RESEARCH PAPERS
Off Flavors of Milk:
Nomenclature, Standards, and Bibliography I
INTRODUCTION
Correct identification is one of the major
problems facing those working with milk fla-
vors. This committee sought first to develop a
practical classification for off-flavors. Next,
methods for producing some of the more com-
mon off-flavors were studied. Finally, a biblio-
graphy covering the literature from 1950 to
1976 on off-flavors was prepared. This report
is intended to aid in training both research and
quality control personnel in the hope that more
uniform terminology will result.
NOMENCLATURE
The present terminology for describing off-
flavors in milk includes different types of
terms. Descriptive terms such as papery, asso-
ciative terms such as oily, or causative terms
such as oxidized are used. A classification based
Received November 16, 1977.
1Report of the Committee on Flavor Nomencla-
ture and Reference Standards.
1978 J Dairy Sci 61:855--869
W. F. SHIPE, Chairman
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
R. BASSETTE
Kansas State University, Manhattan 66502
D. D. D E A N E
University of Wyoming, Laramie 82071
W. L. D U N K L E Y
University of California, Davis 95616
E. G. H A M M O N D
Iowa State University, Ames 50011
W. J. H A R P E R
Ohio State University, Columbus 43210
D. H. K L E Y N
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08903
M. E. M O R G A N
Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331
J. H. N E L S O N
Kraft Foods, Glenview, I L 60025
and R. A. S C A N L A N
Oregon State University, Corvallis 97331
on causes is simpler and more useful than the
present system. On this basis off-flavors were
divided into seven categories which are listed in
Table 1 along with corresponding descriptive
and associative terms.
This classification i s not perfect, but it
should aid in training personnel to identify off
off-flavors and their causes at the same time.
This scheme should eliminate pointless quibb-
ling over such things as whether an oxidized
sample tastes metallic or papery. Regardless of
which term is used, the remedy lies in prevent-
ing oxidation. The committee recognized that
causes of some flavors are not known. Such fla-
vors would be placed in the miscellaneous
category until the causes have been identified.
Heated Flavor
The effect of heat treatment on milk flavor
is generally recognized. The kind and intensity
of the flavor depends on the time and temper-
ature of the treatment.
There appear four kinds of heat-induced
flavor alternations: cooked or sulfurous, heated
or rich, caramelized, and scorched. Pasteuriza-
855
 856 SHIPE ET AL.

TABLE 1. Categories of off-flavors in milk.

Causes Descriptive or associative terms

Heated cooked, carmelized, scorched

Light-induced light, sunlight, activated
Lipolyzed rancid, butyric, bitter*, goaty
Microbial acid, bitter*, fruity, malty, putrid, unclean
Oxidized papery, cardboard, matallic, oily, fishy
Transmitted feed, weed, cow),, barny
Miscellaneous absorbed, astringent, bitter*, chalky, chemical, flat, foreign, lacks freshness, salty.

*Bitter flavor may arise from a number of different causes. If the specific cause is not known, it should be
classified under miscellaneous.

tion imparts a slight cooked or sulfurous note Light-Induced Flavors

to milk. The flavor is more pronounced if high-
er temperatures are used. It is accepted that
hydrogen sulfide contributes significantly to
the cooked flavor (2, 3, 7). Other "volatile sul-
fides" are believed also to contribute to this
off-flavor, b u t substantiating evidence is limited
(9). The cooked or sulfurous note dissipates
upon storage and may not be noticeable after 2
or 3 days.
Milk which has been exposed to 135 to 150
C for several seconds exhibits a strong sulfur-
ous or cooked note immediately after heat
treatment (1, 4, 6), but after several days of
refrigerated storage, the sulfurous note dissipa-
tes (10, 11), and a rich or heated note is per-
ceptible. It is not clear which compounds are
responsible for this flavor, but recent work in-
dicates that heat-induced diacetyl contributes
to the rich, heated note. Other potential con-
tributors include lactones, methyl ketones,
maltoI, vanillin, benzaldehyde, and acetophen-
one. These compounds are induced by heating
milk (8), but until quantitative information be-
comes available, their role in heated flavor is
difficult to assess.
Retorted and autoclaved milk often has a
caramelized flavor (5). Whether this flavor dif-
fers from, or is an extension of, the heated,
rich note previously described is not known.
Many have suggested that nonenzymatic brown-
ing causes caramelized flavor.
A scorched flavor can result from exception-
ally large amounts of " b u r n on" in a heat ex-
changer. This flavor also occurs in dry milk
powders subjected to abnormally high temper-
ature processing.
Milk exposed to various forms of radiant
energy develops off-flavors (19 to 35). These
are of practical importance when milk is ex-
posed to sufficient direct sunlight, fluorescent
light, or even diffused daylight. The problem
was brought into focus in the period when
dairy products were distributed in glass contain-
ers and left on customers' doorsteps. Factors
which contribute to the intensity of "sunlight
flavor" are wavelength and intensity of light,
exposure time, translucence of the container,
levels of ascorbic acid, and riboflavin (16, 19,
20, 22, 27, 28).
The light-induced flavor has (13) two dis-
tinct components - one a burnt, activated, or
sunlight flavor which develops rapidly and has
been attributed to degradation of serum protein
components; the second component is similar
to oxidized flavor. The latter flavor, attributed
to lipid oxidation, seems to develop more slow-
ly (14). The lipid-oxidation component of the
light-induced flavor undoubtedly contains some
of the same volatile carbonyl compounds that
are in typical oxidized flavors. Presumably,
because of the difference in rate of develop-
ment of the two flavor components, the flavor
of milk exposed to radiation changes with time.
Initially, the " b u r n t " note predominates, and
after 2 or 3 days the "oxidized" note becomes
more pronounced; therefore, the off-flavor that
developes several days after light exposure may
be difficult to differentiate from oxidized fla-
vor.
In milk exposed to light, homogenization
enhances the light-activated component of the

Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978

 NOMENCLATURE OF MILK OFF-FLAVORS
off-flavor and inhibits the oxidized component.
A recent study compared pasteurized milk
exposed to sunlight with and without homogen-
ization. The level of n-pentanal was three times
as great as n-hexanal in the homogenized milk
and only 2/3 as great in the unhomogenized
milk. All other carbonyl compounds were less in
the homogenized milk (16). Methional, formed
by the degradation of free methionine, contrib-
utes to the activated flavor component (12, 25).
A study with S 3 S_labeled milk confirmed that
upon irradiation, mercaptans, sulfides, and di-
sulfides increased significantly in the milk. It is
likely that these compounds contribute to the
activated flavor component (26).
Recently the widespread use of plastic milk
containers has increased the occurrence of the
light-induced flavor. Exposure of milk in blow
mold, plastic containers to fluorescent lights in
display cases has resulted in the development
of oxidized (light-induced) flavor in about 80%
of the samples (15).
The 2-thiobarbituric acid test (TBA), which
has been used to measure oxidized flavor, is
ineffective in monitoring the light-activated
component of the light-induced flavor (20).
Probably the TBA test is effective only in mea-
suring the slower developing lipid oxidation
phase of the reaction.
Lipolyzed Flavors
The milk lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of milk
fat triglycerides causes a common flavor defect
in fluid milk. Historically, several terms have
been used to describe this flavor defect. "Ran-
cid", the most commonly used, is ambiguous
since it is used also to describe the flavor defect
resulting from lipid oxidation. The descriptive
terms "goaty", "soapy", and "butyric" also
have been used. "Bitter", another descriptive
term, is also ambiguous since bitter flavors may
result from protein degradation. Also, lipases
secreted by microbial contaminants in milk can
produce flavor defects which usually are accom-
panied by bitterness resulting from concurrent
protein degradation.
Since lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of trigly-
cerides commonly is termed "lipolysis", it is
recommended that "lipolyzed flavor" be used
henceforth to denote the lipase-induced flavor
defects in fluid milk. However, we recognize
that controlled lipolysis, which is used to pro-
duce flavors in certain dairy products, is a valu-
857
able and useful technology (36). Animal-
derived pregastric esterases are used to produce
the characteristic "picante" flavor of Romano
and Provolone cheese. Such preparations are
used for flavor production in other cheese
types. Lipolyzed whole milk powder, butter-
fats, and cheeses are used widely to flavor pro-
cessed foods.
Literature on milk lipase is voluminous but
includes little information on the chemical or
organoleptic characteristics of the lipolyzed
flavor defect. A review by Herrington (39)
provides a comprehensive overview of milk lip-
ase biochemistry. There may be several milk
lipases and their activity is influenced by tri-
glyceride and gross milk composition. Also,
lipolyzed flavor can be affected by the mech-
anism of enzyme activation, such as "spon-
taneous" rancidity, excessive agitation, homo-
genization, separation or clarification, and heat
shock.
Willey and Duthie (47) reported two types
of lipolyzed flavor: (a) "sickening", which
resulted from the mixing of raw and homogen-
ized milks, churning, intense agitation via War-
ing blender or temperature fluctuation; and (b)
"unclean", resulting from foaming or spontan-
eous lipolysis. This report suggests the need for
more basic research on the nature of lipolyzed
flavor.
Kuzdzal-Savoie (43) has reviewed the limited
literature on the characteristics and chemistry
of the lipolyzed flavor defect. Certain fatty
acids are principally responsible for lipolyzed
flavors. Scanlan et al. (45) evaluated the effect
of individual milk samples. Even-numbered
fatty acids, butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric,
and lauric, were the major flavor contributors.
None of these compounds exerted a predomi-
nant effect. The addition of fatty acid blends
to milk did not impart a typical lipolyzed
flavor profile. Scanlan et al. also demonstrated
that long-chain fatty acids C-14 and C-18,
contributed little, if any, flavor. Kolar and
Mickle (42) demonstrated that very short-
chain fatty acids, formic, acetic, and pro-
pionic, do not play a significant role in lipolyzed
flavor defect.
Paulet et al. (44) demonstrated that sodium
salts of capric or lauric acids imparted a soap-
like taste to water at 25 ppm or greater. The
threshold in sucrose solution was 50 ppm and
in saline solution, 100 ppm. Tuckey and Stad-
Journal of Dairy Science VoL 61, No. 7, 1978
858 SHIPE ET AL.
houders (46) reported that lipolyzed flavors can
be detected more readily as the test medium
pH is decreased.
Kolar and Mickle (42) reported a positive
correlation between the lipolyzed flavor, fat
acidity, and short-chain fatty acid content.
Dunkley (38) determined that fat acidity deter-
minations were helpful in classifying cream as
" n o t rancid" but of little value as a measure of
lipolyzed flavor intensity. Rancidity was esti-
mated more conveniently by changes in surface
tension, but both sampling procedure and milk
fat content influenced the method. A series of
reports concerning causes, detection, and con-
trol of lipolysis were presented at International
Dairy Federation Symposia in 1974 and 1975
(40, 41).
Microbial Flavor
Serious flavor defects in both raw and pas-
teurized milk may result from an accumulation
of the products of bacterial metabolism (51,
52). These are produced by the action of the
complex enzyme systems of contaminating
organisms on the constituents of milk.
Most of the common organisms of milk
spoilage are believed to have come originally
from the soil and associated plant life and have
become indigenous to milk because of the ex-
cellence of milk for their growth and persist-
ence. Rigorous sanitary procedures are re-
quired to limit the initial contamination of milk
during its production. Rapid cooling to and
holding at 4.4 C or below to inhibit the multi-
plication of possible contaminants is imperative
if the flavor quality of milk is to be maintained
until pasteurization. Proper pasteurization will
destroy all pathogenic and a very high percent-
age of nonpathogenic bacteria in milk. how-
ever, any off-flavors of bacterial origin which
have developed prior to pasteurization are not
affected greatly by this process, nor can they be
removed completely by any of the currently
employed commercial vacuum treatment pro-
CCSSCS.
Properly pasteurized milk may be recon-
taminated by subsequent contant with unsani-
tary equipment. Such contamination often in-
cludes psychrotrophic bacteria (48, 50, 54, 55,
56) which are commonly responsible for
flavor defects in pasteurized milk. These
organisms multiply slowly at 4.4 C or
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
lower and, unless the contamination is appre-
ciable, flavor defects may not be evident before
10 to 14 days storage. However, in milk which
has not been cooled to below 4.4 C immediate-
ly after pasteurization or which is stored at 7.2
to 15.6 C, the psychrotrophic organisms may
m u l t i p l y rapidly and cause flavor defects in a
few days (56).
Although bacteria may be responsible for a
number of different flavor defects in both raw
and pasteurized milk, only those defects de-
scribed as acid, malty (51), and fruity (52) can
be recognized as being of microbial origin by
sensory perception alone. The microbial genesis
of these defects and the specific flavor com-
pounds responsible have been demonstrated
unequivocally (53). The flavors described as
stale, barny, unclean, bitter, foreign, rancid,
and feed can be caused by bacteria, but deter-
mination of the actual cause is often difficult
without bacteriological analyses because of the
similarity of these flavors to flavors due to
other causes.
Acid flavor. Because of the universal distri-
bution of Streptococcus lactis in the environ-
ment of milk production, most milk is unin-
tentionally inoculated with this organism im-
mediately after milking. If the milk is not cool-
ed immediately to 4.4 C or below, it eventually
will develop an acid taste due to proliferation
of the organism and its conversion of lactose to
lactic acid. The speed with which this defect
develops is related to the degree of contamina-
tion and the temperature history of the milk.
Pure lactic acid has a clean acid taste and,
because of its low vapor pressure, has no odor.
However, the development of lactic acid in milk
is accompanied by an odor usually described as
sour. This is due to the production of very
small amounts of acetic and propionic acids.
Titratable acidity development in milk of .07%
t o . 10%, calculated as lactic acids, is commonly
detectable by most individuals. However, the
o d o r of the volatile acids may be detected by
experienced individuals when the titratable
acidity has increased by as little as .01%.
Since S. lactis is destroyed by proper pas-
teurization of milk, acid development in milk
subsequent to pasteurization is not likely. How-
ever, pasteurization will not improve the flavor
of raw milk if acid already has developed.
Malty flavor. A flavor and aroma which in
the past has been described as cooked, burnt,
 NOMENCLATURE OF MILK OFF-FLAVORS
caramel, "grapenuts", and malty, may develop
in raw milk as a result of the metabolism of
Streptococcus lactis subsp, maltigenes (49).
The term malty seems to have attained priority
through c o m m o n usage and to most nearly de-
scribe this defect.
The responsible organism seems common in
dairy environment in certain geographical areas
(e.g. Northeastern U.S.), whereas in milk pro-
duced in other areas (e.g. Pacific Coast states)
the organism is rare.
The organism enters milk through contact
with improperly sanitized equipment during
production. Multiplication of the organism is
favored by delayed cooling and holding of the
milk at 10 C or above.
Except for its ability to produce a detectable
malty aroma in milk before any appreciable
acid is produced, the organism is identical to
S. lactis (49). When grown in sterile milk as a
pure culture, a malty aroma can be detected
over the culture when the standard plate count
reaches 107 to 10 s per ml. The aroma becomes
more intense as the acidity increases and the
milk coagulates.
Although the volatile compounds produced
by S. lactis subsp, maltigenes include a number
of aldehydes and alcohols which are derived
from amino acids, the characteristic aroma and
flavor are due principally to the production of
3-methylbutanal from leucine.
S. lactis subsp, matigenes cells are inacti-
vated by pasteurization, but the volatile pro-
ducts of their metabolism are not affected by
this process nor can they be removed effective-
ly by any of the vacuum treatment processes
currently used for improvement of milk flavor.
Fruity flavor. The aroma which may develop
in pasteurized milk and other processed dairy
products as a result of the metabolism of
Pseudornonasfragi has been described as straw-
berry-like, resembling a May apple, ester-like,
and fruity (52). Fruity seems to have priority
by virtue of c o m m o n usage and probably is
related most readily to the defect.
P. fragi, a psychrotrophic water and soil
form, is distributed widely in dairy environ-
ments. The organism is very heat sensitive, and
its presence in pasteurized products is due to
post-pasteurization contamination. The organ-
ism is capable of multiplication at 5 C to 7 C
and will outgrow many other species in dairy
products during refrigerated storage. Because
859
they are aerobic, multiplication of and flavor
development by psychrotrophic organisms is
enhanced by aeration of milk after pasteuriza-
tion and by storage in partially filled containers
in home refrigerators. In agitated milk inocu-
lated with P. fragi, unclean flavors have been
noted when the plate counts reached 5.5 × 106
and fruity aromas at 5 × 10 s per ml.
The fruity aroma produced in milk by P.
fragi is due to ethylbutyrate and ethylhexan-
oate. The organism elaborates a lipase which
liberates butyric and caproic acids from milk
lipids and an esterase which then esterifies these
acids with ethanol. P. fragi produces only small
amounts of ethanol, and it is likely that the
production of the fruity esters is enhanced in
milk containing increased amounts of ethanol
due to silage feeding or growth of organisms
which produce either acetaldehyde or ethanol.
Strains of Bacillus have been isolated from
milk which have characteristics similar to those
of some species of Pseudomonas and are able to
produce similar defects, e.g. fruity flavor. These
sporeforrning organisms may be the cause of
flavor defects in aseptically-packaged "sterili-
zed" milk and fluid milk products.
Unclean, bitter, and putrid flavors. Al-
though unclean and bitter flavors may be due
to other causes, these and putrid flavors often
are caused by growth of psychrotrophic organ-
isms in pasteurized milk. Contamination of
milk with these organisms subsequent to pas-
teurization occurs through contact with or
moisture drip from improperly sanitized sur-
faces. Bacteria responsible for these defects
grow rather slowly at 4.4 C or lower, and the
resulting flavor defects usually become evident
upon extended storage of milk. Such milk may
lack freshness or develop stale flavors prior to
development of the more serious flavor defects.
Although not yet well-defined, the mech-
anism involved in the development of these de-
fects most likely involves limited breakdown of
the milk proteins. This results in the formation
of bitter peptides and decomposition of the
amino acids to produce putrid flavors.
Oxidized Flavor
This undesirable flavor is often in fluid milk
and results from a reaction between molecular
oxygen and lipids. The polyunsaturated fatty
acids in the phosphatides at the interface of the
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
860 SHIPE ET AL.
milk fat globule are considered the precursors
of the flavor (96).
Milk varies considerably in its susceptibility
to this defect (59, 61, 89, 96, 102). Milk from
some cows developes this defect so quickly and
without any abuse that it is said to oxidize
"spontaneously". There is considerable evi-
dence that this "spontaneous" oxidation is
caused by the combined catalytic action of cop-
per ions and ascorbic acid (99, 101). Some
scientists (57, 58) have claimed that the en-
zyme xanthine oxidase is involved, but this has
been disputed (94, 98). Numerous workers (62,
86 to 88, 99) have studied the role and import-
ance of copper as a pro-oxidant. In the past,
milk-handling equipment which contained cop-
per or copper alloys was a significant source of
copper contamination. Contamination (96) or
fortification (95, 104) of milk with iron also
can accelerate formation. Milk from cows on
dry lot feeding often shows more susceptibility
to this defect than that of cows on pasture
(96). Pasteurization under mild conditions may
encourage the formation of this flavor, but
more rigorous pasteurization tends to inhibit its
development (60, 100). The inhibitory effect
of pasteurization is believed to result from the
development of sulfhydryl compounds during
heating. Such compounds inhibit oxidations
that proceed by a free radical mechanism; how-
ever, the possible masking effect of heated fla-
vor on oxidized flavor or the interaction of
metal ions with other milk constituents during
heating cannot be excluded as modes of action.
Tryptic action inhibits oxidation (74, 75, 96)
presumably by either exposing anti-oxidants
such as sulfhydryl groups or by reducing the
activity of pro-oxidants (76, 96). Homogeni-
zation inhibits the development of oxidized
flavor (77, 99), but there is no agreement re-
garding the mechanism. Oxidized flavor devel-
o p m e n t can be inhibited by the addition of cer-
tain phenolic antioxidants (65, 66, 69, 80, 85)
which inhibit free radical oxidations; however,
the addition of such compounds to milk is not
legal in the United States. In some states milk
may be fortified with ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
Although this compound acts at certain concen-
trations in the presence of copper to stimulate
oxidized flavor development, at higher concen-
trations it inhibits flavor formation (84, 96).
Light promotes the oxidation of milk lipids,
b u t under these conditions some protein break-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
down is believed to occur and other flavors
develop. Light-induced flavor formation was
discussed in a previous section of this report.
The oxidation o f dairy products leads to
flavors termed oxidized, cardboard, cappy,
metallic, tallowy, oily, and fishy. The term
oxidized has been used by some investigators
to designate a specific flavor, but the commit-
tee recommends its use as a generic term that
includes all flavors resulting from lipid oxida-
tion. The most c o m m o n of the oxidized flavors
is described as cardboard, or cappy; metallic,
tallowy, oily, and fishy flavors occur less fre-
quently.
The oxidation of milk lipids leads to the for-
mation of hydroperoxides, but these com-
pounds have no flavor. The flavor results from
the scission products formed from the hydro-
peroxides or from the free radicals involved in
the reaction. The presence of hydrocarbons,
alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and ketones has been
reported in the scission products (63, 64, 67,
68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 78, 90, 92, 93). Of these,
the carbonyl constituents have generally been
considered the chief culprits (63, 64, 79, 81,
82, 83, 91). There have been unanimous agree-
ment that vinylamyl ketone (1-octene-3-one)
alone imparts a metallic flavor to dairy pro-
ducts (79, 103, 105), and vinylamyl ketone in
combination with an aldehyde imparts a card-
board flavor (79). Aside from these two exam-
pies, there has been no general agreement about
which compounds cause particular flavors. Pro-
gress in this area has been hampered by the in-
stability of many of the compounds that have
been identified and their unavailability com-
mercially, especially in the degree of purity re-
quired.
Transmitted Flavors
Milk flavors may arise by passage of sub-
stances from the cow's feed or surroundings
in milk while it is in the udder. This transfer
may be via the respiratory and/or digestive sys-
tem and blood stream. Such flavors are consid-
ered transmitted flavors. Examples of a variety
of these transmitted flavors have been report-
ed (106, 108, 113, 115, 118 to 127); some of
the volatile components associated with these
flavors have been identified (109, 111, 112,
114, 116, 117, 120 to 127). The more volatile
materials from feeds in the atmosphere sur-
 NOMENCLATURE OF MILK OFF-FLAVORS
rounding the cow or in the gas eructated from
the cows rumen are inhaled and pass rapidly
from lungs to udder (107, 126). Volatile and
nonvolatile flavor materials pass from the di-
gestive system to the udder slower. When the
source of the flavor material is no longer avail-
able to the cow, and the air she inhales is rela-
tively odor free, the volatile flavor materials
accumulated in the milk in the udder gradually
are returned to the blood stream and exhausted
via the lungs.
Feed flavor. When cows are allowed to con-
sume and/or inhale the strong odor of many
common dairy feeds (e.g. silage, green forages,
etc.) within 2 to 4 h before milking, the milk
will have a sweet and aromatic taste, and odor
which may be characteristic of the feed. Many
such feeds can be fed immediately after milking
and withheld 4 to 5 h before milking without
producing a feed flavor in the milk. Feed flavor
problems often are associated with an abrupt
change from dry winter rations to one includ-
ing lush green pasture forage.
Weed flavor. Numerous species of weeds
when consumed by the cow impart serious off-
flavors to milk. One of the most common and
readily recognized weed flavors is that caused
by the consumption of wild garlic. The flavor
components from some weeds are relatively
nonvolatile and are not exhausted rapidly from
the cows body via the lungs. Therefore, they
may affect the flavor of the milk until they axe
excreted or otherwise metabolized, a process
which may take as long as 12 h.
Cowy flavor. It has been suggested (110)
that cows suffering from ketosis or acetone-
mia produce milk having a cowy-like odor. The
odor of the breath of affected cows is similar to
that of the milk and may be so strong that it is
transmitted to the milk of neighboring cows if
the ventilation of the area is inadequate. The
cowy odor was at one time reputed to be due
to the acetone bodies released into the blood
stream from incomplete metabolism of fat.
However, PollS and Kessler (125) found that
acetone in milk also could be affected by ace-
tone in feeds such as silage. These workers were
unable to find a relationship between the
amount of acetone in the milk and intensity of
off-flavor. Suprathreshold amounts of methyl
sulfide also impart a cowy flavor to milk (124).
More work is needed to establish the exact na-
ture of this cowy flavor.
861
Barn)/flavor. Milk from cows housed in un-
ventilated areas in which they are forced con-
tinuously to inhale strong odors may have a fla-
vor and odor described as barny. The nature of
the barny flavor has not been characterized or
distinguished clearly from cowy flavor.
Miscellaneous Flavors
The miscellaneous category of flavors in-
cludes those flavors that either cannot be attri-
buted to a Specific cause or specifically defined
in sensory terms. In some cases, such as foreign,
there are a variety of types and causes.
Absorbed flavors. The term absorbed is ap-
plied to those flavors - usually odors - that are
absorbed from the environment (129, 133,
134). In earlier days it was assumed that most
feed and environmental odors were absorbed by
milk directly from the air. Now it is known that
such odors are transmitted frequently through
the cow. However, some volatile substances
may be absorbed directly from the air. The evi-
dence indicates that fat-soluble substances, such
as turpentine and other volatile solvents are ab-
sorbed readily, particularly if the cream has
risen. (Homogenized milk and skim milk do not
readily absorb these odors.) The milking and
milk storage areas should be kept free of these
odors.
Astringent flavors. Astringent has been used
to describe a dry puckery, oral sensation which
involves the sense of touch or feel rather than
taste. The terms rough, chalky, or powdery also
have been used to describe this sensation.
Astringency has been associated most frequent-
ly with milk products that have been processed
at high temperatures (132, 136, 138). In these
cases, the astringency has been attributed to
large protein-salt and salt particles. Astringency
in acidified milk products is attributed to pro-
tein particles with low mineral content. Forti-
fication of milk with iron salts, especially fer-
rous salts, can produce astringent flavors (130).
Astringency has been reported in fresh raw
milk, but the cause has not been identified.
Bitter flavor. This flavor is caused frequently
by proteolysis since some peptides and amino
acid elicit bitter flavors (131, 140, 142). In
fluid milk, the proteolysis usually is caused by
microbial proteases since the activity of the
natural milk proteases is slight. Bitter flavor
may be caused by lipolysis or certain weeds,
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
862 SHIPE ET AL.
e.g. bitterweed. An alkaloid may be the cause
of the bitterweed flavor since a number of alka-
loids are bitter. One cannot identify the source
of bitterness if bitter flavor is the only clue to
the problem.
Cbalky flavor. The term chalky has been
used to describe a tactual defect which is sim-
ilar to the astringent sensation. In fact, some
people have used these terms interchangeably.
Chalky has been described as a sensation sug-
gesting finely-divided insoluble powder parti-
cles. Shortly, after the commercial introduction
of homogenized milk, several reports indicated
that homogenized milk had a chalky flavor.
Perhaps this chalkiness may have been caused
by improper pasteurization-homogenization
procedures since there is no evidence that pro-
per homogenization produces chalkiness.
Chemical flavors. Flavors that are caused by
contamination of milk with chemicals asso-
ciated with cleaners, sanitizers, and disinfect-
ants (128, 135, 139, 141, 144 to 146) are in-
cluded in this group. Chlorine and iodine com-
pounds are probably the most frequent contam-
inants (135, 145, 146). Phenolic compounds
from disinfectants (139) and some weed killers
(141) are also capable of causing this defect.
A chlorophenol flavor has been found in milk
(144). This flavor has been attributed to pro-
ducts of a reaction of chlorine sterilizing re-
agents with phenols which were in the water
supply. Chemical flavors may be transferred to
milk from returnable plastic milk bottles which
have been misused as containers for gasoline,
disinfectants, pesticides, herbicides, etc.
Flat. This defect is characterized by a lack
of flavor and a tactual sensation of thinness.
This sensation can be simulated by diluting
milk. Addition of as little as 3 to 5% water can
produce this defect. Some people feel that vac-
uum treatment of milk produces a flat tasting
product. The flat taste of milk can be reduced
by the addition of solids-not-fat (143).
Foreign flavors. Those flavors that cannot be
identified either by cause or chemical nature
are classified in this group. This group is some-
times referred to as abnormal flavors.
Lack freshness. This term is used to describe
milk that does not have the complete pleasing
taste of high quality fresh milk. The term
should be used only when a more specific de-
fect cannot be identified. Even fresh milk may
lack the full flavor of high quality milk. Thus,
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
one cannot say with certainty that this defect
is necessarily due to age unless the sample had
been judged when it was fresh.
Salty flavor. This defect is identified easily
by tasting. It is most commonly in milk from
cows in late lactation and occasionally from
milk of cows with mastitis.
PREPARATION
OF R E F E R E N C E S T A N D A R D S
Considerable research has been undertaken
to develop methods for preparing specific stan-
dards of off-flavors. Such standards should aid
in the identification of off-flavors and the train-
ing of personnel.
In most cases, off-flavors are due to a mix-
ture of flavor components which are difficult to
duplicate artificially. Although synthetic mix-
tures may simulate natural flavors, they rarely
duplicate them. It is not necessary to duplicate
a flavor exactly, but there is a danger of impro-
per identification if a "nontypical standard" is
used. The methods of preparation cited below
are believed to give reasonably typical flavors.
Heated Milk Flavors
These four notes of heated milk can be dem-
onstrated as follows:
1. Cooked or sulfurous: Heat milk to 75 C
for 1 min. The flavor will be more pronounced
if the holding time is increased.
2. Heated or rich: Heat milk to 146 C for 4
s. Refrigerate sample for 2 to 3 days to allow
sulfurous note to dissipate. Alternatively, the
heated or rich note can be induced by heating
milk to 95 C for 10 to 15 min.
3. Caramelized: Autoclave whole milk for 15
min in a metal can (300 × 406) at 121 C. (In
addition to the above treatment it took ap-
proximately 10 min for the pressure in our
autoclave to return to atmospheric. When the
pressure returned to atmospheric, the cans of
milk were removed from the autoclave and
cooled in ice water.)
4. Scorched: Put enough milk into a beaker
to just cover the bottom and place on a hot
plate until the water evaporates and the milk
residue turns a light golden coior. Fill the beak-
er 1/3 full with milk, bring to a boil, and cool
in ice water. The resulting milk will have a
strong scorched to b u r n t flavor. This milk can
 NOMENCLATURE OF MILK OFF-FLAVORS
be diluted with unheated milk to obtain the de-
sired intensity.
Light Induced Flavor
Method A. Sunlight. A light induced flavor
of reasonably high intensity will be produced
by exposing a quart of freshly-processed pas-
teurized-homogenized milk in a clear glass con-
tainer (e.g. a 1 liter Eflenmeyer flask) for 20
min to m i d d a y sunshine. A reasonable radiant
energy would be 1 g cal/cm 2 (1 ly)/min at 7
to 10 C. (ly = Langley) Store at 4 to 5 C and
note changes in flavor after 24 and 48 h.
Method B. Fluorescent light. Expose pas-
teurized-homogenized milk at 7 C in either a
glass Erlenmeyer flask or an all plastic jug to
40-Watt cool white fluorescent lamps (F 40
CW) for 12 to 16 h. The illumination should
average 1080 lux perpendicular to the light
source at the midpoint of the exposed vertical
surface. If 2150 lux intensity light is employed,
the exposure time may be reduced to 4.5 to 6
h. Note in both methods, the addition of ascor-
bic acid (50 mg/liter), minimizes the develop-
ment o f the oxidized flavor component and en-
hances the development of the activated flavor
component.
Lipolyzed Milk Flavor
Method A. Warm 200 ml of raw whole milk
to 37 C and agitate vigorously in a Waring blen-
dor for 1 min; hold sample at 37 C for 15 min
or until a characteristic lipolytic flavor devel-
ops. Following the holding period, pasteurize
samples, cool, and hold overnight at 5 C prior
to tasting. (Samples may be pasteurized by
heating to 72.2 C for 2 rain.) If the desired in-
tensity of off-flavor has developed, the sample
may be freeze-dried and canned under 4920
k/m 2 pressure (95% nitrogen, 5% hydrogen) or
under vacuum.
Method B. Add 20 ml raw milk to 180. ml
homogenized milk, mix, and hold overnight at
5 C, pasteurize prior to tasting. The sample may
be freeze-dried as under Method A.
Directions for reconstituting freeze-dried
products. Add contents of can to 125 ml of
room temperature distilled H 2 0 that is free of
off-flavors, and agitate to reconstitute sam-
ples. Make samples up to 200 ml with distilled
H20, mix thoroughly, and hold overnight at 5
C prior to tasting. If evidence of clumping per-
863
sists in the reconstitution step, warm milk to
37 C, and stir vigorously in a Waring blendor
for 1 min.
Directions for tasting samples. Warm sam-
ples to room temperature and mix thoroughly
prior to tasting. Samples may be diluted with
clean, fresh whole milk that is free of off-fla-
vors to meet taste requirements. One can pre-
pare dilutions that will give specified acid de-
gree values. However, different milks with the
same acid degree value may have different
flavor impacts. (Attempts to prepare typical
lipolyzed flavor with fatty acids mixtures were
not successful. Seemingly the added fatty acids
were not distributed between the aqueous and
lipid phases in the same manner as the enzymat-
ically released fatty acids.)
Microbial Milk Flavors
Acid flavor. Samples of milk having varying
degrees of acid flavor and sour odor may be
prepared by allowing acidity to develop in raw
milk and making appropriate dilutions with
fresh raw or pasteurized milk. Alternatively
good quality pasteurized raw milk may be ino-
culated with a suitable culture of S. lactis, and
the acidity allowed to develop to the desired
level.
Malty flavor. Milk samples for use in training
individuals in recognition of the malty defect
may be prepared by inoculation with S. lactis
subsp, maltigenes (ATCC 29146) culture or by
addition of a synthetic flavor preparation. In
the former procedure about 50 ml are removed
from .95 liter of good quality pasteurized-
homogenized milk to provide suitable head
space for aroma build-up. The bottle and re-
maining contents are warmed to room tempera-
ture (21.1 C). The milk is inoculated with 1 ml
of an active milk culture and then swirled to
disperse the culture thoroughly. As prepared,
the sample is allowed to stand at room temper-
ature until a malty aroma can be just detected
over the milk but before any appreciable acid
development (4 to 6 h). Then the milk should
be cooled rapidly to and held at 2 C to limit
further metabolic activity. Immediately prior to
use in training sessions, the sample, or diluted
portions thereof, should be warmed to about
15.6 C.
The dominant malty note of the defect can
be simulated in milk by addition of high purity
3-methylbutanal from slightly above the aver-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
864 SHIPE ET AL.
age organoleptic threshold (.10 ppm) to .5
ppm. A concentration of .34 ppm in milk is
recommended for training judges in recognition
of the defect. This may be obtained by diluting
30 ~1 of 3-methylbutanal to 100 ml with pure
1,2-propanediol (Matheson Coleman and Bell,
item no. CQ 2493) and adding 1 ml of this to a
.95-liter container of high quality pasteurized
homogenized milk from which 46 ml have been
removed. Such samples may be diluted further
(e.g. 1:1) for more experienced judges. Morgan
(51) described an alternate simple procedure
for preparation of the malty flavor reference
standard for use when high purity 3-methyl-
butanal is not available.
Fruity flavor. A typical fruity aroma can be
produced in a good quality pasteurized-homo-
genized milk that has been fortified with .1 to
.2% ethanol, inoculated with an active culture
of P. fragi, and incubated at 7 C for 4 to 6 days.
Alternatively, milk known to contain excessive
numbers of psychrotrophic organisms may be
heated in flowing steam for 1 h and cooled to
7 C before addition of ethanol and inoculum.
Although milk prepared in this manner will
have a strong heated odor, this will not inter-
fere with detection of the fruity aroma when it
develops. Samples prepared in this manner can
be incubated at 21 C for more rapid develop-
ment of the typical aroma (48 to 72 h).
The characteristic fruity aroma can be sim-
ulated in milk by addition of 1 ml of a solution
prepared by diluting .0315 g (36 ul) of ethyl
butyrate and .0450 g (52 ul) of ethyl hexanoate
to 100 ml with 1,2-propanediol (Matheson
Coleman and Bell item no. CQ 2493) to 900
ml of good flavored homogenized milk. The
purity of the esters employed in this prepara-
tion should be at least 99.9%. As prepared, the
milk will contain .35 ppm of ethyl butyrate and
.50 ppm of ethyl hexanoate, the concentrations
detected in a fully developed milk culture of P.
fragi. Although these concentrations exceed the
average threshold concentrations for the indi-
vidual esters or mixtures thereof, samples pre-
pared in this manner have been suitable for
training individuals in recognition of the defect.
Samples can be diluted further for use with ex-
perienced judges.
Oxidized Flavor
Milk with a cardboard flavor may be pro-
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
duced by adding a copper salt to milk. A con-
venient method is to prepare a stock solution of
cuppric chloride, sulfate, or lactate so that 1 ml
of this solution will give a concentratin of 1
ppm of copper when added to 1 liter of milk.
The milk is held at 4 to 5 C. Usually milk con-
taining 1 ppm of copper will develop a card-
board flavor within 24 h, but some samples
may require a longer time and a higher concen-
tration of copper. The oxidation also can be
speeded by the addition of about 20 ppm of
ascorbic acid along with the copper. Different
intensities of the flavor can be obtained by add-
ing slightly different amounts of copper and
ascorbic acid and holding for different lengths
of time.
Metallic flavor in milk can be simulated by
the addition of 1 to 10 ppb if vinylamyl ketone
(1-octene-3-one). The addition of an equal
amount of octanal or other saturated aldehyde
along with vinylamyl ketone gives a cardboard
flavor to milk. These compounds are unstable
but may be preserved as urea complexes (79).
Transmitted Milk Flavors
Feed flavor. A very c o m m o n feed flavor may
be simulated by adding appropriate quantities
of a filtrate from a blended mixture of equal
volumes of silage and water to a liter of milk.
To produce truly authentic feed flavor,
one can feed the appropriate feed 2 to 3 h be-
fore milking. If the feed (such as fresh corn sil-
age) has strong volatile odors, the odor can be
imparted to the milk through the cow's lungs.
One merely has to place the odoriferous feed in
front of the cow for 15 to 20 rain prior to milk-
ing.
Weed flavor. One very typical weed flavor
may be simulated by addition of 1 g of garlic
salt or an appropriate quantity of fresh garlic
juice to a liter of milk. As with feed flavors,
authentic weed flavors can only be imparted
to the milk by the cow.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This bibliography contains important references
pertaining to the nomenclature and causes of off-
flavors in milk published since 1950. (For articles pub-
lished prior to 1950 see Flavors of Milk. A Review of
Literature, D. R. Strobel, W. G. Bryan, and C. J. Bab-
cock. USDA Bulletin. 1953.) A more inclusive list of
references pertaining to off-flavors in milk can be oh-
 N O M E N C L A T U R E OF MILK O F F - F L A V O R S
tained from Dairy Research, Inc., 6300 North River
Road, R o s e m o n t , IL 60018.
HEATED FLAVOR
1 Ashton, T. R. 1965. Ultra-high temperature pro-
cessing and aseptic packaging in the dairy indus-
try. The processing and aseptic packaging of
sterile milk in the United Kingdom. J. Soc. Dairy
Technol. 18(2) :65.
2 Blankenagel, G., and E. S. Humbert. 1963. Sul-
fhydryl groups and cooked flavor in ultra-high-
temperature processed skimmilk. J. Dairy Sci.
46:614.
3 Boyd, E. N., and I. A. Gould. 1957. Volatile and
nonvolatile sulfhydryl c o n t e n t of heated milk
and milk products. J. Dairy Sci. 40:1294.
4 Burton, H. 1969. Ultra-high temperature pro-
cessed milk. A review. Dairy Sci. Abstr. 31:287.
5 Cobb, W. Y. 1963. Investigation of t h e carmel-
type flavor in heated milks. Diss. Abstr. 24:1132.
6 Hansen, A. P., L. G. Turner, and V. A. Jones.
1974. Effect o f ultra-high-temperature steam in-
jection on flavor acceptability of whole and forti-
fied skim milks. J. Dairy Sci. 57:280.
7 Hutton, J. T., and S. Patton. 1952. The origin of
sulfhydryl groups in milk proteins and their con-
tributions to " c o o k e d " flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 35:
699.
8 Scanlan, R. A., R. C. Lindsay, L. M. Libbey, and
E. A. Day. 1968. Heat-induced volatile com-
p o u n d s in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 51:1001.
9 Shankaranarayana, M. L., B. Raghavan, K. O.
Abraham, and C. P. Natarajan. 1973. Volatile
sulphur c o m p o u n d s in food flavours. CRC Crit.
Rev. in F o o d Technol. 4:395.
10 Thomas, E. L., H. Burton, J. E. Ford, and A. G.
Perkin. 1975. The effect of oxygen c o n t e n t on
flavour and chemical changes during aseptic stor-
age of whole milk after ultra-high-temperature
processing. J. Dairy Res. 4 2 : 2 8 5 .
11 Zadow, J. G., and R. Birtwistle. 1973. The effect
of dissolved o x y g e n on t h e changes occurring in
t h e flavor of ultra-high-temperature milk during
storage. J. Dairy Res. 40:169.
LIGHT-INDUCED FLAVOR
12 Allen, C., and O. W. Parks. 1975. Evidence for
methional in skim milk exposed to sunlight. J.
Dairy Sci. 58:1609.
13 Aurand, L. W., J. A. Singleton, and G. Matrone.
1954. Sunlight flavor in milk. II. C o m p l e x forma-
tion b e t w e e n milk proteins and riboflavin. J.
Dairy Sci. 4 7 : 8 2 7 .
14 Aurand, L. W., J. A. Singleton, and B. W. Noble.
1966. P h o t o o x i d a t i o n reactions in milk. J. Dairy
Sci. 49:138.
15 Barnard, S. E. 1973. Importance o f shelf life for
c o n s u m e r s of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 55:134.
16 Bassette, R. 1976. Effects of light on concentra-
tions of s o m e volatile materials in milk. J. Milk
and Food Technol. 39:10.
865
17 Bradfield, A., and A. H. Duthie. 1966. Influence
of container materials in retarding fluorescent
lightqnduced oxidation o f milk. Bull. Vt. Agr.
Exp. Sta. 645.
18 Dimick, P. S. 1973. Effect o f fluorescent light on
t h e flavor and selected nutrients of h o m o g e n i z e d
milk held in conventional containers. J. Milk
Food Technol. 36:383.
19 Dunkley, W. L., J. D. Franklin, and R. M. Pang-
born. 1962. Effects o f fluorescent light on flavor,
ascorbic acid and riboflavin in milk. Food Tech-
nol. 16:112.
20 Dunkley, W. L., J. D. Franklin, a n d R. M. Pang-
born. 1962. Influence of homogenization, copper
and ascorbic acid on light-activated flavor in
milk. J. Dairy Sci. 4 5 : 1 0 4 0 .
21 Finley, J. W., and W. F. Shipe. 1971. Isolation of
a flavor producing fraction from light exposed
milk. J. Dairy Sci. 54:15.
22 Hansen, A. P., L. G. Turner, and L. W. Aurand.
1975. Fluorescent light-activated flavor in milk.
J. Milk Food~Technol. 38:388.
23 Hedrick, T. L, and Linda Glass. 1975. Chemical
changes in milk during exposure to fluorescent
light. J. Milk Food Tech'nol. 38:129.
24 Herreid, E. O., B. Ruskin, G. L. Clark, and J. D.
Parks. 1952. Ascorbic acid and riboflavin destruc-
tion and flavor development in milk exposed to
s u n in amber, clear, paper~ and r u b y bottles. J.
Dairy Sci. 35:772.
25 Patton, S. 1954. The m e c h a n i s m of sunlight
flavor f o r m a t i o n in milk with special reference to
m e t h i o n i n e and riboflavin. J. Dairy Sci. 37:446.
26 Samuelsson, E. G. 1962. Experiments on sunlight
flavor in S 3 s labelled milk. Milchwissenschaft 17:
401.
27 Smith, A. C., and P. MacLeod. 1955. The effect
of artifical light on milk on cold storage. J. Dairy
Sci. 38:870.
28 Smith, A. C., and P. MacLeod. 1957. Effects of
pasteurization temperature and exposure to light
on h o m o g e n i z e d milk. J. Dairy Sci. 4 0 : 8 6 2 .
29 Stull, J. W. 1953. The effect of light on activated
flavor development and on the c o n s t i t u t e n t s of
milk and its products. A review. J. Dairy Sci.
36:1153.
30 Weinstein, B. R., C. W. Duncan, and G. M. Trout.
1951. The solar-activated flavor of h o m o g e n i z e d
milk. IV. Isolation and characterization of a
w h e y c o n s t i t u e n t capable of producing solar acti-
vated flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 34:570.
31 Weinstein, B. R., H. A. Lillevik, C. W. Duncan,
and G. M. Trout. 1951. The solar-activated flavor
of h o m o g e n i z e d milk. V. The electrophoretic
analysis of a contributing m i n o r protein fraction.
J. Dairy Sci. 34:784.
32 Weinstein, B. R., and G. M. Trout. 1951. The
solar-activated flavor o f h o m o g e n i z e d milk. I.
Susceptibility of individual cow's milk. J. Dairy
Sci. 34:554.
33 Weinstein, B. R., and G. M. Trout. 1951. The
solar-activated flavor of h o m o g e n i z e d milk. I1.
The role o f oxidation a n d t h e effectiveness o f
certain treatments. J. Dairy Sci. 34:559.
34 Weinstein, B. R., and G. M. Trout. 1951. The
Journal o f Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
866 SHIPE ET AL.
solar-activated flavor o f homogenized milk. II1.
Effect o f dearation, surface area o f fat globules,
and relation of Kreis test. J. Dairy Sci. 34:565.
35 Wishner, L. A. 1964. Light-induced oxidation in
milk. J. Dairy Sci. 47:216.
36 Wishner, L. A., and M. Keeney. 1963. Carbonyl
pattern of sunlight-exposed milk. J. Dairy Sci.
46:785.
L I P O L Y Z E D FLAVOR
37 Arnold, R. G., K. M. Shahani, and B. K. Diwi-
vedi. 1975. Application of lipolytic enzymes to
flavor development in dairy products. J. Dairy
Sci. 58:1127.
38 Dunktey, W. L. 1951. Hydrolytic rancidity in
milk. I. Surface tension and fat acidity as mea-
sures of rancidity. J. Dairy Sci. 34:515.
39 Herrington, B. L. 1954. Lipase: A review. J.
Dairy Sci. 37:775.
40 International Dairy Federation Symposium.
1974. Proceedings of the Lipolysis IDF Annual
Bulletin Document No. 82.
41 International Dairy Federation Symposium.
1975. Proceedings of the Lipolysis IDF Annual
Bulletin Document No. 86.
42 Kolar, C. W., Jr., and J. B. Mickle. 1963. Rela-
tionships between milk fat acidity, short-chain
fatty acids and rancid flavours in milk. J. Dairy
Sci. 46: 569.
43 Kuzdzal-Savoie, S. 1975. Is there a correlation
between organoleptic and chemical procedures
for the assessment o f lipolysis? International
Dairy Federation Document No. 86:165.
44 Paulet, G., G. Mestres, and L. Cronenberger.
1974. Le Gout De Savon Dans Les Produits Ali-
mentaires: Effet De La Lipase Du Poivre Blanc.
Rev. Franc. Corps. Gras. 21:611.
45 Scanlan, R. A., L. A. Sather, and E. A. Day.
1965. Contribution o f free fatty acids to the
flavor of rancid milk. J. Dairy Sci. 48:1582.
46 Tuckey, S. L., and J. Stadhouders. 1967. In-
crease in the sensitivity of the organoleptic detec-
tion o f lipolysis in cows' milk by culturing or
direct acidification. Neth. Milk Dairy J. 21:158.
47 Willey, H. A., and A. H. Duthie. 1969. Evidence
for existence of more than one type of rancid
flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 52:277. (Abstr.)
MICROBIAL FLAVOR
48 Boyd, J. C., C. K. Smith, and G. M. Trout. 1955.
The role of psychrophilic bacteria in the keeping
quality o f commercially pasteurized and homo-
genized milk. J. Milk Food Technol. 18:32.
49 Gordon, D. J., Jr., M. E. Morgan, and J. S.
Tucker. 1963. Differentiation o f Streptococcus
lactis vat. Maltigenes from other lactic strepto-
cocci. Applied Microbiol. 11:171.
50 Hosono, A., J. A. Elliott, and W. A. McGugan.
1974. Production of ethyl esters by some lactic
acid and psychrotrophic bacteria. J. Dairy Sci.
57:535.
51 Morgan, M. E. 1970. Microbial flavor defects in
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
dairy products and methods for their simulation.
I. Malty flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 53:270.
52 Morgan, M. E. 1970. Microbial flavor defects in
dairy products and methods for their simulation.
II. Fruity flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 53:273.
53 Morgan, M. E. 1976. The chemistry o f some
microbiologically induced flavor defects in milk
and dairy foods. Biotechnol. and Bioeng. 18:953.
54 Punch, J. D., J. C. Olson, Jr., and E. L. Thomas.
1965. Psychrophilic bacteria. III. Population
levels associated with flavor or physical changes
in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 48:1179.
55 Shehata, T. E., and E. B. Collins. 1971. Isolation
and identification of psychrophilic species of
Bacillus from milk. Appl. Microbiol. 21:466.
56 Shehata, T. E., A. Deiran, and E. B. Collins.
1971. Influence of temperature on the growth o f
psychrophilic strains of Bacillus. J. Dairy Sci.
54:1579.
OXIDIZED FLAVOR
57 Aurand, L. W., T. M. Chu, J. A. Singleton, and R.
Shen. 1967. Xanthine oxidase activity and devel-
opment of spontaneously oxidized flavor in milk.
J. Dairy Sci. 50:465.
58 Aurand, L. W., and A. E. Woods. 1959. Role of
xanthine oxidase in the development of spontan-
eously oxidized flavor in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 42:
1111.
59 Aurand, L. W., A. E. Woods, and W. M. Roberts.
1959. Some factors involved in the development
of oxidized flavor in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 42:961.
60 Bernhart, F. W., and E. Linden. 1950. The effect
o f heat treatment on the pro-oxidant activity of
copper in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 33:166.
61 Bruhn, J. C., A. A. Franke, and G. S. Goble.
1976. Factors relating to the development of
spontaneous oxidized flavor in raw milk. J. Dairy
Sci. 59:828.
62 Chen, C. C. W., and J. Tobias. 1972. Migration of
copper between different fractions of milk. J.
Dairy Sci. 55:759.
63 Day, E. A., and D. A. Lillard. 1960. Autoxida-
tion of milk lipids. I. Identification o f volatile
monocarbonyl compounds from autoxidized
milk fat. J. Dairy Sci. 43: 585.
64 Day, E. A., D. A. Lillard, and M. W. Mont-
gomery. 1963. Autoxidation of milk lipids. III.
Effect on flavor o f the additive interactions of
carbonyl compounds at subthreshold concentra-
tions. J. Dairy Sci. 46:291.
65 Dunkley, W. L., A. A. Franke, and J. Robb.
1968. Tocopherol concentration and oxidative
stability of milk from cows fed supplements of
d or dl-~-tocopheryl acetate. J. Dairy Sci. 51:
531.
66 Dunkley, W. L., M. Ronning, A. A. Franke, and
J. Robb. 1967. Supplementing rations with toco-
pherol and ethoxyquin to increase oxidative sta-
bility of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 50:492.
67 E1-Negoumy, A. M., D. M. Miles, and E. G. Ham-
mond. 1961. Partial Characterization o f the Fla-
vors o f Oxidized Butteroil. J. Dairy Sci. 44:1047.
 N O M E N C L A T U R E OF MILK O F F - F L A V O R S
68 EI-Negoumy, A. M., M. S. dePuchal, and E. G.
H a m m o n d . 1962. Relation of linoleate and lino-
lenate to the flavors o f autooxidized milk fat.
J. Dairy Sci. 45:311.
69 Erickson, D. R., W. L. Dunkley, and L. M. Smith.
1964. Tocopherol distribution in milk fractions
a n d its relation to a n t i o x i d a n t activity. J. Food
Sci. 29:269.
70 Forss, D. A. 1964. Fishy flavor in dairy products.
J. Dairy Sci. 4 7 : 2 4 5 .
71 Forss, D. A., E. A. Dunstone, and W. Stark.
1960. Fishy flavor in dairy products. II1. The
volatile c o m p o u n d s associated with fishy flavor
in washed cream. J. Dairy Res. 27:373.
72 Forss, D. A., E. A. Dunstone, and W. Stark.
1960. The volatile c o m p o u n d s associated with
tallowy and painty flavors in butterfat. J. Dairy
Res. 27:381.
73 Forss, D. A., E. G. Pont, and W. Stark. 1955. The
volatile c o m p o u n d s associated with oxidized fla-
your in skim-milk. J. Dairy Res. 22:91.
74 Forster, T. L., C. Jensen, and E. Plath. 1953. In-
fluence o f protein hydrolysis on t h e susceptibil-
ity of milk to oxidized flavor development. J.
Dairy Sci. 36:98.
75 Forster, T. L., and H. H. S o m m e r . 1951. Mangan-
ese, trypsin, milk proteins and the susceptibility
o f milk to oxidized flavor development. J. Dairy
Sci. 34:992.
76 Gregory, J. F., and W. F. Shipe. 1975. Oxidative
stability of milk. I. The antioxidative effects of
trypsin t r e a t m e n t and aging. J. Dairy Sci. 58:
1263.
77 Guthrie, E. S. 1955. Role o f ascorbic acid in de-
v e l o p m e n t of oxidized flavors in dairy products.
Mere. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. 340.
78 H a m m o n d , E. G., and F. D. Hill. 1965. The oxi-
dized-metallic and grassy flavor c o m p o n e n t s of
autoxidized milk fat. J. Amer. Oil C h e m . Soc.
41:180.
79 H a m m o n d , E. G., and R. G. Seals. 1972. Oxidi-
zed flavor in milk and its stimulation. J. Dairy
Sci. 55:1567.
80 Hill, L. M., E. G. H a m m o n d , and R. G. Seals.
1969. Effect of antioxidants and synergists on
peroxide decomposition in milk fat. J. Dairy Sci.
52:1914.
81 Keeney, M., and F. J. Doan. 1951. Studies on
oxidized milkfat. I. Observations on t h e chemical
properties of t h e volatile flavor material from
oxidized milk fat. J. Dairy Sci. 34:713.
82 Keeney, M., and F. J. Doan. 1951. Studies on
oxidized milkfat. II. Preparation of 2,4-dinitro-
phenyl-hydrazones from the volatile material
from oxidized milk fat. J. Dairy Sci. 34:719.
83 Keeney, M., and F. J. Doan. 1951. Studies on
oxidized milkfat. III. Chemical and organoleptic
properties of volatile material obtained b y frac-
tionation with various solvents and Girard's rea-
gent. J. Dairy Sci. 34:728.
84 King, R. L. 1963. Oxidation of milk fat globule
m e m b r a n e material. II. Relation of ascorbic acid
and m e m b r a n e concentrations. J. Dairy Sci. 46:
267.
85 King, R. L. 1968. Direct addition o f tocopherol
867
to milk for control of oxidized flavor. J. Dairy
Sci. 51:1705.
86 King, R. L., and W. L. Dunkley. 1959. Relation
of natural copper in milk to incidence of spon-
t a n e o u s oxidized flavor. J. Dairy Sci. 42:420.
87 King, R. L., J. R. Luick, I. I. Litman, W. G. Jen-
nings, and W. L. Dunkley. 1959. Distribution of
natural and added copper and iron in milk. J.
Dairy Sci. 42:780.
88 King, R. L., and W. F. Williams. 1963. Copper
distribution in milk during early lactation. J.
Dairy Sci. 46:11.
89 Krukovsky, V. N. 1961. Review of biochemical
properties of milk and the lipid deterioration in
milk and milk products as influenced by natural
varietal factors. Agr. Food Chem. 9:439.
90 Lillard, D. A., and E. A. Day. 1961. Autoxida-
tion of milk lipids. 11. The relationship of sensory
to chemical m e t h o d s for measuring the oxidized
flavor of milk fats. J. Dairy Sci. 4 4 : 6 2 3 .
91 Parks, O. W., M. Keeney, and D. P. Schwartz.
1963. Carbonyl c o m p o u n d s associated with the
off-flavor in s p o n t a n e o u s l y oxidized milk. J.
Dairy Sci. 46:295.
92 Pont, E. G. 1952. Studies on the origin o f oxidi-
zed flavour in whole milk. J. Dairy Res. 19:316.
93 Pont, E. G., D. A. Forss, E. A. Djustone, and
L. F. Gunnis. 1960. Fishy flavor in dairy pro-
ducts. I. General studies on fishy butterfat. J.
Dairy Res. 27:205.
94 Rajan, T. S., G. A. Richardson, and R. W. Stein.
1962. X a n t h i n e oxidase activity o f milks in rela-
tion to stage o f lactation, feed, and incidence of
s p o n t a n e o u s oxidation. J. Dairy Sci. 4 5 : 9 3 3 .
95 Scanlan, R. A., and W. F. Shipe. 1962. Factors
affecting t h e susceptibility of milti vitamin min-
eral milk to oxidation. J. Dairy Sci. 4 5 : 1 4 4 9 .
96 Shipe, W. F. 1964. Oxidations in the dark. J.
Dairy Sci. 4 7 : 2 2 1 .
97 Shipe, W. F., E. C. Lee, and G. F. Senyk. 1975.
Enzymatic modification of milk flavor. J. Dairy
Sci. 58:1123.
98 Smith, G. J., and W. L. Dunldey. 1960. Xanthine
oxidase and incidence o f s p o n t a n e o u s oxidized
flavor in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 4 3 : 2 7 8 .
99 Smith, G. J., and W. L. Dunkley. 1962. Pro-
o x i d a n t s in s p o n t a n e o u s development of oxidi-
zed flavor in milk. J. Dairy Sci. 4 5 : 1 7 0 .
100 Smith, G. J., and W. L. Dunkley. 1962. Copper
binding in relation to inhibition o f oxidized fla-
vour b y heat t r e a t m e n t and homogenization. Int.
Dairy Congr. A:625.
101 Smith, G. J., and W. L. Dunldey. 1962. Ascorbic
acid oxidation and lipid peroxidation in milk. J.
F o o d Sci. 27:127.
102 Smith, L. M., W. L. Dunkley, a n d M. Ronning.
1963. Influence of linoleic acid c o n t e n t of milk
lipids on oxidation o f milk and m i l k fat. J. Dairy
Sci. 46:7.
103 Stark, W., and D. A. Forss. 1964. A c o m p o u n d
responsible for metallic flavour in dairy products.
I. Isolation and identification. J. Dairy Res. 29:
173.
104 Wang, C. F., and R. L. King. 1973. Chemical and
s e n s o r y evaluation of iron-fortified milk. J. Food
Journal o f Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
868 SHIPE ET AL.
Sci. 38:938.
105 Wilkinson, R. A., and W. Stark. 1967. A com-
p o u n d responsible for metallic flavor in dairy
products. II. Theoretical consideration of mech-
anism o f formation o f oet-l-ene-3-one. J. Dairy
Res. 34:89.
TRANSMITTED FLAVOR
106 Bradfield, A. 1962. Causes and prevention o f
some undesirable flavors in milk. Vt. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bull. 624.
107 Dougherty, R. W., W. F. Shipe, G. V. Gudna-
son, R. A. Ledford, R. D. Peterson, and R. Scar-
pellino. 1962. Physiological mechanisms involved
in transmitting flavors and odors to milk. I. Con-
tribution o f eructated gases to milk flavor. J.
Dairy Sci. 45:472.
108 Foreman, C. F., E. W. Bird, F. E. Nelson, and W.
S. Rosenberger. 1959. Observations regarding an
unclean flavor in milk produced by feeding
bromegrass. J. Dairy Sci. 42:936.
109 Gordon, D. T., and M. E. Morgan. 1972. Principle
volatile compounds in feed flavored milk. J.
Dairy Sci. 55:905.
110 Josephson, D. V., and Keeney, P. G. 1947. Rela-
tionship of acetone bodies to " c o w y " flavor in
milk. Milk Dlr 36(10):40.
111 Keller, W. J., Jr., and D. K. Kleyn. 1972. Head-
space gas chromatography for objectively deter-
mining intensity o f haylage flavour in raw milk.
J. Dairy Sci. 55:574.
112 Loney, B. E., R. Bassette, and G. M. Ward. 1963.
Some volatile components in milk, blood and
uteirne from cows fed silage, bromegrass and hay
and grain. J. Dairy Sci. 46:922.
113 Loosli, J. K., V. N. Krukovsky, G. P. Lofgreen,
and R. B. Musgrove. 1950. The comparative value
o f ladino clover, birdsfood trefoil, timothy and
alfalfa for yield and quality of milk. J. Dairy Sci.
33:228.
114 Mehta, R. S., R. Bassette, and G. Ward. 1974.
Trimethylamine responsible for fishy flavor in
milk from cows on wheat pasture. J. Dairy Sci.
57:285.
115 Mertens, D. R., J. R. Campbell, F. A. Martz, and
E. S. Hilderbrand. 1971. Lactatinal and ruminal
response of dairy cows to ten and twenty percent
dietary newspaper. J. Dairy Sci. 54:667.
116 Morgan, M. E., and R. L. Pereira. 1962. Volatile
constituents o f grass and corn silage. I. Steam dis-
tillates and II. Gas entrained aroma. J. Dairy Sci.
45:457 and 467.
117 Morgan, M. E., and R. L. Pereira. 1963. Identity
o f grassy aroma constituents of green forages. J.
Dairy Sci. 46:1420.
118 Moss, B. R. 1975. Mustard meal in dairy rations.
J. Dairy Sci. 58:1682.
119 Owen, J. R., J. T. Miles, W. C. Cowsert, J. W.
Lusk, E. W. Custer, and J. T. Cardwetl. 1957.
Feeding value of corn and sorghum silage for
milk production. J. Dairy Sci. 40:1554.
120 Park, R. J. 1965. Benzl thiocyanate taint in the
milk of cattle ingesting Coronopus didymus
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978
(SM). Nature 207:640.
121 Park, R. J. 1969. Weed taints in dairy produce.
I. Lepidium taint. J. Dairy Res. 36:31.
122 Park, R. J., J. D. Armitt, and W. Stark. 1969.
Weed taints in dairy produce. II. Coronopus or
land cress taint in milk. J. Dairy Res. 36:37.
123 Park, R. J., and M. D. Sutherland. 1969. Some
constituents of Apium leptopbyllurn (D.C.) F.
Muell. in relation to tainting of milk. Aust. J.
Chem. 22:495.
124 Patton, S., D. A. Forss, and E. A. Day. 1956.
Methyl sulfide and the flavor of milk. J. Dairy
Sci. 39:1469.
125 Potts, R. B., and E. M. Kesler. 1957. Effect of
grass silage on milk flavors and blood and milk
acetone bodies. J. Dairy Sci. 40:1466.
126 Shipe, W. F., R. A. Ledford, R. D. Peterson, R.
A. Scanlan, H. F. Geerken, R. W. Dougherty,
and M. E. Morgan. 1962. Physiological mech-
anisms involved in transmitting flavors and odors
to milk. II. Transmission o f some flavor compon-
ents o f silage. J. Dairy Sci. 45:477.
127 Walker, N. J., and I. K. Gray. 1970. The gluco-
sinolate o f land cress (Coronopus didymus) and
its enzymic degradation products as precursors of
off-flavour in milk - a review. J. Agr. Food
Chem. 18:346.
MISCELLANEOUS
128 Atherton, H. V., and R. A. Johnson. 1962. Some
aspects o f milk quality after addition of dairy
sanitation chemicals. Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull.
623:22 pp.
129 Badings. H. T. 1971. Package taint of pasteuri-
zed milk of varying fat content. Official Org. K.
ned. Zuivelbond 63:342 [Dairy Sci. Abstr.
33:38511.
130 Demott, B. J. 1971. Effects on flavour of fortify-
ing milk with iron and absorption of the iron
from intestinal tract of rats. J. Dairy Sci. 54:
1609.
131 Garm, O., T. Lunaas, and W. Velle. 1963. The
causes o f bitter flavour in milk. Meieriposten 52:
253.
132 Harwalkar, V. 1972. Isolation and partial charac-
terization o f an astringent fraction from milk and
nonfat dry milk. J. Dairy Sci. 55:1400.
133 Hess, E., and H. Lutz. 1971. The affinity of milk
for foreign odours, demonstrated in a model sys-
tem using a fat soluble, radioactively labelled
malodorous substance. Alimenta 10:207.
134 Hess, E., and H. Lutz. 1972. The affinity of milk
for odours. Archly. fur Lebensmittel-hygiene. 23:
224.
135 Jensen, J. M., G. M. Trout, and J. R. Brunner.
1963. Iodophors I. Effect on flavor of milk and
other observations. J. Dairy Sci. 46:799.
136 Josephson, R. V., E. L. Thomas, C. V. Morr, and
S. T. Coulter. 1967. Relation of heat-induced
changes in protein-salt constituents to astrin-
gency in milk systems. J. Dairy Sci. 50:1376.
137 Kratzer, D. D., C. F. Foreman, E. W. Bird, W. S.
Rosenberger, and F. E. Nelson. 1967. Important
 N O M E N C L A T U R E OF MILK O F F - F L A V O R S
sources of variations in milk flavor. J. Dairy Sci.
50:1384.
138 Kudale, J. M. 1970. An investigation of m e t h o d s
for reducing astringency in heated skim-milk.
Diss. Abstr. Int., Sect. B 31(5) 2751.
139 Labots, H., and T. E. Galesloot. 1958. Carbolic
flavour in sterilized milk, and t h e bottle washing
machine. Misset's Zuivel 64:883. [Dairy Sci.
Abstr. 2 1 ( 1 6 4 ) : 3 3 ] .
140 Minamiura, N., Y. Matsumera, J. F u k u m o t o , and
T. Y a m a m o t o . 1972. Bitter peptides in cow milk
casein digests with bacterial sequence of a bitter
peptide. Agr. and Biol. Chem. 36:588.
141 Nielson, S. 1952. The effect of chemical weed-
killers on t h e quality o f milk and dairy products.
Maelkeritidende 65:1228. [Dairy Sci. Abstr.
15:419a1.
142 Patel, G. B., and G. Balnkenagel. 1972. Bacterial
869
counts of raw milk and flavour of the milk after
pasteurization and storage. J. Milk Food Technol.
35:203.
143 Sahibzada Sheikh Wahid-U1-Hamid, and L. J.
Manus. 1960. Effect of changing the fat and non-
fat solids of milk. J. Dairy Sci. 4 3 : 1 4 3 0 .
144 Schlegel, J. A., and F. J. Babel. 1963. Flavors
imparted to dairy products b y phenol derivatives.
J. Dairy Sci. 4 6 : 1 9 0 .
145 Stroup, W. H., A. L. Reyes, R. B. Read, Jr., R. W.
Dickerson, Jr., and G. K. Murthy. 1968. Elimina-
tion of a flavor defect in milk treated for iodine-
131 removal b y ion exchange. J. Dariy Sci. 51:
1964.
146 Whelton, T. P., a n d J. Foley. 1967. The effect o f
iodophors on the flavour of milk and on the
activity of lactis cultures. J. Dep. Agr. Fish.
Republ. Ire. 54:128.
Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 61, No. 7, 1978