Introduction

Wireless channel modeling

RF link budget analysis

Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 1

 Introduction
Multipath wireless propagation
Wireless channel modeling
Path loss, shadowing and fading
RF link budget analysis

Multipath wireless propagation

reflection and diffraction

Extracted from Digital Communication lecture notes, McGill Uni.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 2

 Introduction
Multipath wireless propagation
Wireless channel modeling
Path loss, shadowing and fading
RF link budget analysis

Path loss, shadowing and fading

The characteristic of (mobile) wireless channel is the variations of
the channel strength over time and frequency.
The variations can be divided into two types:
Large-scale fading is yielded by:
path loss of signal as a function of distance and
shadowing by large objects such as buildings and hills.
Small-scale fading is yielded by the constructive and destructive
interference of the multiple signal paths between transmitter and
receiver.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 3

 Introduction
Multipath wireless propagation
Wireless channel modeling
Path loss, shadowing and fading
RF link budget analysis

An example of path loss, shadowing and fading

-50

-60

-70

-80
Received Power [dBm]

-90

-100
Pathloss

-110 Shadowing +
Pathloss
-130
Fading +
-140 Shadowing +
Pathloss

-150
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Traveled distance [m]

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 4

 Introduction
Multipath wireless propagation
Wireless channel modeling
Path loss, shadowing and fading
RF link budget analysis

An example of path loss, shadowing and fading (cont.)

Path Loss Alone

Shadowing and Path Loss
K (dB)
Multipath, Shadowing, and Path Loss

Pr
(dB)
Pt

0 log (d)

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Path loss models

It is well known that the received signal power decays with the
square of the path length in free space.
More specifically, the received envelope power is

𝜆𝑐 2
( )
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 4𝜋𝑑 , (1)

where:
𝑃𝑡 is the transmitted power,
𝐺𝑡 and 𝐺𝑟 are the transmitter and receiver antenna gains,
respectively
𝑑 is the radio path length.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Path loss models (cont.)

The signals in land mobile radio applications, however, do not
experience free space propagation. A more appropriate theoretical
model assumes propagation over a flat reflecting surface (the earth).
( )2 ( )
𝜆𝑐 2𝜋ℎ𝑏 ℎ𝑚
𝑃𝑟 = 4𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 sin2 , (2)
4𝜋𝑑 𝜆𝑐 𝑑

where ℎ𝑏 and ℎ𝑚 are the heights of the BS and MS antennas,

respectively.
Under the condition that 𝑑 ≫ ℎ𝑏 ℎ𝑚 , (2) reduces to
( )2
𝜆𝑐
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 , (3)
4𝜋𝑑

where we have used the approximation sin 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 for small 𝑥.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Path loss models (cont.)

The path loss is defined by
( )
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟
𝐿𝑝 (𝑑𝐵) = 10 log10
𝑃𝑟
{ ( )2 ( )}
𝜆𝑐 2 2𝜋ℎ𝑏 ℎ𝑚
= −10 log10 4 sin (4)
4𝜋𝑑 𝜆𝑐 𝑑

Several useful empirical models for macrocellular systems have been

obtained by curve fitting experimental data.
Two of the useful models for 900 MHz cellular systems are:
Hata’s model based on Okumura’s prediction method and
Lee’s model.
Hata’s empirical model is probably the simplest to use. The
empirical data for this model was collected by Okumura in the city
of Tokyo.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Okumura-Hata models
With Okumura-Hata’s model, the path loss between two isotropic
BS and MS antennas is
⎧
⎨𝐴 + 𝐵 log10 (𝑑)
 for urban area
𝐿𝑝 (𝑑𝐵) = 𝐴 + 𝐵 log10 (𝑑) − 𝐶 for suburban area (5)

𝐴 + 𝐵 log10 (𝑑) − 𝐷 for open area
⎩

where

𝐴 = 69.55 + 26.16 log10 (𝑓𝑐 ) − 13.82 log10 (ℎ𝑏 ) − 𝑎(ℎ𝑚 )

𝐵 = 49.9 − 6.55 log10 (ℎ𝑏 )
2
𝐶 = 5.4 + 2 (log10 (𝑓𝑐 /28))
2
𝐷 = 40.94 + 4.78 (log10 (𝑓𝑐 )) − 18.33 log10 (𝑓𝑐 )

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Okumura-Hata models (cont.)

and
⎧
⎨[1.1
{ log10 (𝑓𝑐 ) − 0.7] ℎ𝑚 − 1.56 log10 (𝑓𝑐 ) + 0.8 for medium or small city
𝑎ℎ𝑚 = 8.28 [log10 (1.54ℎ𝑚 )]2 − 1.1 for 𝑓𝑐 ≤ 200MHz
for large city
3.2 [log10 (11.75ℎ𝑚 )]2 − 4.97 for 𝑓𝑐 ≥ 400MHz

⎩
(6)

Okumura-Hata’s model is expressed in terms of:

the carrier frequency: 150 ≤ 𝑓𝑐 ≤ 1000(MHz),
BS antenna height: 30 ≤ ℎ𝑏 ≤ 200(m),
the mobile station (MS) height: 1 ≤ ℎ𝑚 ≤ 10(m),
the distance: 1 ≤ 𝑑 ≤ 20(km).

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Numerical results of Okumura-Hata models

450

400 urban area

suburban area
350 open area
Path loss (dB)

300

250

200

150

100
1 5 10 15 20
Distance d (km) under scale of log10

Figure 1: Path loss for ℎ𝑚 = 1.5m, ℎ𝑏 = 50m, 𝑓𝑐 = 900MHz.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Shadowing
A signal transmitted through a wireless channel will typically
experience random variation due to blockage from objects in the
signal path, giving rise to random variations of the received power at
a given distance.
Such variations are also caused by changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects.
Thus, a model for the random attenuation due to these effects is
also needed. Since the location, size, and dielectric properties of the
blocking objects as well as the changes in reflecting surfaces and
scattering objects that cause the random attenuation are generally
unknown, statistical models must be used to characterize this
attenuation.
The most common model for this additional attenuation is
log-normal shadowing.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Shadowing (cont.)
Empirical studies have shown that 𝑋𝑚 has the following log-normal
distribution:
{ ( )}
2 10 log10 𝑥2 − 𝜇𝑋𝑚 (dBm)
𝑝𝑋𝑚 (𝑥) = √ exp − 2
𝑥𝜎𝑋 𝜉 2𝜋 2𝜎𝑋
{ ( )}
2 10 log10 𝑥 − 𝜇𝑋𝑠 (dBm)
𝑝𝑋𝑠 (𝑥) = √ exp − 2
𝑥𝜎𝑋 𝜉 2𝜋 2𝜎𝑋

where:
𝑋𝑚 and 𝑋𝑠 denote the mean envelop and mean squared levels of
received signal (where the expectation is taken over the pdf of the
received envelope).
𝜎𝑋 stands for standard deviation.
2
𝜇𝑋𝑚 (dBm) = 30 + 10𝔼[log 10 𝑋𝑚 ]
𝜇𝑋𝑠 (dBm) = 30 + 10𝔼[log 10 𝑋𝑠 ]

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Shadowing (cont.)
Sometimes 𝑋𝑚 is called the local mean because it represents the
mean envelope level where the averaging is performed over a
distance of a few wavelengths that represents a locality.
This model has been confirmed empirically to accurately model the
variation in received power in both outdoor and indoor radio
propagation environments

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Fading channel model

Local
Scattering
Two Main
Multipaths

The complex transmitted signal can be expressed by

𝑠(𝑡) = Re 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 .
[ ]
(7)

Over a multipath (𝐿 physical paths) propagation channel, the

received signal can be obtained by
∑
𝑦𝑅𝐹 (𝑡) = 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡)𝑠(𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) + 𝑤(𝑡). (8)
𝑖

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Fading channel model (cont.)

Substituting (7) into (8) yields the following
[ ]
∑
𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 (𝑡−𝜏𝑖 (𝑡))
𝑦𝑅𝐹 (𝑡) = Re 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡)𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) 𝑒 + 𝑤(𝑡)
𝑖
[( ) ]
∑
𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡
= Re 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡)𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) 𝑒 + 𝑤(𝑡)
𝑖
Re 𝑦(𝑡)𝑒𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑤(𝑡)
[ ]
=

As a result, the received baseband signal can be determined by

∑
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡)𝑥(𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑡). (9)
𝑖

where 𝑤𝑏 (𝑡) is the receiver (thermal) noise signal.

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Wireless channel modeling (cont.)

The next step in creating a useful channel model is to convert the
continuous-time channel to a discrete-time channel.
We take the usual approach of sampling theorem.
Assuming that the input waveform is band-limited to 𝑊 , the
baseband equivalent can be represented by
∑
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑛 sinc(𝑊 𝑡 − 𝑛), (10)
𝑛

where 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥(𝑛/𝑊 ) and sinc(𝑡) ≜ sin(𝜋𝑡)

𝜋𝑡 .
This representation follows from the sampling theorem, which says
that any waveform band-limited to 𝑊/2 can be expanded in terms
of the orthogonal basis functions sinc(𝑊 𝑡 − 𝑛) with coefficients by
samples (taken uniformly at integer multiples of 1/𝑊 )

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Wireless channel modeling (cont.)

As a result, the baseband received signal can be determined by
∑ ∑
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑥𝑛 sinc (𝑊 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) − 𝑛) + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑖 𝑛
∑ ∑
= 𝑥𝑛 𝛼𝑖 (𝑡)sinc (𝑊 (𝑡 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑡)) − 𝑛) + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑡).
𝑛 𝑖

The sampled outputs at multiples of 1/𝑊 is 𝑦𝑚 ≜ 𝑦(𝑚/𝑊 ) then

∑ ∑
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑥𝑛 𝛼𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )sinc (𝑚 − 𝑛 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )𝑊 ) + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑚/𝑊 ).
𝑛 𝑖
(11)

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Wireless channel modeling (cont.)

Let 𝑙 ≜ 𝑚 − 𝑛 then one can have
∑ ∑
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑥𝑚−𝑙 𝛼𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )sinc (𝑙 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )𝑊 ) + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑚/𝑊 )
𝑙 𝑖

Then, the discrete-time channel model can be given by

∑
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑙 𝑥𝑚−𝑙 ℎ𝑙,𝑚 + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑚/𝑊 ) (12)
∑
where ℎ𝑙,𝑚 = 𝑖 𝛼𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )sinc (𝑙 − 𝜏𝑖 (𝑚/𝑊 )𝑊 )
This simple discrete-time signal model is widely used in
physical-layer transmission techniques in OFDM systems (e.g., WiFi,
WiMAX, LTE)

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Examples of transmitted baseband signal 𝑥𝑚

BPSK Q 16-QAM b0b1b2 b3

Q
b0
+1
00 10 01 10 11 10 10 10
0 1 +3
–1 +1
I
–1 00 11 01 11 11 11 10 11
+1

–3 –1 +1 +3
I
QPSK 00 01 01 01 11 01 10 01
Q b0b1 –1

01 11
+1
00 00 01 00 11 00 10 00
–3
–1 +1
00 10
I
–1

Over multipath channels, the received signal at MS is:

∑
𝑦𝑚 = 𝑙 𝑥𝑚−𝑙 ℎ𝑙,𝑚 + 𝑤𝑏 (𝑚/𝑊 ) (13)

It is noted that multipath fading gains ℎ𝑙,𝑚 (channel impulse

response) is time-variant (depend on time index 𝑚).
Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 20
 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Channel estimation in mobile communications

Source Channel Digital

S
encoder encoder modulation

Channel h

Source Channel Digital

decoder decoder demodulation
r = Sh + n

h h h h’ h’ h’
Pilot Data Data Pilot Data Data Pilot
S S S S S S S

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Literature Review of Channel Estimation in Wireless

Communications
Detection/decoding Rx signal Tx signal CIR Rx noise
in communications vector matrix vector vector
3 dB performance
3-dB f
without using CSI Noncoherent Coherent (CSI)
loss
use CSI r = Sh + n
require Channel Estimation (CE)
with channel parameters as:

Deterministic unknowns Random variables

Fisher approaches: Bayesian approaches:
LS ML,…
LS, ML MMSE MAP,…
MMSE, MAP

Multipath fading channel (freq. selective) in multi-carrier transmissions (e.g.,OFDM)

Time-invariant (quasi-static) Time-variant (Time-selective)

Perfect Imperfect Perfect Imperfect

Synch. Synch. Synch. Synch.
Channel Estimation (CE) Joint CE and Synch. Channel Estimation (CE)
Joint CE and Synch.
Blind Pilot Semi-blind Semi-blind Pilot Pilot Semi-blind
Decision-direct.
Turbo-based

Pilot design to minimize: Pilot design to minimize: Pilot design to minimize:

MSE CRLB MSE CRLB MSE BCRLB

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

Time-variant path gain ℎ𝑙,𝑚 under mobile speed of 5 km/h

2
Mobile user speed = 5 km/h,
l
Absolute value of amplitude of one path gain h

1.9 f = 2 GHz,
c
1.8 128−FFT, CP length = 10,
f = 1.92 MHz,
s
1.7 2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered.
1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2 pilot OFDM symbol

for channel estimation
1.1

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

ℎ𝑙,𝑚 under mobile speed of 50 km/h

Mobile user speed = 50 km/h,

l

f = 2 GHz,
Absolute value of amplitude of one path gain h

c
128−FFT, CP length = 10,
1.15 fs = 1.92 MHz,
2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered
1.1

1.05

1
Data OFDM symbol

0.95
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

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 Introduction Path loss models
Wireless channel modeling Shadowing
RF link budget analysis Fading channel model

ℎ𝑙,𝑚 under mobile speed of 300 km/h

Mobile user speed = 300 km/h,

l
Absolute value of amplitude of one fading gain h

f = 2 Ghz, 128−FFT, CP length = 10, f = 1.92 Mhz,

c s
1.3 2 time slots in LTE are considered,
Jakes model is considered.

1.2

1.1

0.9 Data OFDM symbol

0.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Time (in OFDM symbol duration)

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 25

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction
A communication link encompasses the entire path from the
information source, through the channel, and terminating at the
information sink.
The link analysis and its output, the link budget, consist of the
calculations and tabulation of the useful signal power and the
interfering noise power available at the receiver.
The link budget is a balance sheet of gains and losses.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 26

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction (cont.)
By examining the link budget, one can learn many things about
overall system design and performance.
For instance, from the link margin, one learns whether the system
will meet many of its requirements comfortably, marginally, or not at
all.
The link budget may reveal if there are any hardware constraints,
and whether such constraints can be compensated in other parts of
the link.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 27

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

Introduction (cont.)
The link budget is often used as a ”score sheet” in considering
system trade-offs and configuration changes, and in understanding
subsystem nuances and interdependencies.
Based on a quick examination of the link budget and its supporting
documentation, one can judge whether the analysis was done
precisely or if it represents a rough estimate.
Together with other modeling techniques, the link budget can help
predict equipment weight, size, prime power requirements, technical
risk, and cost.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 28

 Introduction
Introduction
Wireless channel modeling
The channel
RF link budget analysis

The channel
The propagating medium or electromagnetic path connecting the
transmitter and receiver is called the channel.
In general, a communication channel might consist of wires, coaxial
cables, fiber optic cables, and in the case of radio-frequency links,
waveguides, the atmosphere or empty space.
Most of this part presents link analysis in the context of a wireless
communication link.

Wireless Communications Chapter 2: Wireless Channel models 29