483 Chapter 8 GENERAL TENSORS 8.1 INTRODUCTION So far , we have discuss, tensors which are expressed in terms of components referred to three — e ; + In this chapter , we shall discuss general tensors ie. tensors which are expressed in terms of components referred ton — systems , ed Cartesian tensors i, dimensional coordinate systems dimensional coordinate which are invariant (ie. independent ‘ensors are quantities obeying certain transformation lawe. The tensor formulation was ori iginated by Italian mathemati it became popular when the German tician G. Ricci (1853 - 1925) and mathematician A. Einstein (1879 ~ 1955) used it as a natural tool for the description of his general theory of telativity . 82 n- DIMENSIONAL SPACE In three - dimensional space a point is a set of 3 numbers , specifying a particular coordinate system . For example (x,y,z). Coordinates of a point in rectangular , cylinderical , and spherical coordin called coordinates , determined by (1,0,z), and (r,0,6) are ate systems respectively . A point in n — dimensional space is , by analogy , a set of n numbers denoted by +x”), where 1,2,. (xx? ++ are taken not as exponents but as superscripts NOTE: In general tensors it is more convenient to write the coordinates Cxiixdy. (x! x"). We therefore should not confuse the superscripts with ordinary powers . 83 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATIONS re i int in X and X f x ,") be the coordinates of a point in ea eae ee i dinates of the two ‘Systems ee Suppose there exist n_ independent relations between the coordinat “stems having the form “sXn) as wk") ix") a Scanned with CamScanner484 which can be written briefly by a (atx x”), Q) where it is supposed! that the functions involved are single ~ valued , continuous , and have continuous derivatives . ‘The relation (2) defines a transformation of coordinates from the X — system to X ~ system, JX") there will correspond a unique set Conversely to each set of coordinates (x yey x") given by wad (RP), js 3) which defines a transformation of coordinates from the X - system to X - system. 84 EINSTEIN SUMMATION CONVENTION Consider an expression a,x! +a2x?4°0" taqx” @ = 7. which can be written using summation sign as ajx! Q) Letus omit the summation sign and write it simply as aj x! 6) ‘where it is understood that the repeated index j represents the summation from 1 to n. Instead of using the index j , we can also use another letter , say p , and the sum can be written as apx? ic. itis immaterial whether we use J or any other index for summation . This situation occurs so frequently that it is convenient to adopt a convention which avoids the necessity of writing summation signs . This convention introduced by Einstein in the development of his general theory of relativity is known as Einstein summation convention which is as follows : “Whenever an index appears twice ( twice as a subscript , or twice as a superscript or once as a subscript and once as a superscript ) in an expression , then the summation w.r.t. that index is ‘derstood for all values ofthe index namely 1,2,3,.......,n3 unless stated otherwise .” DUMMY INDEX An index which is Tepeated ( or occurs twice ) in a given expression , so that the summation sen on apples is called a dummy index. For example, in the expression a jx, the index j is dummy index . FREE INDEX i ‘An index occurring only once in an expression is called a free index and may take on any value 7“ ron independently . The free index in an expression shall have the same range as dummy oF Sinimation indices , unless stated otherwise . For example , in the equation Scanned with CamScannerYECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS “485 EXAMPLE (1): Write each of the following using summation convention : a a @ Fax 2haxe. ax! az! az ax! a @ a artde Sr ii) O78 OPE) 1) Bu (Ax)? + 8, (dx?)*4 8, (ax)? SOLUTION: We have a a 7 Shae b ate eee age 28 axk ae ax ad axt W) yet de tax? at Gi) OY? #0?) OF), AO) Re a Ty, “GB (dx!)? 485 (dx?)? 49, (ax3)? = By dx! dx +g dx?dxtegydxtdx? EXAMPLE (2): Ifn=4 = excdx*dx®, p23, » write down explicitly the system of equations represented by aijx) = by. SOLUTION: We see on the LHS. of the ; equation that i is a free index whereas j represents | summation. Since j varies from 1 to 4 » therefore holding i fixed , the equation can be written as ai1x! +ajax*taisx? tajyx* = bj Now giving i the values 1,2,3,4 in tum, the above equation epresents the following four equations . aux! +anx?tarsx? taux? = by aax'tanx? tan x?+anx 4 ay x! +asex?+a33 x? 4aygx4 = by aut! taax?+agx? taux! = by 85 DOUBLE SUMS indicates a Summation taking place on both i and j simultaneously . If an expression has two summation ( dummy ) ‘nes there will be a total of 2 terms in the sui ; if there ate three indices , there will be n? terms $ ad 50 on , a ij An expression can involve more than one summation index . For example , aj feex: EXAMPLE @), SoLurton, The given expression ajjx!x? represents the double sum and has n? terms in it, 1 sion can be written logically by first summing over i, and then over j. Since i varies from "otherefore holding j fixed , the given expression is the sum of n terms. That is a Write down the expression a4jx!x! in full. Scanned with CamScannery a ™ 486 ENERAL Ten sop, j vg hxd agp Xt sss tan x x (summed over 1) i linagex?x: ajxix? = arjx x +a2j% Now each term on the R.HLS. has the repeated index j which implies summation . Hence low et HS. ij 12 ajxixts (anx'x'tapx'x +. a tayax! x") (summed over j) a ayn (ay X2X! Hag KEK cesses FDA KX) 2 aya (ag XOX! Hag KH eee Aaa XX”) nye nya $ (an x x aga X Xt ee bank XK") The result is the same if one sums over j first , and then over i. If n = 4, the given expression has 16 terms in it. Thus aigxixd = ayjx!xbtanjn?x)agjx?xitagjxtxd (summed over i) ay x'x!tayx'x?+arxixitaygxixt (summed over j) ag x? x! ban x? x? bang x? x tay x?x! tay xox! tay x? x? bag x x bay xox? 8 tan xtx!+aax'x?taag xix tag xix! EXAMPLE (4): Write the following expression using summation convention . By, dx'dx'4+g,,dx7dxi4+g,dx?dx! +8,,0x'dx74g,,dx7dx?+g,,dx°dx? +gdx'dx’+g,,dx7dx+g,,dx°dx? SOLUTION: The given equation can be written as (eydx!'dx! 4g, dx7dx!+9,,dx°dx')4(g,,dx'dx*+e,.dx2dx?4 gy dxidx?) +(Bidx' dx? +g,dx7dxo+g.dx%dx>) = Bp, dxPdx' +p dx? dx?+g5.dxPdx? = BpgdxPdx?, n=3 8.6 | SUBSTITUTIONS Suppose it is required to substitute aij x! in the equation Q Substitution would lead to an absurd expressionlike Q = bijai)x!x). __ The correct procedure is first to identify any dummy indices in the expression to be substituted ‘hat coincide with indices occurring in the main expression . Changing these dummy indices to characters not found inthe main expression , one may then carry out the substitution in the usual manner as follows! Step (1) yx w xiyi = ap’, Q= bX xX). We see that the dummy index j is duplicated . Step) Change the dummy index from j to r,to get = r Qirx’. Step (3) Substitute and rearrange to get Q = bij(airx') xis airbij xx), Scanned with CamScanneryecToR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS. 487 ° vis J pXAMPLE (5): If X= 814 x", express the quadratic form Q = g1j X'x) in terms of x= variables . SOLUTION: First write X' = airx", x) s ajyx® ati = r ‘then by substitution, Q = 84)(@irx")(ajsx*) = gy jaipajex’x® 37 THE KRONECKER DELTA 3; ‘The Kronecker delta or substitution operator , written ‘ : ‘ j qs 8) = 83 and 8 Clearly, 3; =.51 forall i and j. EXAMPLE (6): Using the definition of Kronecker delta , calculate 8) x'x!. SOLUTION: ‘The given expression represents the double sum and has n? terms in it. Its sum can be writen by first summing over i, and then over j. Since i varies from 1 to n, therefore holding j fixed , the given expression is the sum of n terms, That is Pid eis of 31 Bjxixd = Bpxtxl a Bixee Bp xT! Now each term on the R.H.S. has the repeated index j which implies summation . Hence. 1 = Bixtxt4Spx'x2 i t8nx tx” aa aa $B 2x2 x FOE TH ORK KD ten te BMP BEET FORK RT = ix'x!40x!x? +t 0x'x™ OKI K HLA RH ee FOXX + + a 40x x 40x x + $x" x" = xix = oxixtextxt+ Show that if x?,x?,...)x" are n independent variables , then Ifi 1 . H iaj, a <0 since x! and x? are independent variables . axl i fi fis Then 28 ~ at a ma 8)= lo ities Scanned with CamScanner488 GENERAL TaNgo, 1 gaa! az » OX Ox) =i a = 8 ‘THEOREM (8.2): Prove that (i) ax! ax" (The coordinates x! are functions of coordinates. X) which are in tum fines ong PROOF: of coordinates x* « Then by the chain rule axiaxd axi i gi ax® ~ axk = °e i) In this case , the coordinates x’ are functions of x! which are in tum functi ions of nates 7* 2 coordinates X*. Then by chain rule 5-5 5 ‘This result also follows from part (i) by interchanging x and X i.e. using the inverse information . THEOREM (8.3): Prove that 8; AJ = A‘. PROOF: We see from the given equation thatthe index i isa free index andthe index. j represents the summation Therefore Ja Sja'ediate.. 48, A" (i=1,2, 00.0) Bj A) = BLA'HELA HW FSLAM SA! 2, d;al=87a'sszaty..482a™ = A? n, 8; A; = 67A'+52 A274... 457AT =A Thus in all cases: 8; A/ = A! That is , 3} operating on A? has substituted the free index i for the index j in A? which givesa justification of the term substitution operator , THEOREM (8.4): Prove that 84 5} = PROOF: ‘We see that on the L.H.S the index k represents the summation , therefore By 5 = 65) 484 S74. 48! BF, J512.0n) 1, 8, 8% = 81(1)484(0)4..048! (0) = 2, 34 bk = 31(0) +841) 4, HBL n(0) = when When When = B(O)45I (0) Fa BCL Tetherefore follows that 8 8 = Scanned with CamScanner