CHAPTER 30
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors
Eric R. Carlson, DMD, MD
Odontogenic cysts and tumors are rela-
tively uncommon lesions of the oral and
maxillofacial region that must be consid-
ered whenever examining and formulating
a differential diagnosis of an expansile
process of the jaws. The clinical presenta-
tion, radiographic appearance, and natur-
al history of these lesions varies consider-
ably, such that odontogenic cysts and
tumors represent a diverse group of
lesions of the jaws and overlying soft tis-
sues. Collectively speaking, their occur-
rence is frequent enough to warrant a
thorough discussion. As a whole, these
pathologic entities have been studied and
reported on extensively.
Purely defined, odontogenic refers to
derivation from a tooth-related apparatus.
Tooth formation is a complex process that
involves both connective tissues and
epithelium. Three major tissues are
involved in odontogenesis including the
enamel organ, the dental follicle, and the
dental papilla. The enamel organ is an
epithelial structure that is derived from
oral ectoderm. The dental follicle and den-
tal papilla are considered ectomesenchy-
mal in nature because they are in part
derived from neural crest cells.
For each tooth, odontogenesis begins
with the apical proliferation from the oral
mucosa of epithelium known as the dental
lamina (Figure 30-1). The dental lamina,
in turn, gives rise to the enamel organ, a
cap-shaped structure that subsequently
evolves into a bell shape. After forming the
enamel organ, the cord of dental lamina
normally fragments and degenerates;
however, small islands of the dental lami-
na may remain after tooth formation and
are believed to be responsible for the
development of several of the odontogenic
cysts and tumors.
The enamel organ has four types of
epithelium. The innermost lining is
referred to as the inner enamel epithelium
and becomes the ameloblastic layer that
forms tooth enamel. The second layer of
cells adjacent to the inner enamel epitheli-
um is the stratum intermedium. Adjacent
to this layer is the stellate reticulum, fol-
lowed by the outer enamel epithelium. Sur-
rounding the enamel organ is loose con-
nective tissue known as the dental papilla.
Contact with the enamel organ epithelium
induces the dental papilla to make odonto-
FIGURE 30-1 The enamel organ is seen emanat-
blasts that form dentin. As the odonto-
ing from the dental lamina (hematoxylin and
blasts deposit dentin, they induce the eosin; original magnification ×20) Reproduced
ameloblasts to begin forming enamel. with permission from Cawson RA, Eveson JW,
Following the initial formation of the editors. Oral pathology and diagnosis. Color
atlas with integrated text. Philadelphia (PA):
crown, a thin layer of the enamel organ
W.B. Saunders; 1987.
epithelium known as Hertwig’s root
sheath proliferates apically to provide the
stimulus for odontoblastic differentiation believed to be the source of epithelium for
in the root portion of the developing most periapical cysts but generally are not
tooth. This epithelial extension later believed to give rise to any of the odonto-
becomes fragmented but leaves behind genic neoplasms, with the possible excep-
small nests of epithelial cells known as tion of the squamous odontogenic tumor.
rests of Malassez in the periodontal liga- In the development of a tooth, follow-
ment space. The rests of Malassez are ing completion of enamel formation, the
576 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
enamel organ epithelium atrophies to
form a thin flattened layer of cells that cov-
ers the enamel of the unerupted tooth.
This layer of epithelium is known as the
reduced enamel epithelium. In the normal
sequence of events, this reduced enamel
epithelium later merges with the surface
epithelium and forms the initial gingival
crevicular epithelium of the newly erupted
tooth. However, if fluid accumulates
between the reduced enamel epithelium
and the crown of the tooth before tooth
eruption, a cyst is formed that is known as
a dentigerous or follicular cyst.
An understanding of the progression
of odontogenic cysts and tumors within
the oral and maxillofacial region requires a
thorough knowledge of the cell cycle of
these lesions and an appreciation of the
concept of proliferation versus apoptosis
(programmed cell death). Most of the
pathogenetic mechanisms of odontogenic
cysts and tumors can be explained via the
cell cycle (Figure 30-2). Normally cell divi-
sion is divided into four phases: G1 (gap
1), S (deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis), G2
(gap 2), and M (mitosis). A key event is the
progression from G1 to the S phase. Genet-
ic alterations, if unrepaired in the G1
G0
M (p16, p21, p27)
G1
Cell cycle
(PCNA, Ki-67) E2F
G2
S factors
FIGURE 30-2 The cell cycle—a concept of proliferation versus apoptosis. PCNA = proliferating cell
nuclear antigen.
phase, may be carried into the S phase and
perpetuated in subsequent cell divisions.
The G1-S checkpoint is normally regulated
by a well-coordinated and complex system
of protein interactions whose balance and
function are critical to normal cell divi-
sion.1 As can be seen in Figure 30-2, once
genetic change occurs that encourages the
development of an odontogenic cyst or
tumor, a series of events mediated by the
odontogenic lesion occur that may pro-
mote proliferation. Such events support
the pathogenetic mechanism involved in
the progression of the cyst or tumor.
It is the purpose of this chapter to
review the clinically significant and more
commonly encountered odontogenic cysts
and tumors. In so doing, salient clinical
and radiographic features are discussed, as
are the pathogenetic mechanisms support-
ing proliferation of some of the more
aggressive odontogenic cysts and tumors.
Recommendations for treatment and
prognostic information are also offered.
Odontogenic Cysts
With rare exceptions, epithelium-lined
cysts in bone are seen only in the jaws.2
Other than a few cysts that may result
BCL2, BCLXL,
others
BAX, P53
Apoptosis Inhibitor proteins
BAK, BCLXS,
others
pRb
Proliferation
(cyclins + kinases)
Growth/mitogenic
from the inclusion of epithelium along
embryonic lines of fusion, most jaw cysts
are lined by epithelium that is derived
from odontogenic epithelium, hence the
term odontogenic cysts. These cysts are sub-
classified as developmental or inflamma-
tory in nature. Although the cell type is
often known, developmental cysts are of
unknown origin; however, they do not
seem to be the result of an inflammatory
reaction. Inflammatory cysts, on the other
hand, are the result of inflammation
(Table 30-1).
Dentigerous Cyst
By definition, a dentigerous cyst occurs in
association with an unerupted tooth, most
commonly mandibular third molars.
Other common associations are with max-
illary third molars, maxillary canines, and
mandibular second premolars.2 They may
also occur around supernumerary teeth
and in association with odontomas; how-
ever, they are only rarely associated with
primary teeth.2,3 Although dentigerous
cysts occur over a wide age range, they are
most commonly seen in 10- to 30-year-
olds. There is a slight male predilection,
and their prevalence appears to be higher
in Whites than in Blacks. Many dentiger-
ous cysts are small asymptomatic lesions
that are discovered serendipitously on
routine radiographs, although some may
grow to considerable size causing bony
expansion that is usually painless until sec-
ondary infection occurs.
Radiographically, the dentigerous cyst
presents as a well-defined unilocular radi-
olucency, often with a sclerotic border
(Figure 30-3). Since the epithelial lining is
derived from the reduced enamel epitheli-
um, this radiolucency typically and prefer-
entially surrounds the crown of the tooth.
A large dentigerous cyst may give the
impression of a multilocular process
because of the persistence of bone trabec-
ulae within the radiolucency. However,
dentigerous cysts are grossly and
histopathologically unilocular processes

Table 30-1 Classification of
Odontogenic Cysts
Developmental
Dentigerous cyst
Eruption cyst
Odontogenic keratocyst
Orthokeratinized odontogenic cyst
Gingival (alveolar cyst of the newborn)
Gingival cyst of the adult
Lateral periodontal cyst
Calcifying odontogenic cyst
Glandular odontogenic cyst
Inflammatory
Periapical (radicular cyst)
Residual periapical (radicular cyst)
Buccal bifurcation cyst
and probably are never truly multilocular
lesions.2 Three types of dentigerous cyst
have been described radiographically,
including the central variety, in which the
radiolucency surrounds just the crown of
the tooth, with the crown projecting into
the cyst lumen. In the lateral variety, the
cyst develops laterally along the tooth root
and partially surrounds the crown. The
circumferential variant of the dentigerous
cyst exists when the cyst surrounds the
crown but also extends down along the
root surface, as if the entire tooth were
located within the cyst.
FIGURE 30-3 This unilocular radiolucency of the
left mandibular ramus associated with impacted
tooth no. 17 was discovered serendipitously when
the patient was evaluated for routine dental work.
One diagnostic dilemma for oral and
maxillofacial surgeons is distinguishing
between a dentigerous cyst and an
enlarged dental follicle. This distinction
becomes clinically significant when the
surgeon considers whether to submit tis-
sue removed with an impacted third molar
for histopathologic examination as
opposed to clinical designation as a folli-
cle, with simple disposal of the tissue. The
radiographic distinction becomes some-
what arbitrary; however, any pericoronal
radiolucency that is > 4 or 5 mm is con-
sidered suggestive of cyst formation and
should be submitted for microscopic
examination. It is noteworthy that pathol-
ogists also struggle with the distinction
between dental follicles associated with
developing teeth and odontogenic
lesions.4,5 It seems that odontogenic cysts,
odontogenic fibroma, and odontogenic
myxoma are the lesions most often inap-
propriately diagnosed by surgical patholo-
gists owing to a general unfamiliarity with
the normal process of odontogenesis.4
Of perhaps even greater concern is the
large unilocular radiolucency. Although
most commonly classified radiographically
as dentigerous cysts, it is incumbent upon
the surgeon to section these excised speci-
mens in the operating room and to consid-
er frozen-section analysis. In fact, some
specimens may contain a focus of unicystic
ameloblastoma and therefore require con-
sideration of more extensive treatment.
The histologic features of dentigerous
cysts may vary greatly depending mainly on
whether or not the cyst is inflamed. In the
noninflamed dentigerous cyst, a thin epithe-
lial lining may be present with the fibrous
connective tissue wall loosely arranged (Fig-
ure 30-4). In the inflamed dentigerous cyst,
the epithelium commonly demonstrates
hyperplastic rete ridges, and the fibrous cyst
wall shows an inflammatory infiltrate.
Treatment and Prognosis Most dentiger-
ous cysts are treated with enucleation of
the cyst and removal of the associated
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 577
FIGURE 30-4 The biopsy of the radiolucency in
Figure 30-3 shows an atrophic stratified squamous
epithelium without significant associated inflam-
mation. The diagnosis is dentigerous cyst (hema-
toxylin and eosin; original magnification ×40).
tooth, often without a preceding incisional
biopsy (Figure 30-5). Larger cysts that are
treated in the operating room should prob-
ably undergo frozen-section diagnosis and
appropriate treatment that might be dic-
tated by other diagnoses. Curettage of the
cyst cavity is usually advisable at the time
of removal of the cyst in the event that a
more aggressive cyst is diagnosed
histopathologically following removal in
an office setting. Such diagnoses would
include odontogenic keratocyst and uni-
cystic ameloblastoma.
Large dentigerous cysts may be treated
with marsupialization (Figure 30-6) when
enucleation and curettage might otherwise
result in neurosensory dysfunction or pre-
dispose the patient to an increased chance
of pathologic fracture. Some patients who
are not candidates for general anesthesia
may also be treated with a marsupialization
procedure in an office setting under local
anesthesia. This permits decompression of
the large dentigerous cyst with a resultant
reduction in the size of the cyst and bony
defect. At a later date the reduced cyst can
be removed in a smaller-scale surgery.
I emphasize the need for histopatho-
logic examination of all radiolucencies that
are empirically diagnosed as dentigerous
cysts. This includes those that are enucleat-
ed as well as those that undergo marsupial-
ization, during which it is important
to inspect the cyst lumen and submit a
578 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology

Adequate diagnosis and treatment of

A acceptable bony fill.
representative piece for histopathologic
examination. Support of this statement
stems from the occasional formation of a
squamous cell carcinoma, mucoepider-
moid carcinoma, or ameloblastoma from
or in association with a dentigerous cyst.6–8
The prognosis for most histopathologically
diagnosed dentigerous cysts is excellent,
with recurrence being a rare finding.
Odontogenic Keratocyst
The odontogenic keratocyst is a distinctive
form of developmental odontogenic cyst
that deserves special consideration because
of its specific histopathologic features and
aggressive clinical behavior. Two variants of
B diagnose this syndrome.12–14
FIGURE 30-5 A, The dentigerous cyst in Figure
30-3 is treated with enucleation and curettage of
the cyst and removal of the etiologic tooth. B, The
5-year postoperative radiograph shows an
this cyst are well known; the sporadic cyst
and the cyst associated with the nevoid basal
cell carcinoma syndrome. Both variants of
the odontogenic keratocyst are believed to
be derived from remnants of the dental lam-
ina. This cyst shows a different growth
mechanism and biologic behavior from the
previously described dentigerous cyst. Most
authors believe that dentigerous cysts con-
tinue to enlarge as a result of increased
osmotic pressure within the lumen of the
cyst. This mechanism does not appear to
hold true for odontogenic keratocysts, and
their growth may be related to unknown
factors inherent in the epithelium itself of
enzymatic activity in the fibrous wall.9
the odontogenic keratocyst is important
for three reasons: (1) this cyst is recog-
nized as being more aggressive than other
odontogenic cysts,10 (2) the odontogenic
keratocyst has a higher rate of recurrence
than other odontogenic cysts,11 and (3) the
association with nevoid basal cell carcino-
ma syndrome requires that the clinician
examine a patient with multiple cysts of
the jaws for physical findings that might
Odontogenic keratocysts may be found
in patients ranging in age from infancy to
old age; however, 60% of cases are seen in
people between 10 and 40 years old.15 In his
series of 312 cases, Brannon found a mean
age of nearly 38 years.16 The peak preva-
lence was in the second and third decades
of life, with only 15% occurring past the age
of 60 years. Woolgar and colleagues
reviewed 682 odontogenic keratocysts from
522 patients and found a mean age of
40 years for patients with single nonrecur-
rent cysts and 26.2 years for patients with
multiple cysts of the nevoid basal cell carci-
noma syndrome.17 A slight male predilec-
tion is usually seen, and 60 to 80% of cases
involve the mandible, particularly in the
posterior body and ascending ramus.2
Although it is rare for a dentigerous cyst to
appear multilocular on radiographs, it is
most common for odontogenic keratocysts
to appear multilocular (Figure 30-7). Many

A B C

FIGURE 30-6 A, This large biopsy-proven dentigerous cyst occurred in an elderly patient who had coronary artery disease. Owing to the size of the cyst and the
compromised cardiac status of the patient, a relatively noninvasive marsupialization was performed. B, An acrylic plug with a wire handle was placed in a small
surgical entrance into the cyst cavity. The cyst shrunk considerably, after which time the etiologic impacted tooth was removed with a small remnant of dentiger-
ous cyst. C, The 5-year postmarsupialization radiograph shows an excellent fill of bone.

FIGURE 30-7 This multilocular radiolucency, pre-
sent in a 54-year-old man, should suggest an
odontogenic keratocyst when formulating a differ-
ential diagnosis.
appear unilocular and can therefore be con-
fused with dentigerous cysts. It is clear,
therefore, that the differential diagnosis of a
unilocular radiolucency must include both
entities and that treatment should include
curettage in the event that the diagnosis is
odontogenic keratocyst. When multiple
multilocular radiolucencies are noted on a
panoramic radiograph, the clinician must
perform an incisional biopsy and investi-
gate the possibility of nevoid basal cell car-
cinoma syndrome (Table 30-2).
Histologically, the odontogenic kera-
tocyst is readily recognized. A uniform
layer of stratified squamous epithelium,
usually six to eight cells in thickness, is
present (Figure 30-8). The parakeratotic
surface is characteristically corrugated.
The wall is usually thin and friable, which
can pose problems for removal in one
piece intraoperatively. Epithelial budding
and the presence of daughter cysts may be
noted in the connective tissue wall. It is
generally advisable to ask the pathologist
to examine the sections carefully for these
two features as they generally impart a
more aggressive character to the cyst.
Treatment and Prognosis Like the treat-
ment of most odontogenic cysts, the
odontogenic keratocyst may be treated
with enucleation and curettage and must
be removed in one piece, which requires
acceptable access and lighting (Figure 30-
9). As such, many patients are suitably
treated in an operating room setting under
general anesthesia. This is particularly
helpful when removing large cysts. It is my
experience and that of others that a large
majority of sporadic odontogenic kerato-
cysts may be effectively managed with a
thorough enucleation and curettage
surgery.18,19 MacIntosh has advocated the
resection of odontogenic keratocysts with
5 mm linear margins as the preferred pri-
mary method of treatment, and has
reported on 37 patients with 43 lesions
emphasizing the efficacy and superior
Table 30-2 Clinical Features of the
Basal Cell Nevus Syndrome
≥ 50% frequency
Multiple basal cell carcinomas
Odontogenic keratocysts
Epidermal cysts of the skin
Palmar/plantar pits
Calcified falx cerebri
Enlarged head circumference
Rib anomalies (splayed, fused, partially
missing, bifid)
Mild ocular hypertelorism
Spina bifida occulta of cervical or
thoracic vertebrae
15–49% frequency
Calcified ovarian fibromas
Short fourth metacarpals
Kyphoscoliosis or other vertebral
anomalies
Pectus excavatum or carinatum
Strabismus (exotropia)
< 15% frequency (but not random)
Medulloblastoma
Meningioma
Lymphomesenteric cysts
Cardiac fibroma
Fetal rhabdomyoma
Marfanoid build
Cleft lip and/or palate
Hypogonadism in males
Mental retardation
Adapted from Gorlin FJ.14
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 579
results of resection over all other thera-
peutic undertakings.20
The reported frequency of recurrence
of the odontogenic keratocyst ranges from
2.5% to 62.5% in various studies.11 This
wide variation may be related to the total
number of cases studied, the length of fol-
low-up periods, and the inclusion or
exclusion of orthokeratinized cysts in the
study group. Several reports that include
large numbers of cases indicate a recur-
rence rate of approximately 30%.2 Regezi
and colleagues point out that the recur-
rence rate for solitary odontogenic kerato-
cysts is 10 to 30%.21 They indicate that
approximately 5% of patients with odon-
togenic keratocysts have multiple sporadic
jaw cysts (nonsyndromic) and that their
recurrence rate is greater than that for soli-
tary lesions.21 Brannon has suggested three
mechanisms responsible for recurrence:
(1) remnants of dental lamina within the
jaws not associated with the original
odontogenic keratocyst being responsible
for de novo cyst formation; (2) incomplete
removal (persistence) of the original cyst
secondary to a thin friable lining and cor-
tical perforation with adherence to adja-
cent soft tissue; and (3) remaining rests of
dental lamina and satellite cysts following
enucleation.22 Vedtofte and Praetorius
reviewed 72 patients with 75 odontogenic
keratocysts and observed remnants of
dental lamina between the cyst membrane
FIGURE 30-8 The classic histologic appearance
of an odontogenic keratocyst from the incisional
biopsy of the lesion in Figure 30-7 (hematoxylin
and eosin; original magnification ×40).
580 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
A have quantified these parameters.25,26 The
B
FIGURE 30-9 A, A very thin cyst lining was
encountered when performing the enucleation
and curettage of the odontogenic keratocyst in
Figure 30-7. B, The 7-year postoperative radi-
ograph shows an excellent fill of bone. A recon-
struction bone plate was placed at the time of the
enucleation and curettage to prevent a patholog-
ic fracture of the mandible.
and overlying mucosa.23 As such, they
advocated the excision of overlying
mucosa in conjunction with removal of
the cyst. Williams and Connor recom-
mended a primary enucleation and curet-
tage surgery for odontogenic keratocysts,
including the use of methylene blue as a
marking agent, followed by a 3-minute
application of Carnoy’s solution.11 They
indicated that resection should be consid-
ered for the treatment of a recurrent
odontogenic keratocyst, with inclusion of
appropriate bone and soft tissue margins.
Pathogenetically, the odontogenic ker-
atocyst expresses cell cycle phenomena that
support its proliferation.21 These include
the release of the cytokines interleukin 1a
(IL-1a) and IL-6 as well as parathyroid
hormone–related protein that encourage
resorption of bone.21,24 Moreover, the
expression of proliferating cell nuclear 9q22.3-q31. Affected patients (Figure 30-
antigen (PCNA) in odontogenic cysts has 10A) may demonstrate frontal and tem-
been assessed. It is hypothesized that the poroparietal bossing, hypertelorism, and
identification of the proliferative activity in mandibular prognathism (see Table 30-
odontogenic cysts and tumors may be use- 2).14 Other frequent skeletal anomalies
ful to predict their biologic behavior. The include bifid ribs and lamellar calcification
same may be true of the Ki-67 antigen. In of the falx cerebri (Figure 30-10B).14 The
fact, two studies have been performed that
conclusion of both studies is that an
increased proliferative activity for the
odontogenic keratocyst in comparison
with the dentigerous cyst is noted consis-
tently. These results are in agreement with
the more aggressive behavior seen with the
odontogenic keratocyst.
The orthokeratinized odontogenic
cyst, once thought to be a variant of the
odontogenic keratocyst, is now generally
well accepted as being a different clinico-
pathologic entity from the more common
parakeratinized odontogenic keratocyst; it
should therefore be placed in a different
category. These cysts usually appear as
unilocular radiolucencies, but occasional
examples have been multilocular. A major-
A
ity of these cysts are encountered in a
lesion that appears clinically and radi-
ographically to represent a dentigerous
cyst, most often involving an unerupted
mandibular third molar tooth. Histologi-
cally, the epithelium is thin and orthoker-
atinized, and a prominent palisaded basal
layer, characteristic of the odontogenic
keratocyst, is not present. Enucleation and
curettage of the orthokeratinized cyst is
curative in most cases. The reported rate
of recurrence of 2% is far lower than the
previously quoted statistics for recurrence
of the odontogenic keratocyst.2
Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome
The nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome
(basal cell nevus syndrome, Gorlin’s syn- B
drome) is an autosomal-dominant inher-
ited condition that exhibits high pene- FIGURE 30-10 A, This 18-year-old shows some of
trance and variable expressivity. It is the clinical features of the nevoid basal cell carci-
noma syndrome including frontal bossing and
caused by mutations in the PTCH tumor mandibular prognathism. B, The radiograph from
suppressor gene, mapped to chromosome another patient shows a calcified falx cerebri.
 Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 581

most significant clinical feature is the ten-
dency to develop multiple basal cell carci-
nomas that may affect both exposed and
non–sun-exposed areas of the skin. Pitting
defects on the palms and soles can be
found in nearly two-thirds of affected
patients (Figure 30-11). The discovery of
multiple odontogenic keratocysts is usual-
ly the first manifestation of the syndrome
that leads to the diagnosis. For this reason,
any patient with an odontogenic kerato-
cyst should be evaluated for this condi-
tion. Although the cysts in patients with
nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome
cannot definitely be distinguished micro-
scopically from those not associated with
the syndrome, they often demonstrate
more epithelial proliferation and daughter
cyst formation in the cyst wall.
The treatment of the odontogenic
keratocyst in patients with nevoid basal
cell carcinoma syndrome can be difficult
owing to the large number of “recur-
rences” in these patients. As a matter of
point, I choose to refer to these as new
primary cysts owing to the autosomal-
dominant penetrance of the syndrome
and cyst development. It is certainly pos-
sible that many of these cysts are persis-
tent, particularly when considering how
common it can be to retain rests of the
dental lamina when enucleating an odon-
togenic keratocyst. Whatever the mecha-
nism, a resection hardly seems to be war-
ranted. Marsupialization is a more
desirable procedure (Figure 30-12) and
has been shown to result in complete res-
olution of the sporadic cyst, with no his-
tologic signs of cystic remnants, daughter
cysts, or budding of the basal layer of the
epithelium.27 Although all of the eight
cases in the series by Pogrel and Jordan
were sporadic cysts,27 a similar approach
to syndrome patients with odontogenic
keratocysts that had been operated on
multiple times has been performed with
success in a small sample size.18
Glandular Odontogenic Cyst
The glandular odontogenic cyst (sialo-
odontogenic cyst) is a rare and recently
described cyst of the jaws that is capable
of aggressive behavior and recurrence.
Although it is generally accepted as being
of odontogenic origin, it shows glandular
or salivary features that seem to point to
the pluripotentiality of odontogenic
epithelium as cuboidal/columnar cells,
mucin production, and cilia are noted in
these cysts. Glandular odontogenic cysts
occur most commonly in middle-aged
adults, with a mean age of 49 years at the
time of diagnosis.2 Eighty percent of
cases occur in the mandible,21 and a
strong predilection for the anterior
region of the jaws has been reported,
with many mandibular lesions crossing
the midline (Figure 30-13). These cysts
may appear either unilocular or multi-
locular radiographically.
There is a histologic similarity between
the glandular odontogenic cyst and the pre-
dominantly cystic intraosseous mucoepi-
dermoid carcinoma. However, the epithelial
lining of the glandular odontogenic cyst is
typically thinner and does not show evi-
dence of the more solid or microcystic
epithelial proliferations seen in mucoepi-
dermoid carcinoma (Figure 30-14). Wal-
dron and Koh reviewed the similarities
between the two lesions and concluded that
it is entirely possible that some cases previ-
ously diagnosed as central mucoepidermoid

A B

FIGURE 30-11 Plantar pitting can be observed

by immersing the foot in povidone-iodine solu- FIGURE 30-12 The patient in Figure 30-10A had previously undergone three enucleation and curet-
tion followed by a conservative wash of the foot tage surgeries for bilateral maxillary odontogenic keratocysts. A, Development of new large cysts in
with saline. The solution is taken up in the pits this area led to additional treatment with marsupialization. B, Six months later the axial computed
present in the plantar surface of the foot. tomography shows regression of the cysts.
582 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology

rence rate of approximately 30% and

therefore recommend resection.29

Calcifying Odontogenic Cyst

A Although designated as a cyst, some investi-
B
FIGURE 30-13 A and B, This glandular odonto-
genic cyst presented with a unilocular radiolucen-
cy of the anterior mandible crossing the midline.
tumors may be reclassified as examples of
glandular odontogenic cysts.28
Treatment and Prognosis Most glandu-
lar odontogenic cysts are treated with enu-
cleation and curettage (Figure 30-15).
Some authors, however, point to a recur-
FIGURE 30-14 Histopathology of the lesion in
Figure 30-13 shows a nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium with intraepithelial
mucous cells and cilia (hematoxylin and eosin;
original magnification ×40).
The calcifying odontogenic cyst (COC), or
Gorlin’s cyst, is an uncommon lesion that
demonstrates considerable histopathologic
diversity and variable clinical behavior.
gators provide evidence for subclassifica-
tion as a neoplasm as well.30,31 In addition,
the COC may be associated with other rec-
ognized odontogenic tumors, most com-
monly the odontoma. Adenomatoid odon-
togenic tumors and ameloblastomas have
also been associated with the COC. Ghost
cell keratinization, the characteristic micro-
scopic feature of this cyst, is also a defining
feature of the cutaneous lesion known as
the calcifying epithelioma of Malherbe or
pilomatrixoma. The World Health Organi-
zation’s classification of odontogenic
tumors groups the COC with all its variants
as an odontogenic tumor rather than an
odontogenic cyst. The commentary on the
second edition by Kramer, Pindborg, and
Shear points out that some COCs appear to
be non-neoplastic, but others show an infil-
trative pattern of growth.32 They further
indicate that more experience with the
COC may provide reliable criteria for their
reclassification. The review by Hong and
colleagues designated 79 of 92 cases of
COC as cysts with the remaining 13 cases
being neoplastic in nature.30
The COC is predominantly an
intraosseous lesion, although 13 to 30% of
reported cases occur as peripheral lesions.2
Both the peripheral and central lesions
occur with about equal frequency in the
maxilla and mandible. There appears to be
a predilection for the incisor and canine
areas. Patients range in age from infant to
elderly, with a mean age of occurrence of
about 30 years. COCs that are associated
with odontomas tend to occur in younger
patients, with a mean age of 17 years.2 The
more rare neoplastic variant of the COC
appears to occur in elderly patients. Most
A
B
FIGURE 30-15 A, The patient whose radi-
ograph appears in Figure 30-13 underwent an
enucleation and curettage of the cyst as well as
removal of the anterior mandibular teeth. B,
The 3-year postoperative radiograph shows
acceptable bony fill.
COCs appear radiographically as unilocu-
lar well-defined lesions. The radiopaque
structures within the lesions have been
described as either irregular calcifications
or toothlike densities.
Treatment and Prognosis The standard
treatment for the COC is enucleation and
curettage (Figure 30-16). A limited num-
ber of recurrences have been reported after
such treatment. When a COC is associated
with another recognized odontogenic
tumor such as an ameloblastoma, the
treatment and prognosis are likely to be
the same as for the associated tumor.
Although only a few cases have been
reported,31 a carcinoma arising in a COC
may occur. One such reported case result-
ed in multiple pulmonary metastases and
was referred to as an odontogenic ghost

A
B odontogenic epithelium and ectomesenchy-
C (Table 30-4). Studies from North America
FIGURE 30-16 A, This calcifying odontogenic
cyst appears as a mixed radiolucent/radiopaque
lesion on the occlusal radiograph. B, This patient
underwent enucleation and curettage of the
lesion. C, The histopathology shows characteris-
tic ghost cells (hematoxylin and eosin; original
magnification ×40).
cell carcinoma by the authors.33 It has not
been demonstrated whether the malignant
COC arose from previously benign lesions
and, if so, whether that precursor was the
cystic or neoplastic type.
Odontogenic Tumors
Odontogenic tumors comprise a complex
group of lesions of great importance to oral
and maxillofacial surgeons. Many of these
lesions are true tumors, whereas some are
hamartomas. Like normal odontogenesis,
odontogenic tumors demonstrate varying
inductive interactions between odontogenic
epithelium and odontogenic ectomes-
enchyme. This ectomesenchyme was for-
merly referred to as mesenchyme because it
was thought to be derived from the meso-
dermal layer of the embryo. It is now accept-
ed that this tissue differentiates from the
ectodermal layer in the cephalic portion of
the embryo; hence, the designation ectomes-
enchyme. Odontogenic tumors are typically
subclassified by their tissues of origin (Table
30-3). Tumors of odontogenic epithelium
are composed only of odontogenic epitheli-
um without any participation of the odon-
togenic ectomesenchyme. Other odonto-
genic neoplasms, referred to as mixed
odontogenic tumors, are composed of
mal elements. A third group, tumors of
odontogenic ectomesenchyme, includes
those tumors composed principally of
ectomesenchymal elements. Although some
odontogenic epithelium may be included
within these lesions, it does not appear to
play an essential role in their pathogenesis.
The frequency of odontogenic tumors
seems to be geographically determined
seem to indicate that odontogenic tumors
represent approximately 1% of all acces-
sions in oral pathology laboratories,34,35
whereas African studies have a much high-
er incidence of odontogenic tumors.36–41
Moreover, the ameloblastoma is more
commonly encountered in African and
other underdeveloped countries than in
North America.
Ameloblastoma
The ameloblastoma is the most common
clinically significant and potentially lethal
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 583
Table 30-3 Classification of Odontogenic
Tumors
Tumors of odontogenic epithelium
Ameloblastoma
• Malignant ameloblastoma
• Ameloblastic carcinoma
Calcifying epithelial odontogenic
tumor
Squamous odontogenic tumor
Clear cell odontogenic carcinoma
Primary intraosseous carcinoma
Tumors of odontogenic epithelium with
odontogenic ectomesenchyme ± dental
hard tissue formation
Ameloblastic fibroma
Ameloblastic fibro-odontoma
Ameloblastic fibrosarcoma
Odontoameloblastoma
Odontoma
• Compound composite
• Complex composite
Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor
Tumors of odontogenic ectomesenchyme
± included odontogenic epithelium
Odontogenic fibroma
Granular cell odontogenic tumor
Odontogenic myxoma
Cementoblastoma
odontogenic tumor. Excluding odon-
tomas, its incidence equals or exceeds the
combined total of all other odontogenic
tumors. These tumors may arise from rests
of the dental lamina, a developing enamel
organ, the epithelial lining of an odonto-
genic cyst, or the basal cells of the oral
mucosa.2 The ameloblastoma occurs in
three different variants, each with specific
implications for treatment and a unique
prognosis: solid or multicystic, unicystic,
and peripheral. In an analysis of the inter-
national literature, 3,677 cases of
ameloblastoma were reviewed, of which
92% were solid or multicystic, 6% were
unicystic, and 2% were peripheral.42
Solid or Multicystic Ameloblastoma
This variant of the ameloblastoma is
584 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
Table 30-4 Incidence of Odontogenic Tumors
Specimens Regezi JA et al.34
(1978)
Total 54,534
Total odontogenic tumors 706 (1.3%)*
Ameloblastoma 78 (11.0%)†
Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor 22 (3.1%)†
Odontoma 473 (67.0%)†
Myxoma 20 (2.8%)†
*Percentage of total specimens in respective study.
†
Percentage of total odontogenic tumors in respective study specimens.
encountered in patients over a wide age
range.43 It is rare in children in their first
decade of life and relatively uncommon in
the second decade.44 The tumor shows a
relatively equal rate of occurrence in the
third through seventh decades. There is
no gender predilection, and racial
predilection is most controversial. About
85% of this variant of the ameloblastoma
occur in the mandible, most commonly in
the molar/ramus region.45 About 15% of
multicystic ameloblastomas occur in the
maxilla, usually in the posterior
regions.46–49 A painless expansion of the
jaws is the most common clinical presen-
tation; neurosensory changes are uncom-
mon, even with large tumors (Figure 30-
17). Slow growth is the rule, with
untreated tumors leading to tremendous
facial disfigurement (Figure 30-18).50
The most common radiographic fea-
ture is that of a multilocular radiolucency.
Buccal and lingual cortical expansion is
common, frequently to the point of perfo-
ration. Resorption of adjacent tooth roots
is common. Histologic patterns include
follicular, in which the stellate reticulum is
located within the center of the odonto-
genic island (Figure 30-19); plexiform, in
which the stellate reticulum is located out-
side of the odontogenic rest; acanthoma-
tous, in which squamous differentiation of
the odontogenic epithelium is present;
granular cell, in which the tumor islands
exhibit cells that demonstrate abundant
Study (yr)
Odukoya O36 Daley TD et al.35
(1995) (1994)
1,511 40,000
289 (19.1%)* 445 (1.1%)*
169 (58.5%)† 79 (17.8%)†
18 (6.2%)† 14 (3.1%)†
12 (4.2%)† 204 (45.8%)†
34 (11.8%)† 24 (5.4%)†
granular eosinophilic cytoplasm; desmo-
plastic owing to extremely dense collage- A
nized stroma that supports the tumor; and
the least common basal cell variant, in
which nests of uniform basaloid cells are
present, with a strong resemblance to basal
cell carcinoma. In this latter tumor stellate
reticulum is not present in the central por-
tions of the nests. One additional excep-
tion surrounds the desmoplastic variant,
which is generally not a radiolucent tumor
radiographically owing to its high content
of collagenized stroma.
Pathogenetically, the proliferative
B
capacity of ameloblastomas has been stud-
ied. As might be conjectured, the recurrent FIGURE 30-17 A 17-year-old girl with obvious
ameloblastoma is associated with the high- facial expansion (A) related to a multilocular
est number of PCNA-positive cells, fol- radiolucency of the left mandible associated
with impacted tooth no. 17 (B). Note the
lowed by the previously unoperated advanced root resorption on teeth no. 18 and
ameloblastomas.26 The nuclear PCNA pos- 19, indicative of the aggressive nature of this
itivity of the unicystic ameloblastoma was tumor. The incisional biopsy showed solid/mul-
ticystic ameloblastoma.
notably lower than the positivity of the
solid multicystic ameloblastoma.26 Other
cell cycle features supporting the aggressive
behavior of the ameloblastoma include the this neoplasm and how best to treat it.52 The
overexpression of BCL2 and BCLX, as well literature is therefore paradoxically a source
as the expression of IL-1 and IL-6.51 of both information and misinformation.
Conflicting opinion, extending backward in
Treatment and Prognosis The ameloblas- time, has served both to educate and to con-
toma continues to be a subject of fascina- fuse, and it has been left to generations of
tion in the international literature. Unfortu- surgeons to sift and interpret what they con-
nately, although most agree that aggressive sider to be clinically valid. It is my strong
treatment is essential for cure of this tumor, opinion that this neoplasm is both highly
the fact remains that a consensus has not aggressive and curable. This notwithstand-
been reached on the biologic behavior of ing, numerous methods of treatment have

A B
been recommended, ranging from simple
enucleation and curettage to resection.53–59
The solid or multicystic ameloblastoma
tends to infiltrate between intact cancellous
bone trabeculae at the periphery of the
tumor before bone resorption becomes
radiographically evident. Therefore, the
actual margin of the tumor often extends
beyond its apparent radiographic or clinical
margin.60 Attempts to remove the tumor by
curettage, therefore, predictably leave
behind small islands of tumor within the
bone, which are later determined to be
recurrent disease. These must be realized as
persistent disease as the tumor was never
controlled from the outset. When a small
burden of tumor is left behind, it may be
FIGURE 30-19 The incisional biopsy of the
patient in Figure 30-17 shows follicular variant
of the solid/multicystic ameloblastoma (hema-
toxylin and eosin; original magnification ×60).
FIGURE 30-18 Twenty years of undisturbed
growth of a solid/multicystic ameloblastoma led
to significant facial disfigurement (A), with an
impressive radiographic appearance (B). A seg-
mental resection of the right mandible was per-
formed (C).
decades before this persistent disease
becomes clinically and radiographically evi-
dent, and long after a surgeon falsely pro-
claimed the patient to be cured.
Owing to the highly infiltrative and
aggressive nature of the solid or multicystic
ameloblastoma, I recommend resection of
the tumor with 1.0 cm linear bony margins
(Figure 30-20). This linear bony margin
should be confirmed by intraoperative
specimen radiographs. Soft tissue margins
are best managed according to the anatom-
ic barrier margin principles whereby one
uninvolved surrounding anatomic barrier
is sacrificed on the periphery of the speci-
men.61 When all soft and hard tissue mar-
gins are histologically negative, the patient
is likely to be cured of this neoplasm.
Unfortunately, any less aggressive treatment
modality may be fraught with inevitable
persistence discovered at variable times
postoperatively.62 Moreover, although the
persistent and occasionally nonresectable
ameloblastoma is radiosensitive, once this
otherwise benign tumor defies curative sur-
gical therapy, radiation is of questionable
use in salvaging these patients.63,64
Unicystic Ameloblastoma In 1970 Vick-
ers and Gorlin published their findings
regarding the histologic alterations associ-
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 585
C
ated with neoplastic transformation of
ameloblastomatous epithelium.65 These
histologic changes were (1) hyperchroma-
tism of basal cell nuclei of the epithelium
lining the cystic cavities, (2) palisading and
polarization of basal cell nuclei of the
epithelium lining the cystic cavities, and (3)
cytoplasmic vacuolization, particularly of
basal cells of cystic linings. They referred to
these changes as early histopathologic fea-
tures of neoplasia. Unicystic ameloblastoma
refers to a pattern of epithelial proliferation
that has been described in dentigerous cysts
of the jaws that does not exhibit the histo-
logic criteria for ameloblastoma published
by Vickers and Gorlin.66–69 This entity
deserves separate consideration based on its
clinical, radiographic, and pathologic fea-
tures. Moreover, in many cases it may be
treated more conservatively than the solid
or multicystic ameloblastoma with the
same degree of cure.70
Unicystic ameloblastomas are most
commonly seen in young patients, with
about 50% of these tumors being diag-
nosed during the second decade of life.
The average age of patients with unicystic
ameloblastomas has been reported as
22.1 years, compared with 40.2 years for
the solid or multicystic variant.42 More
than 90% of these tumors are found in the
586 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
A ments are confined to the lumen of the cyst
B in conventional ameloblastomas. As such,
FIGURE 30-20 A, Treatment of the ameloblas-
toma of the patient in Figure 30-17 required a
disarticulation resection of the left mandible. B,
The effectiveness of the bony linear margin
should always be evaluated by intraoperative
specimen radiographs.
mandible, usually in the molar/ramus
region.71 A unilocular radiolucency, mim-
icking a dentigerous cyst, is the most com-
mon radiographic presentation for the
unicystic ameloblastoma (Figure 30-21).
Most, if not all, unicystic ameloblastomas
are unilocular radiolucencies.2 Three
histopathologic variants of unicystic
ameloblastoma have been described that
impact treatment and prognosis. In the
luminal unicystic ameloblastoma, the
tumor is confined to the luminal surface
of the cyst (Figure 30-22). The lesion con-
FIGURE 30-21 This unilocular radiolucency
associated with tooth no. 17 should generate a
differential diagnosis of dentigerous and other
odontogenic cysts.
sists of a fibrous cyst wall with a lining
that consists totally or partially of
ameloblastic epithelium. The intraluminal
unicystic ameloblastoma contains one or
more nodules of ameloblastoma project-
ing from the cystic lining into the lumen
of the cyst. These nodules may be relative-
ly small or largely fill the cystic lumen,
and are noted to show a plexiform pattern
that resembles the plexiform pattern seen
these tumors are referred to as plexiform
unicystic ameloblastomas. In the third
variant, known as mural unicystic
ameloblastoma, the fibrous wall of the cyst
is infiltrated by typical follicular or plexi-
form ameloblastoma. The extent and
depth of the ameloblastic infiltration may
vary considerably.
Pathogenetically, the unicystic amelo-
blastoma seems to have a proliferative
capacity between that of the odontogenic
keratocyst and the solid or multicystic
ameloblastoma.26
Treatment and Prognosis The clinical and
radiographic findings in most cases of uni-
cystic ameloblastoma suggest that the lesion
is an odontogenic cyst, most commonly a
dentigerous cyst. Under the circumstances
the surgeon should routinely open a “cystic”
lesion and look for luminal proliferation of
tumor. When able, histopathologic exami-
nation of such a process should occur with
frozen sections. This is particularly impor-
tant when dealing with large cysts. With a
histologic diagnosis of unicystic ameloblas-
toma, the surgeon should request the
pathologist to obtain multiple sections
through many levels of the specimen to
properly subclassify the variant of unicystic
ameloblastoma. When the ameloblastic ele-
with or without intraluminal tumor exten-
sion, the enucleation has probably been
curative treatment. When the cyst wall has
been violated by the tumor as in a mural
variant of unicystic ameloblastoma, the
most appropriate surgical management is
quite controversial. If this diagnosis is made
postoperatively, the surgeon may wish to
adopt close indefinite follow-up examina-
tions of the patient. If a preoperative inci-
sional biopsy provides a diagnosis of mural
unicystic ameloblastoma, the surgeon might
recommend a resection of the tumor owing
to the fact that this variant of the unicystic
ameloblastoma has a higher rate of persis-
tence than do the luminal or intraluminal
unicystic ameloblastomas.
The treatment of a luminal or intralu-
minal variant of the unicystic ameloblas-
toma is enucleation and curettage (Figure
30-23). In a collective sense, the “recur-
rence” rate of all unicystic ameloblastomas
FIGURE 30-22 The histopathology of the lesion
in Figure 30-21 shows luminal unicystic
ameloblastoma (hematoxylin and eosin; original
magnification x40).
 Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 587

ameloblastoma is probably more aggres-
sive than the luminal and intraluminal
variants of the unicystic ameloblastoma
owing to the presence of tumor in the cyst
wall and therefore closer to the surround-
ing bone. It seems logical to approach
these tumors with a surgery similar to that
for the solid or multicystic ameloblastoma
(Figure 30-24). The final indication for
resection of a unicystic ameloblastoma is
in the management of very large tumors
(see Figure 30-24) with significant expan-
sion such that an enucleation and curet-
tage surgery would effectively result in a
resection of the involved jaw.
Peripheral Ameloblastoma The periph-
eral or extraosseous ameloblastoma is the
most rare variant of the ameloblastoma.
This tumor probably arises from rests of
dental lamina or the basal epithelial cells
of the surface epithelium and shows the

FIGURE 30-23 A, The luminal unicystic

ameloblastoma in Figure 30-21 is treated with
an enucleation and curettage surgery. B, The A C
5-year postoperative radiograph shows an
acceptable bony fill.

has been reported as 10 to 20% following

enucleation and curettage.70 This is signif-
icantly lower than that of enucleation and
curettage of the solid or multicystic
ameloblastoma. The question then arises
as to when to resect a unicystic ameloblas-
toma. Three instances are likely to require
such treatment. The first is the recurrent
unicystic ameloblastoma. A tumor that
recurs following a well-performed enucle- B D
ation and curettage should probably be
FIGURE 30-24 This 18-year-old presented with significant right facial expansion (A) associated with
approached with the more aggressive
the destructive radiolucency of the right mandible noted on the panoramic radiograph (B). The inci-
resection. Second is the mural ameloblas- sional biopsy documented the mural variant of unicystic ameloblastoma (hematoxylin and eosin;
toma. This variant of the unicystic original magnification ×20) (C). A disarticulation resection was performed (D).
588 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
same features of the intraosseous form of
the tumor.72 Clinically, these tumors pre-
sent as nonulcerated sessile or peduncu-
lated gingival lesions (Figure 30-25).
Most examples are < 1.5 cm and usually
occur over a wide age range, with an aver-
age reported age of 52 years. Although
these tumors do not infiltrate bone, they
may be seen to “cup out” bone in the jaws
(Figure 30-26).
Treatment and Prognosis The peripheral
ameloblastoma is most appropriately
treated with a wide local excision. When
surgical margins are negative for tumor,
cure is the likely consequence. Malignant
transformation of a peripheral ameloblas-
toma is very rare.73
A the exception of the malignant (metasta-
B toma as shown by the primary growth in
FIGURE 30-25 This lesion of the right palatal
mucosa (A) showed peripheral ameloblastoma on
incisional biopsy (hematoxylin and eosin; origi-
nal magnification ×40)(B).
FIGURE 30-26 A “cupped out” lesion in bone at
tooth no. 4 is noted in the patient in Figure 30-25.
Malignant Odontogenic Tumors
Malignant odontogenic tumors are very
rare. They may arise from the epithelial
components of the odontogenic apparatus.
The rests of Malassez, the reduced enamel
epithelium surrounding the crown of an
impacted tooth, the rests of Serres in the
gingiva, and the linings of odontogenic
cysts represent the precursor cells for
malignant transformation. Odontogenic
carcinomas are classified in Table 30-5.74 In
general, all of these tumors exhibit typical
microscopic features of malignancy, with
sizing) ameloblastoma and the clear cell
odontogenic carcinoma. Behaviorally, all of
these tumors have the potential for either
regional nodal or distant metastases.
Malignant (Metastasizing) Ameloblas-
toma Malignant ameloblastomas are
best described as neoplasms that have the
histologic features of benign ameloblas-
the jaws and by any metastatic growth.75
The most common sites of metastatic dis-
ease are the lungs (Figure 30-27), followed
by the cervical lymph nodes and visceral
Table 30-5 Classification of
Odontogenic Carcinomas
Malignant (metastasizing) ameloblastoma
Ameloblastic carcinoma
Primary
Dedifferentiated
Peripheral
Primary intraosseous squamous cell
carcinoma
Solid
Cystogenic
• Nonkeratinizing cyst
• Odontogenic keratocyst
Clear cell odontogenic carcinoma
Malignant epithelial odontogenic ghost
cell tumor
Adapted from Eversole LR.74
organs.76–78 Lung metastases have some-
times been regarded as aspiration phe-
nomena, yet the peripheral location of
many of these deposits supports
hematogenous spread. Eversole points out
that instances of metastasis have arisen
from solid or multicystic ameloblastomas
rather than unicystic tumors.74
Ameloblastic Carcinoma Ameloblastic
carcinomas are malignant epithelial
odontogenic tumors that exist in the
background of benign ameloblastomas.
This designation is reserved for an
FIGURE 30-27 Histologically benign ameloblas-
toma is noted in the lung. This finding satisfies the
definition of malignant ameloblastoma (hema-
toxylin and eosin; original magnification ×20).

ameloblastoma that has cytologic features
of malignancy in the primary tumor (Fig-
ure 30-28), in a recurrence, or in any
metastatic deposit. Although ameloblas-
tic carcinomas have been reported to
metastasize to the lungs and distant
organs,79,80 many cases do not metasta-
size. In Corio and colleagues’ series of
eight cases of ameloblastic carcinoma,
rapid growth and pain were common
symptoms.81 These symptoms are recog-
nized as being uncommon in patients
with benign ameloblastomas.
Primary Intraosseous Squamous Cell
Carcinoma Squamous cell carcinomas
that are encountered in the jaws, lack any
continuity with the oral or antral
mucosa, and occur in the absence of a
primary carcinoma located elsewhere are
termed primary intraosseous squamous
cell carcinomas. These cases are assumed
to arise from odontogenic epithelium.
They typically occur in elderly patients
and tend to occur in the mandibular
A B
D E
body region. The 5-year survival rate is
30 to 40%.74 Squamous cell carcinomas
may also arise from the linings of odon-
togenic cysts. Cystogenic carcinomas are
seen in patients > 50 years of age and
typically occur in the mandible. Finally,
dentigerous cysts can undergo glandular
metaplasia, and there are rare instances
of central mucoepidermoid carcinomas
reported to arise from odontogenic
cyst lining.
Clear Cell Odontogenic Carcinoma
Although the clear cell odontogenic carci-
noma is of putative odontogenic origin,
histologic similarities to the developing
tooth germ are lacking in many
instances.74 The differential diagnosis
includes metastasis from a distant site,
especially the kidney. The clear cell variant
of renal cell carcinoma is the chief entity
to consider. The clear cell odontogenic
carcinoma is generally seen in elderly
women, with the maxilla and mandible
being affected equally.
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 589
Malignant Epithelial Odontogenic
Ghost Cell Tumor The epithelial odon-
togenic ghost cell tumor, also known as
dentinogenic ghost cell tumor, is the
solid variant of the calcifying odonto-
genic cyst. Both epithelial and ectomes-
enchymal odontogenic elements are pre-
sent; however, only the epithelial
component shows cytologic features of
malignancy.
Ameloblastic Fibroma
The ameloblastic fibroma is considered to
be a true tumor in which the epithelial
and mesenchymal tissues are both neo-
plastic. This is in distinction to the
ameloblastic fibro-odontoma and odon-
toma that represent developmental stages
of the same hamartomatous lesion.82,83
The ameloblastic fibroma tends to occur
in young patients in the first two decades
of life. The posterior mandible is affected
in 70% of cases (Figure 30-29). Radi-
ographically, either a unilocular or multi-
locular lesion is observed.
C
FIGURE 30-28 A, The large destructive radiolucency
of the right mandible was present in a 22-year-old
man who complained of precipitous growth and
pain. The incisional biopsy showed benign solid/mul-
ticystic ameloblastoma. B and C, A segmental resec-
tion was performed. D and E, Final histopathology of
the resection specimen showed ameloblastic carcino-
ma in a background of benign ameloblastoma
(hematoxylin and eosin; original magnification ×20
[D] and ×100 [E]).
590 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology

A
B when radiographs are exposed to provide a
FIGURE 30-29 A, A destructive unilocular
radiolucency is present in a 15-year-old boy. B,
Incisional biopsy confirmed ameloblastic
fibroma (hematoxylin and eosin; original
magnification ×40).
30-30). Although recurrence is rare under with an enucleation and curettage surgery
the circumstances, resection should be (Figure 30-32). Recurrence after this
reserved for recurrent lesions. Approxi- approach is very rare. Malignant transfor-
mately 45% of ameloblastic fibrosarcomas mation of ameloblastic fibro-odontoma
develop in the setting of a recurrent has been reported but is exceedingly rare.84
ameloblastic fibroma.2
Odontoma
Ameloblastic Fibro-odontoma Odontomas are the most frequently
The ameloblastic fibro-odontoma, as previ- occurring odontogenic tumors, with
ously discussed, probably represents a prevalence exceeding that of all other
hamartoma. Moreover, some investigators odontogenic tumors combined. As stated
believe that this lesion is only a stage in the
development of an odontoma and does not
represent a separate entity. Slootweg points
out that when one considers the data on age,
site, and sex, it seems that the ameloblastic
fibro-odontoma is an immature complex
odontoma.82 As with ameloblastic fibromas,
the ameloblastic fibro-odontoma occurs
more frequently in the posterior regions of
the jaws. This lesion is commonly asympto-
matic and is discovered serendipitously or
A
diagnosis for asymmetric eruption of the
dentition in children (Figure 30-31). These
lesions are distinctly well circumscribed
and appear as mixed radiopaque/radiolu-
cent masses.

Treatment and Prognosis The ameloblas- Treatment and Prognosis The ameloblas-
tic fibroma is recognized as an indolent tic fibro-odontoma is treated effectively
tumor that is effectively treated by an enu-
cleation and curettage surgery (Figure B

FIGURE 30-31 A panoramic radiograph of a FIGURE 30-32 A, Enucleation and curettage is

FIGURE 30-30 An enucleation and curettage
surgery is performed in the patient in Figure 30-
29. The associated permanent teeth are removed
with the tumor.
9-year-old boy shows a mixed radiolucent/
radiopaque lesion of the left posterior mandible.
Ameloblastic fibro-odontoma is a likely diagno-
sis owing to the patient’s age as well as the radi-
ographic character of the lesion.
performed of the lesion in Figure 30-31. The per-
manent tooth is removed with the lesion. B and
C, The histopathology shows ameloblastic fibro-
odontoma (hematoxylin and eosin; original
magnification ×20).

previously, these lesions are generally well
accepted as representing hamartomas.
Odontomas present centrally within the
jaws in one of two forms: compound, in
which multiple small toothlike structures
exist; and complex, in which irregular
masses of dentin and enamel are present
with no anatomic resemblance to a tooth.
Compound odontomas are predominant-
ly seen in the anterior maxilla (Figure 30-
33), whereas complex odontomas are typ-
ically seen in the posterior maxilla or
mandible (Figure 30-34).
Treatment and Prognosis Odontomas
are treated with simple enucleation and
curettage and are not known to recur.
Odontogenic Myxoma
The odontogenic myxoma is an uncom-
mon benign neoplasm of the jaws that is
thought to be derived from ectomes-
A
B greater tendency to form collagen fibers;
FIGURE 30-33 A, An expansile lesion of the
right maxilla. B, Multiple small toothlike calci-
fied structures are removed that represent com-
pound odontoma.
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 591
A
FIGURE 30-34 A complex odontoma of the left
posterior mandible.
enchyme and histologically resembles the
dental papilla of the developing tooth.
These tumors are slow growing with a
potential for aggressive behavior and a
high recurrence rate after subtherapeutic B
removal.85 They occur over a wide age
FIGURE 30-35 A large soft tissue mass of the left
range but seem to occur most commonly posterior mandibular gingiva (A) associated
in the third decade of life. Although the with an underlying radiolucent lesion of the
tumor can occur anywhere in the jaws, the mandible (B).
posterior mandible is most common loca-
tion (Figure 30-35). Histologically, the pression of antiapoptotic cytokines BCL2
tumor is composed of haphazardly and BCLX.51
arranged stellate, spindle-shaped, and
round cells in an abundant loose myxoid Treatment and Prognosis Odontogenic
stroma that contains only a few collagen myxomas should be treated with resection
fibrils (Figure 30-36). Radiographically, with 1.0 cm bony linear margins as con-
the odontogenic myxoma appears as a firmed with a specimen radiograph (Figure
unilocular or multilocular radiolucency
that may displace or cause root resorption
of teeth in the area of the tumor. Although
not pathognomonic of the odontogenic
myxoma, the radiolucent defect may con-
tain thin wispy trabeculae of residual
bone, which are often arranged at right
angles to one another in a “stepladder”
pattern (see Figures 30-35B and 30-37). In
some patients the tumor may have a
such lesions are designated fibromyxomas.
Pathogenetically, the proliferation FIGURE 30-36 The odontogenic myxoma shows
a loose myxoid stroma, in this case, eroding into
and aggressive behavior of the odonto- the cementum of a tooth root (hematoxylin and
genic myxoma may be related to overex- eosin; original magnification ×40).
592 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology

30-37). These tumors are not encapsulated
and tend to infiltrate the surrounding bone
such that complete removal by curettage is
nearly impossible. Resection of the tumor
with a normal surrounding margin of
bone and soft tissue that shows negative
margins should be curative.
Calcifying Epithelial
Odontogenic Tumor
The calcifying epithelial odontogenic
tumor, also known as the Pindborg
tumor, is an uncommon lesion that
accounts for < 1% of all odontogenic
tumors. It is particularly noteworthy that
the three studies depicted in Table 30-4
reported only 15 cases of this odonto-
A green birefringence when viewed with
genic tumor among a collective series of
1,440 odontogenic tumors. Fewer than
200 cases have been reported in the inter-
national literature. Although this tumor
has been reported over a wide age range,
it is most often encountered in patients
between 30 and 50 years of age. 86
Approximately two-thirds of these neo-
plasms occur in the mandible.87 A pain-
less slow-growing mass is the most com-
mon presenting sign. Radiographically,
the most common presentation is a A
mixed radiopaque/radiolucent lesion,
frequently associated with an impacted
tooth (Figure 30-38).
Histologically, the Pindborg tumor is
quite unique. Discrete islands, strands, or
sheets of polyhedral epithelial cells in a
fibrous stroma are noted. Large areas of
amorphous eosinophilic hyalinized
(amyloid-like) material are also present.
Calcifications, which are a distinctive fea-
ture of the tumor, develop within the amy-
loid-like material and form concentric
rings, known as Liesegang rings (Figure B
30-39). The precise nature of the amyloid-
like material is unknown. The material
does stain as amyloid when stained with
Congo red or thioflavine T. After Congo
red staining, the amyloid exhibits apple-
polarized light. It has been illustrated that
the amyloid-like material may actually
represent amelogenins or other enamel
proteins secreted by the tumor cells.88

Treatment and Prognosis Although

B lack of consistent follow-up, evidence-
FIGURE 30-37 A, The patient in Figure 30-35
underwent a segmental resection of his odonto-
genic myxoma. B, As with the ameloblastoma,
specimen radiographs should be obtained when
resecting an odontogenic myxoma to verify the
bony linear margin. A better depiction of the
“stepladder” pattern of the odontogenic myxoma
is noted on this specimen radiograph.
slow growing, the Pindborg tumor is
highly infiltrative and destructive and is
capable of aggressive behavior.88,89 Owing
to the small number of reported cases and
based recommendations for treatment are
not available. Nonetheless, the tumor is
generally recommended to be treated
identically to the ameloblastoma and
odontogenic myxoma, with 1.0 cm bony
linear margins and the appropriate atten-
tion to soft tissue anatomic barriers (Fig-
C
FIGURE 30-38 A 40-year-old woman with a
5-year history of an expansile mass of the left max-
illa (A). The panoramic radiograph (B) and the
coronal computed tomography scan (C) show a
mixed radiolucent/radiopaque lesion of the left pos-
terior maxilla.
ure 30-40). When this treatment was
undertaken for Franklin and Pindborg’s
series of tumors, only one patient under-
going resection experienced recurrence.87

FIGURE 30-39 Incisional biopsy of the patient
in Figure 30-38 shows signs indicative of the
Pindborg tumor including discrete islands of
odontogenic epithelium, calcification (Liesegang
rings), and hyalinized material suggestive of
amyloid (hematoxylin and eosin; original mag-
nification ×40).
Adenomatoid
Odontogenic Tumor
The adenomatoid odontogenic tumor,
regarded by many as a hamartoma, is an
uncommon odontogenic lesion, accounting
for 3 to 7% of all odontogenic tumors. This
lesion was once believed to be a variant of
ameloblastoma and was previously desig-
nated adenoameloblastoma.90,91 Its clinical
features and biologic behavior permit dis-
tinction from the ameloblastoma (Figure
30-41). These lesions are limited to young
FIGURE 30-40 The patient with the Pindborg
tumor in Figure 30-38 is treated with hemimax-
illectomy.
patients, and two-thirds of all cases are diag-
nosed in the second decade.92–95 The tumor is
extremely uncommon in patients > 30 years.
It has a predilection for the anterior region
of the jaws and is found twice as often in the
maxilla than in the mandible. Females are
affected about twice as often as males. Most
adenomatoid odontogenic tumors are
small, rarely exceeding 3 cm in diameter. In
about 75% of cases, the lesion appears as a
well-circumscribed unilocular radiolucency
that involves the crown of an erupted tooth,
frequently a canine.
Histologically, the adenomatoid
odontogenic tumor is a well-defined
lesion that is usually surrounded by a
thick fibrous capsule (Figure 30-42).
When the lesion is bisected, the central
portion of the tumor may be essentially
solid or may show varying degrees of cys-
tic change with intraluminal prolifera-
tion of tissue. The lesion is composed of
A eosinophilic material that may stain for
B tive (Figure 30-43). Of the 499 cases of
FIGURE 30-41 An expansile lesion of the lingual
aspect of the left mandible (A) associated with a
unilocular radiolucency of the left mandible (B).
Odontogenic Cysts and Tumors 593
A
B
FIGURE 30-42 Incisional biopsy of the lesion in
Figure 30-41 shows a well-encapsulated lesion
(hematoxylin and eosin; original magnification
×10) (A) with duct-like structures and rosettes
(hematoxylin and eosin; original magnification
×40) (B). These findings are indicative of the
adenomatoid odontogenic tumor
spindle-shaped epithelial cells that form
sheets, strands, or whorled masses of
cells in a scant fibrous stroma. The
epithelial cells may form rosette-like
structures about a central space that may
be empty or contain small amounts of
amyloid.96–98 Tubular or duct-like struc-
tures are characteristic for the adenoma-
toid odontogenic tumor (see Figure 30-
42). These consist of a central space
surrounded by a layer of columnar or
cuboidal epithelial cells whose nuclei
exhibit reverse polarization.
Treatment and Prognosis Owing to this
lesion being encapsulated, it separates eas-
ily from the surrounding bone. As such, an
enucleation and curettage surgery is cura-
adenomatoid odontogenic tumor report-
ed in the literature, only 1 acceptable case
of recurrence has been documented.99
594 Part 5: Maxillofacial Pathology
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