to 46 Hindu temples

(under Malabar Devaswom Board, as Madras H. R & C. E Act
1956) in northern Kerala, including five special grade temples,
which generate a substantial revenue. The Zamorin also has a
permanent seat on the Guruvayur Sree Krishna Temple's
managing committee. Zamorin’s High School – situated
overlooking the Tali temple – was established in 1877 and the
family manages the Zamorin’s Guruvayurappan College.[85][86]
The family has sought the government's help to preserve the
artefacts in their private collection. This collection include palm
leaf manuscripts, swords, shields and other valuables.[87]
Malabar Devaswom Board Commissioner recently proposed to
Historians say any special treatment to the
Zamorins would be against the [Indian]
Constitution, which does not grant any
privilege on the basis of birth. M. G. S.
Narayanan says the Zamorins have not
donated any property to the state. "The
Zamorin's family had fled from Calicut
when Hyder Ali from Mysore invaded
Calicut in 1766. When defeat was
imminent, the Zamorin committed suicide
and set fire to the palace," he says. "That
led to Calicut falling into the hands of
[Hyder] Ali, his son Tipu Sultan and
finally the British [Company] by 1792. The
the Kerala state government that the temples under the Zamorins had lost all their property by the
hereditary (private) trustees – such as the Zamorin – should be time they were allowed to return to Calicut
attached to the Board.[88] by 1800."[83]

M. G. S. Narayanan
See also
Kolathunadu
Kingdom of Cochin (Kochi)
Travancore
Siege of Calicut

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Further reading
S. Muhammad Hussain Nainar (1942), Tuhfat-al-Mujahidin: An Historical Work in The Arabic
Language (https://archive.org/details/Tuhfat-al-MujahidinAnHistoricalWorkInTheArabicLangua
ge), University of Madras, retrieved 3 December 2020 (English translation of the original Arabic
version written by Zainudheen Makhdoom in sixteenth century CE)
K. V. Krishna Iyer (1938), Zamorins of Calicut: From the earliest times to AD 1806 (https://archiv
e.org/details/in.gov.ignca.3379), Norman Printing Bureau, Kozhikode

External links
Columbia University (http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1400_1499/va
scodagama/zamorin/zamorin.html)
History of Calicut at Calicut Press Club (http://calicutpressclub.com/history-of-calicut.htm)
Tali Temple, Calicut (http://www.calicuttalimahakshetra.com/)

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