02 Vectors Notes

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Vectors
Sk Jahiruddin
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Assistant Professor
Sister Nibedita Govt. College, Kolkata
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Author was the topper of IIT Bombay M.Sc Physics 2009-2011 batch
He ranked 007 in IIT JAM 2009 and 008 (JRF) in CSIR NET June
2011
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He has been teaching CSIR NET aspirants since 2012

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1
©Sk Jahiruddin, 2020 Vectors
Contents
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1 Vector Algebra 7
1.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Scalar product or dot product . . . . . . . . 12
1.3
1.4
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Vector product or cross product . . . . . . .
Scalar triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14
17
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1.5 Vector triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.6 Equations of lines, planes and spheres . . . . 21

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1.6.1 Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6.2 Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
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1.6.3 Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6.4 Distance from a point to a line . . . 26

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1.6.5 Distance from a point to a plane . . 27
1.6.6 Distance from a line to a line . . . . 29
jahir@physicsguide.in 2 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

1.6.7 Distance from a line to a plane . . . 31
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1.7 Reciprocal vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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1.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.8.1 Ans keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.8.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2 Vector Calculus
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2.1 Derivative of a vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Velocity and acceleration in 2D polar coordi-

nate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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2.3 Differentiation of composite . . . . . . . . . 47

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2.3.1 Derivative of constant magnitude vector 48
2.4 Space curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

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2.4.1 Torsion and Normal . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5 Vector Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

2.5.1 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
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2.5.2 Divergence of a vector field . . . . . . 68
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2.5.3 Curl of a vector field . . . . . . . . . 70
2.5.4 Vector operator formula . . . . . . . 72
2.6 Cylindrical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . 77
2.7
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Spherical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.8 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate . . . . . . 86

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2.8.1 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.8.2 Divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
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2.8.3 Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
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2.8.4 Curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.9 Exersizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
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2.9.1 Ans keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.9.2 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

3 Line Surface and Volume Integrals 116
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3.1 Line Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
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3.2 Green’s theorem in a plane . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.3 Conservative field and potential . . . . . . . 128
3.4 Surface integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.5
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Volume integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.6 Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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3.6.1 Physical demonstration of Divergence
theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
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3.6.2 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.6.3 Proof of Divergence theorem . . . . . 149

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3.6.4 Green’s theorems . . . . . . . . . . . 153

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3.6.5 Other Related Integral theorems . . . 154
3.7 Stokes’ theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.7.1 Proof of Stokes’ theorem . . . . . . . 156

3.7.2 Related integral theorem . . . . . . . 162
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3.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
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3.8.1 Ans Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.8.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4 More Exercises with Ans Key
4.1
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Ans key of More Exercises . . . . . . . . . . 202
197
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1 Vector Algebra
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1.1 Basics
Pictorial representation of addition and subtraction of vec-

tor is as follows.
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Figure 1.1: Addition of vectors

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Figure 1.2: Subtraction of vectors
Multiplication with scalars

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(λµ)a = λ(µa) = µ(λa)
λ(a + b) = λa + λb (1.1)
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(λ + µ)a = λa + µa
Given any three different vectors e1 , e2 and e3 , which do

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not all lie in a plane, it is possible, in a three-dimensional

space, to write any other vector in terms of scalar multiples
of them:
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a = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3
The three vectors e1 , e2 and e3 are said to form a basis
(for the three-dimensional space); the scalars a1 , a2 and a3 ,

which may be positive, negative or zero, are called the com-
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ponents of the vector a with respect to this basis. We say
that the vector has been resolved into components.
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Most often we shall use basis vectors that are mutually
perpendicular, for ease of manipulation, though this is not
necessary. In general, a basis set must (i) have as many
basis vectors as the number of dimensions (in more formal
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language, the basis vectors must span the space) and (ii)
be such that no basis vector may be described as a sum
of the others, or, more formally, the basis vectors must be
linearly independent. Putting this mathematically, in N
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dimensions, we require
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c1 e1 + c2 e2 + · · · + cN eN 6= 0
for any set of coefficients c1 , c2 , . . . , cN except c1 = c2 =
· · · = cN = 0
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If we wish to label points in space using a Cartesian co-

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ordinate system (x, y, z) we may introduce the unit vectors

i, j and k, which point along the positive x− y = and z−
axes respectively. A vector a may then be written as a sum

of three vectors, each parallel to a different coordinate axis:
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a = ax i + ay j + az k
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A vector in three-dimensional space thus requires three com-
ponents to describe fully both its direction and its magni-
tude. A displacement in space may be thought of as the
sum of displacements along the x − y− and z− directions .
For brevity, the components of a vector a with respect to a
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particular coordinate system are sometimes written in the
form (ax , ay , az ) . Note that the basis vectors i, j and k may
themselves be represented by (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1)
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respectively.
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Figure 1.3: A Cartesian basis set. The vector a is the sum

of ax i, ay j and az k
We can consider the addition and subtraction of vectors

in terms of their components. The sum of two vectors a and
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b is found by simply adding their components, i.e.
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a + b = ax i + ay j + az k + bx i + by j + bz k
= (ax + bx ) i + (ay + by ) j + (az + bz ) k
and their difference by subtracting them,
a − b = ax i + ay j + az k − (bx i + by j + bz k)
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= (ax − bx ) i + (ay − by ) j + (az − bz ) k
The magnitude of the vector a is denoted by |a| or a.

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In terms of its components in three-dimensional Cartesian
coordinates, the magnitude of a is given by
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q
a ≡ |a| = a2x + a2y + a2z (1.2)
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A vector whose magnitude equals unity is called a unit

vector. The unit vector in the direction a is usually notated
â and may be evaluated as
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a
â = (1.3)
|a|

1.2 Scalar product or dot product
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The scalar product (or dot product) of two vectors a and b
is denoted by a · b and is given by
a · b ≡ |a||b| cos θ, 0≤θ≤π
where θ is the angle between the two vectors, placed ’tail to

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tail’ or ”head to head? Thus, the value of the scalar product
a · b equals the magnitude of a multiplied by the projection
of b
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If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0
a·b=0 =⇒ a is perpendicular to b (1.4)

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It should be noted in particular that the Cartesian basis

vectors j and k, being mutually orthogonal unit vectors,
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satisfy the equations
i·i=j·j=k·k=1
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i·j=j·k=k·i=0

Scalar product has a magnitude but no direction. The
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scalar product is commutative and distributive over addi-
tion:
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a·b=b·a
a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c
Example: Find the angle between the vectors a = i +

2j + 3k and b = 2i + 3j + 4k
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Solution: The cosine of the angle θ between a and b is
given by
a·b
cos θ =
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|a||b|
The scalar product a · b has the value
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·b = 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 3 × 4 = 20
and the lengths of the vectors are

√ √
|a| = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14 and
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√ √
|b| = 22 + 32 + 42 = 29
Thus,
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20
cos θ = √ √ ≈ 0.9926 ⇒ θ = 0.12rad.
14 29

If we take the scalar product of any vector a with itself
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then clearly θ = 0 and we have
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a · a = |a|2
Thus the magnitude of a can be written in a coordinate-

√
independent form as |a| = a · a
1.3
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Vector product or cross product
The vector product (or cross product) of two vectors a and b

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is denoted by a×b and is defined to be a vector of magnitude
|a||b| sin θ in a direction perpendicular to both a and b;
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|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ
The direction is found by ’rotating’ a into b through the

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smallest possible angle. The sense of rotation is that of

a right-handed screw that moves forward in the direction
a × b, see figure below. Again, θ is the angle between the
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two vectors placed ’tail to tail’ or ”head to head? With this

definition a, b and a × b form a right-handed set.

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Figure 1.4: The vector product. The vectors a, b and a × b
form a right-handed set
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The vector product is distributive over addition, but an-
ticommutative and non-associative
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(a + b) × c = (a × c) + (b × c)
b × a = −(a × b) (1.5)
(a × b) × c 6= a × (b × c)
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If a 6= 0 and b 6= 0
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a×b=0 =⇒ a is parallel or anti parallel to b (1.6)
a×a=0 (1.7)

An example of the use of the vector product is that of
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finding the area, A, of a parallelogram with sides a and b,
using the formula
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A = |a × b|
Properties of unit vectors under cross product.
and
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i×i=j×j=k×k=0
i × j = −j × i = k
j × k = −k × j = i
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k × i = −i × k = j
Using these relations, it is straightforward to show that

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the vector product of two general vectors a and b is given

in terms of their components with respect to the basis set i,
j, k, by
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a × b = (ay bz − az by ) i + (az bx − ax bz ) j + (ax by − ay bx ) k

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This can also be written as

i j k

a × b = ax ay az

bx by bz

Example: Find the area A of the parallelogram with
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sides a = i + 2j + 3k and b = 4i + 5j + 6k
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Solution: The vector product a × b is given in compo-
nent form by
a × b = (2 × 6 − 3 × 5)i + (3 × 4 − 1 × 6)j + (1 × 5 − 2 × 4)k

= −3i + 6j − 3k
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Thus the area of the parallelogram is
√
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p
A = |a × b| = (−3)2 + 62 + (−3)2 = 54
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1.4 Scalar triple product
The scalar triple product is denoted by

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[a, b, c] ≡ a · (b × c) (1.8)
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It is just a number. It is most simply interpreted as

the volume of a parallelepiped whose edges are given by
a, b and c The vector v = a × b is perpendicular to the

base of the solid and has magnitude v = ab sin θ, i.e. the
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area of the base. Further, v · c = vc cos φ.
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Figure 1.5: The scalar triple product represents the volume
of a parallelepiped
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Thus, since c cos φ = OP is the vertical height of the

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parallelepiped, it is clear that (a × b) · c = area of the base

× perpendicular height = volume. It follows that, if the
vectors a, b and c are coplanar, a · (b × c) = 0
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Expressed in terms of the components of each vector

with respect to the Cartesian basis set i, j, k the scalar triple
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product is
a·(b×c) = ax (by cz − bz cy )+ay (bz cx − bx cz )+az (bx cy − by cx )

(1.9)

which can also be written as a determinant:
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a ay az
x
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a · (b × c) = bx by bz

cx cy cz
By writing the vectors in component form, it can be shown

that
a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c
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so that the dot and cross symbols can be interchanged with-
out changing the result. More generally, the scalar triple
product is unchanged under cyclic permutation of the vec-
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tors a, b, c. Other permutations simply give the negative
of the original scalar triple product. These results can be
summarised by
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a, b, ct = [b, c, a] = [c, a, b] = −[a, c, b] (1.10)

= −[b, a, c] = −[c, b, a]
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Example: Find the volume V of the parallelepiped with

sides a = i + 2j + 3k, b = 4i + 5j + 6k and c = 7i + 8j + 10k.
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Solution: We have already found that a ×b = −3i +

6j − 3k, in subsection 7.6.2. Hence the volume of the paral-
lelepiped is given by

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V = |a · (b × c)| = |(a × b) · c|
= |(−3i + 6j − 3k) · (7i + 8j + 10k)|
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= |(−3)(7) + (6)(8) + (−3)(10)| = 3
Another useful formula involving both the scalar and

vector products is Lagrange’s identity
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(a × b) · (c × d) ≡ (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c) (1.11)
1.5 Vector triple product

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By the vector triple product of three vectors
a, b, c
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we mean the vector a × (b × c) Clearly, a × (b × c) is

perpendicular to a and lies in the plane of b and c and
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so can be expressed in terms of them . The vector triple

product is not associative, i.e.
a × (b × c) 6= (a × b) × c
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Two useful formulae involving the vector triple product are

a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c
(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a

which may be derived by writing each vector in component
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form . It can also be shown that for any three vectors a, b, c
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a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0
1.6 Equations of lines, planes and spheres
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Now that we have described the basic algebra of vectors, we
can apply the results to a variety of problems, the first of
which is to find the equation of a line in vector form.
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1.6.1 Line
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Consider the line passing through the fixed point A with

position vector a and having a direction b (see figure below).
It is clear that the position vector r of a general point R on
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the line can be written as
r = a + λb (1.12)
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Figure 1.6: The equation of a line. The vector b is in the
direction AR and λb is the vector from A to R
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Taking the vector product of above equation with b and
remembering that b × b = 0 gives an alternative equation
for the line
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(r − a) × b = 0 (1.13)
We may also find the equation of the line that passes

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through two fixed points A and C with position vectors a

and c. since AC is given by c − a, the position vector of a
general point on the line is
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r = a + λ(c − a)
Taking the components the equation of the line can also

be written in the form
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x − ax y − ay z − az
= = = constant
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bx by bz
1.6.2 Plane
The equation of a plane through a point A with position

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vector a and perpendicular to a unit position vector n̂ - see
figure 1.7 below - is
(r − a) · n̂ = 0 (1.14)
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Figure 1.7: The equation of a line. The vector b is in the

direction AR and λb is the vector from A to R

This follows since the vector joining A to a general point
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R with position vector r is r − a; r will lie in the plane if
this vector is perpendicular to the normal to the plane.
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Rewriting equation (1.14) as r · n̂ = a · n̂, we see that
the equation of the plane may also be expressed in the form
r · n̂ = d, or in component form as
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lx + my + nz = d
where the unit normal to the plane is n̂ = li + mj + nk

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and d = a · n̂ is the perpendicular distance of the plane from
the origin.
The equation of a plane containing points a, b and c is

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r = a + λ(b − a) + µ(c − a) (1.15)

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This is apparent because starting from the point a in the

plane, all other points may be reached by moving a distance
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along each of two (non-parallel) directions in the plane. Two

such directions are given by b−a and c−a. It can be shown
that the equation of this plane may also be written in the

more symmetrical form
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r = αa + βb + γc
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where α + β + γ = 1
Example: Find the direction of the line of intersection

of the two planes x + 3y − z = 5 and 2x − 2y + 4z = 3
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Solution: The two planes have normal vectors n1 =
i + 3j − k and n2 = 2i − 2j + 4k. It is clear that these are not
parallel vectors and so the planes must intersect along some
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line. The direction p of this line must be parallel to both
planes and hence perpendicular to both normals. Therefore
p = n1 × n2
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= [(3)(4) − (−2)(−1)]i + [(−1)(2) − (1)(4)]j + [(1)(−2) − (3)(

= 10i − 6j − 8k
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1.6.3 Sphere
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Clearly, the defining property of a sphere is that all points

on it are equidistant from a fixed point in space and that
the common distance is equal to the radius of the sphere.

This is easily expressed in vector notation as
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|r − c|2 = (r − c) · (r − c) = a2 (1.16)
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where c is the position vector of the centre of the sphere
and a is its radius.
1.6.4 ide
Distance from a point to a line
A line having direction b that passes through a point A

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whose position vector is a. The minimum distance d of the
line from a point P whose position vector is p, is
d = |(p − a) × b̂| (1.17)

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Example: Find the minimum distance from the point

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P with coordinates (1, 2, 1) to the line r = a + λb, where

a = i + j + k and b = 2i − j + 3k.
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Solution: The line passes through the point (1, 1, 1) and

has direction 2i − j + 3k. The unit vector in this direction
is
1
b̂ = √ (2i − j + 3k)
14
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The position vector of P is p = i + 2j + k and we find
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1
(p − a) × b̂ = √ [j × (2i − 3j + 3k)]
14
1
= √ (3i − 2k)
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Thus the minimum distance from the line to the point

p
P is d = 13/14
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1.6.5 Distance from a point to a plane

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The minimum distance d from a point P whose position

vector is p to the plane defined by (r − a) · n̂ = 0 . Consider
the vector a − p, which is a particular vector from P to the
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plane. Its component normal to the plane, and hence its

distance from the plane, is given by
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d = (a − p) · n̂ (1.18)
where the sign of d depends on which side of the plane P is

situated

Example: Find the distance from the point P with
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coordinates (1, 2, 3) to the plane that contains the points
A, B and C having coordinates (0, 1, 0), (2, 3, 1) and (5, 7, 2).
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Solution: Let us denote the position vectors of the
points A, B, C by a, b, c. Two vectors in the plane are
b − a = 2i + 2j + k and c − a = 5i + 6j + 2k
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and hence a vector normal to the plane is
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n = (2i + 2j + k) × (5i + 6j + 2k) = −2i + j + 2k
and its unit normal is

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n 1
n̂ = = (−2i + j + 2k)
|n| 3
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Denoting the position vector of P by p, the minimum

distance from the plane to P is given by
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d = (a − p) · n̂
1
= (−i − j − 3k) · (−2i + j + 2k)
3
2 1 5
= − −2=−
3 3 3
If we take P to be the origin O, then we find d = 13 , i.e.
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a positive quantity. It follows from this that the original
point P with coordinates (1, 2, 3), for which d was negative,
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is on the opposite side of the plane from the origin.
1.6.6 Distance from a line to a line
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Consider two lines in the directions a and b, , since a × b is
by definition perpendicular to both a and b, the unit vector
normal to both these lines is
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a×b
n̂ =
|a × b|
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If p and q are the position vectors of any two points P

and Q on different lines then the vector connecting them is
p − q. Thus, the minimum distance d between the lines is
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this vector’s component along the unit normal, i.e.

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d = |(p − q) · n̂| (1.19)
Example: A line is inclined at equal angles to the x−y−

and z -axes and passes through the origin. Another line
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passes through the points (1, 2, 4) and (0, 0, 1). Find the
minimum distance between the two lines.
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Solution: The first line is given by
r1 = λ(i + j + k)
and the second by ide

r2 = k + µ(i + 2j + 3k)
Hence a vector normal to both lines is

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n = (i + j + k) × (i + 2j + 3k) = i − 2j + k
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and the unit normal is

1
n̂ = √ (i − 2j + k)
6
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A vector between the two lines is, for example, the one con-
necting the points (0, 0, 0) and (0, 0, 1), which is simply k.
Thus it follows that the minimum distance between the two
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lines is
1 1
d = √ |k · (i − 2j + k)| = √
6 6

1.6.7 Distance from a line to a plane
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Let us consider the line r = a + λb. This line will intersect
any plane to which it is not parallel. Thus, if a plane has a
normal n̂ then the minimum distance from the line to the
plane is zero unless
b · n̂ = 0
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in which case the distance, d, will be
d = |(a − r) · n̂|
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where r is any point in the plane.
Example: A line is given by r = a + λb, where a =

i + 2j + 3k and b = 4i + 5j + 6k. Find the coordinates of
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the point P at which the line intersects the plane
x + 2y + 3z = 6
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A vector normal to the plane is

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n = i + 2j + 3k
from which we find that b · n 6= 0. Thus the line does indeed

intersect the plane. To find the point of intersection we

merely substitute the x − y− and z− values of a general
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point on the line into the equation of the plane, obtaining
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1 + 4λ + 2(2 + 5λ) + 3(3 + 6λ) = 6 ⇒ 14 + 32λ = 6
This gives λ = − 14 , which we may substitute into the equa-

tion for the line to obtain x = 1 − 14 (4) = 0, y = 2 − 41 (5) = 34
and z = 3 − 14 (6) = 32 . Thus the point of intersection is
0, 43 , 32

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1.7 Reciprocal vectors
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The two sets of vectors a, b, c and a0 , b0 , c0 are called recip-

rocal sets if
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a · a0 = b · b0 = c · c0 = 1 (1.20)
and
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a0 · b = a0 · c = b0 · a = b0 · c = c0 · a = c0 · b = 0 (1.21)
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It can be verified that the reciprocal vectors of a, b and c
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are given by
b×c
a0 =
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a · (b × c)
c×a
b0 = (1.22)
a · (b × c)
a×b
c0 =
a · (b × c)
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where a · (b × c) 6= 0. In other words, reciprocal vectors only
exist if a, b and c are not coplanar. Moreover, if a, b and
c are mutually orthogonal unit vectors then a0 = a, b0 = b
and c0 = c, so that the two systems of vectors are identical.
gu
Example: Construct the reciprocal vectors of a = 2i, b =
j + k, c = i + k
ics
Solution: First we evaluate the triple scalar product:

a · (b × c) = 2i · [(j + k) × (i + k)]
ys
= 2i · (i + j − k) = 2
Now find the reciprocal vectors by using the definition.
1 1
Ph
a0 = (j + k) × (i + k) = (i + j − k)
2 2
1
b0 = (i + k) × 2i = j
2
1
c0 = (2i) × (j + k) = −j + k
2
1.8 Exercises
T
1.1. Which of the following statements about general vec-
NE
tors a, b and c are true?
(a) c · (a × b) = (b × a) · c
(b) a × (b × c) = (a × b) × c
(c) a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c
(d) d = λa + µb implies (a × b) · d = 0
ide
(e) a × c = b × c implies c · a − c · b = c|a − b|
(f) (a × b) × (c × b) = b[b · (c × a)]
1.2. Find the angle between the position vectors to the
gu
points (3, −4, 0) and (−2, 1, 0) and find the direction cosines
of a vector perpendicular to both.
1.3. Prove
ics
(a × b) × c = (a · c)b − (b · c)a
1.4. (a) Find the equation of the plane through the three
ys
points A(−1, 1, 1), B(2, 3, 0) C(0, 1, −2)

(b) Find the equations of a line through (1, 0, −2) and per-
Ph
pendicular to that plane

1.5. Find the distance from the point P (1, −2, 3) to the
plane 3x − 2y + z + 1 = 0

1.6. Find the distance from P (1, 2, −1) to the line joining
T
P1 (0, 0, 0) and P2 (−1, 0, 2)
NE
1.7. Find the distance between the lines r = i − 2j + (i − k)t
and r = 2j − k + (j − i)t
1.8. (a) Find the direction of the line of intersection of the
planes x − 2y + 3z = 4 and 2x + y − z = 5.
(b) Find the cosine of the angle between the planes
ide
gu
ics
ys
Ph

1.8.1 Ans keys
T
NE
1.1. (c), (d) and (e)
−2
1.2. cos θ = √ 5
1.4. (a) 3x − 4y + z + 6 = 0, (b) r = (1, 0, −2) + (3, −4, 1)t
√
1.5. 11/ 14
p
1.6. 21/5
√
1.7.
1.8.
2/ 3 ide p
(a) −i + 7j + 5k (b) arccos 3/28
gu
ics
ys
Ph

1.8.2 Solutions
T
NE
Solution: 1.1.
(a) c · (a × b) = −c · (b × a) = −(b × a) · c 6= (b × a) · c
(b) a × (b × c) = b(a · c) − c(a · b) 6= b(a · c) − a(b · c) =

(a × b) × c
ide
(c) a × (b × c) = (a · cb) − (a · b)c, a standard result.
(d) (a×b)·d = (a×b)·(λa+µb) = λ(a×b)·a+µ(a×b)·b

gu
= λ0 + µ0 = 0
ics
(e) a × c = b × c ⇒ (a − b) × c = 0 ⇒ a − bkc
⇒ (a − b) · c = c|a − b| ⇒ c · a − c · b = c|a − b|
ys
(f) (a × b) × (c × b) = b[a · (c × b)] − a[b · (c × b)]

Ph
= b[a · (c × b)] − 0 = b[b · (a × c)] = −b[b · (c × a)]

6= b[b · (c × a)]
Thus only (c), (d) and (e) are true.

Solution: 1.2. If θ is the angle between the vectors
T
a = (3, −4, 0) and b = (−2, 1, 0) then its cosine is given by
NE
a · b −6 − 4 + 0 −2
cos θ = = √ =√
ab 5 5 5
giving θ = 153.4◦ A vector perpendicular to both a and b
is their cross product
ide
a × b = (0 − 0, 0 − 0, 3 − 8) = (0, 0, −5)
The normalised cross product is (0, 0, −1) whose compo-

nents therefore are the required direction cosines. Clearly
gu
(0, 0, 1) is an equally valid vector perpendicular to both a
and b.
ics
Solution: 1.3. We compute only the x -component of

each side of the equation. The corresponding results for
other components can be obtained by cyclic permutation of
x, y and z.
ys
Ph
a × b = (ay bz − az by , az bx − ax bz , ax by − ay bx )

[(a × b) × c]x = (az bx − ax bz ) cz − (ax by − ay bx ) cy
T
= bx (az cz + ay cy ) − ax (bz cz + by cy )
NE
= bx (az cz + ay cy + ax cx ) − ax (bx cx + bz cz + by cy )
= [(a · cz ) b − (b · cx )]x
we both added and subtracted ax bx cx on the RHS. This
establishes the result for the x -component and hence for all
three components.
ide
Solution: 1.4. (a) A vector joining any pair of the
−→
given points lies in the plane. Two such vectors are AB =
−→
(2, 3, 0) − (−1, 1, 1) = (3, 2, −1) and AC = (1, 0, −3). The
gu
cross product of these two vectors is perpendicular to the
plane. This is

i j k
ics
−→ −→
N = (AB) × (AC) = 3 2 −1 = −6i + 8j − 2k

1 0 −3
ys
Now we write the equation of the plane with normal di-

rection N through one of the given points, say B, using
equation (1.14)
Ph
−6(x − 2) + 8(y − 3) − 2z = 0 or 3x − 4y + z + 6 = 0
(b) The vector 3i − 4j + k is perpendicular to the plane of

Example 1 and so parallel to the desired line. Thus b the

symmetric equations of the line are
T
(x − 1) y (z + 2)
= =
NE
3 −4 1
The parametric equations of the line are r = i − 2k + (3i −
4j + k)t or, if you like, r = (1, 0, −2) + (3, −4, 1)t
Solution: 1.5. One point in the plane is (1, 2, 0); call
−→
ide
this point Q. Then the vector from P to Q is
P Q = (1, 2, 0) − (1, −2, 3) = (0, 4, −3) = 4j − 3k

gu
From the equation of the plane we get the normal vector
N = 3i − 2j + k
√
ics
We get n by dividing N by |N| = 14. Then we have

−→ √
|P R| = |P Q · n| = |(4j − 3k) · (3i − 2j + k)/ 14|
√ √
ys
= |(−8 − 3)/ 14| = 11/ 14
Solution: 1.6. Let A = P1 P2 = −i + 2k; this is a

Ph
vector along the line. Then a unit vector along the line is
√
u = (1/ 5)(−i + 2k). Let us take Q to be P1 (0, 0, 0). Then

−→
P Q = −i − 2j + k, so we get for the distance |P R| :
T
1
|P R| = √ |(−i − 2j + k) × (−i + 2k)|
NE
5
1 p
= √ | − 4i + j − 2k| = 21/5
5
Solution: 1.7. If we write the first line as r = r0 + At,

ide
then (the head of) r0 is a simple choice for P, so we have
P = (1, −2, 0) and A=i−k
Similarly, from the second line we find

gu
Q = (0, 2, −1) and B=j−i
√
ics
Then A × B = i + j + k and n = (1/ 3)(i + j + k). Also

−→
P Q = (0, 2, −1) − (1, −2, 0) = (−1, 4, −1) = −i + 4j − k
ys
Thus we get for the distance between the lines

−→ √
|P Q · n| = |(−i + 4j − k) · (i + j + k)/ 3|
Ph
√ √
= | − 1 + 4 − 1|/ 3 = 2/ 3
Solution: 1.8.

(a) The desired line lies in both planes, and so is per-
T
pendicular to the two normal vectors to the planes, namely
i − 2j + 3k and 2i + j − k. Then the direction of the line
NE
is that of the cross product of these normal vectors; this is
−i + 7j + 5k
(b) The angle between the planes is the same as the

angle between the normals to the planes. Thus our problem
ide
is to find the angle between the vectors A = i − 2j + 3k
and B = 2i + j − k. since A · B = |A||B| cos θ, we have
√ √ p
−3 = 14 6 cos θ, and so cos θ = − 3/28. This gives the
obtuse angle between the planes; the corresponding acute
gu
p
angle is π − θ, or arc cos 3/28
ics
ys
Ph

2 Vector Calculus
T
NE
2.1 Derivative of a vector
The pictorial representation of small change of a vector,

∆a = a(u + ∆u) − a(u), is shown in the following figure.
ide
gu
ics
ys
Figure 2.1: Small change of a vector

Ph
The derivative of a vector is

da a(u + ∆u) − a(u)
= lim (2.1)
du ∆u→0 ∆u

In Cartesian coordinates, the derivative of the vector
T
a(u) = ax i + ay j + az k
NE
is given by
da dax day daz
= i+ j+ k
du du du du
The first application is in velocity and acceleration of a vec-
tor
dr dx dy dz
and
v(t) =
dt
=
dv d2 x
ide
dt
i+ j+ k
dt
d2 y
dt
d2 z
(2.2)
a(t) = = 2i+ 2j+ 2k (2.3)

dt dt dt dt
gu
Example: The position vector of a particle at time t in
Cartesian coordinates is given by r(t) = 2t2 i + (3t − 2)j +

3t2 − 1 k. Find the speed of the particle at t = 1 and the
ics
component of its acceleration in the direction s = i + 2j + k.
Solution: The velocity and acceleration of the particle

ys
are given by
v(t) = dr
dt = 4ti + 3j + 6tk
Ph
a(t) = dv
dt = 4i + 6k
The speed of the particle at t = 1 is simply

p √
|v(1)| = 42 + 32 + 62 = 61

The acceleration of the particle is constant (i.e. independent
T
of t), and its component in the direction s is given by
√
NE
(4i + 6k) · (i + 2j + k) 5 6
a · ŝ = √ =
12 + 2 2 + 1 2 3
2.2 Velocity and acceleration in 2D polar

coordinate ide
The Unit basis vectors for two-dimensional Cartesian and
plane polar coordinates are represented in the following fig-
gu
ure. You can easily see that the unit vectors in the polar
coordinate is
ics
ys
Ph

T
NE
ide
Figure 2.2: Unit basis vectors for two-dimensional Cartesian
and plane polar coordinates.
gu
ics
êρ = cos φi + sin φj

(2.4)
êφ = − sin φi + cos φj
since i and j are constant vectors, we find that the derivatives
ys
of the basis vectors êρ and êφ with respect to t are given by
dêρ dφ dφ
Ph
= − sin φ i + cos φ j = φ̇êφ

dt dt dt (2.5)
dêφ dφ dφ
= − cos φ i − sin φ j = −φ̇êρ
dt dt dt

Using these results we get the velocity
T
d d
v(t) = r = (ρê) = ρ̇êρ + ρê˙ ρ = ρ̇êρ + ρφ̇êφ (2.6)
NE
dt dt
The acceleration
d
a(t) = ρ̇êρ + ρφ̇êφ
dt
˙ide
= ρ̈êρ + ρ̇ρ + ρφ̂φ + ρφ̈êφ + ρ̇φ̇êφ
(2.7)
= ρ̈êρ + ρ̇ φ̇êφ + ρφ̇ −φ̇êρ + ρφ̈êφ + ρ̇φ̇êφ

2
= ρ̈ − ρφ̇ êρ + (ρφ̈ + 2ρ̇φ̇)êφ
gu
2.3 Differentiation of composite

ics
We can also prove that for differentiable vector functions a

and b are for scalar u and φ
ys
d da dφ
(φa) = φ + a
du du du
d db da
Ph
(a · b) = a · + ·b
du du du
d db da
(a × b) = a × + ×b
du du du

2.3.1 Derivative of constant magnitude vector
T
NE
One further useful result can be derived by considering the
derivative
d da
(a · a) = 2a ·
du du
since a · a = a2 , where a = |a|, we see that
a·
da
du
ide
= 0 if a is constant (2.8)
In other words, if a vector a(u) has a constant magnitude

gu
as u varies then it is perpendicular to the vector da/du
ics
2.4 Space curves
A curve C in space can be described by the vector r(u)

ys
joining the origin O of a coordinate system to a point on

the curve (see figure below). As the parameter u varies, the
Ph
end-point of the vector moves along the curve. In Cartesian

coordinates, where x = x(u), y = y(u) and z = z(u) are the
parametric equations of the curve.

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 2.3: The unit tangent t̂, normal n̂ and binormal b̂

ics
to the space curve C at a particular point P.
This parametric representation can be very useful, par-

ys
ticularly in mechanics when the parameter may be the time

t. We can, however, also represent a space curve by y =
Ph
f (x), z = g(x), which can be easily converted into the above

parametric form by setting u = x, so that
r(u) = ui + f (u)j + g(u)k

Alternatively, a space curve can be represented in the form
T
F (x, y, z) = 0 G(x, y, z) = 0, where each equation repre-
sents a surface and the curve is the intersection of the two
NE
surfaces.
A curve may sometimes be described in parametric form

by the vector r(s) where the parameter s is the arc length
along the curve measured from a fixed point. Even when
ide
the curve is expressed in terms of some other parameter, it
is straightforward to find the arc length between any two
points on the curve. For the curve described by r(u), let us
consider an infinitesimal vector displacement
gu
dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

ics
along the curve. The square of the infinitesimal distance

moved is then given by
(ds)2 = dr · dr = (dx)2 + (dy)2 + (dz)2

ys
from which you can see that

Ph
2
ds dr dr
= ·
du du du
Therefore, the arc length between two points on the curve

r(u), given by u = u1 and u = u2 , is
T
Z u2 r
dr dr
s= · du (2.9)
NE
u1 du du
Example: A curve lying in the xy-plane is given by

y = y(x), z = 0. Using (2.9) show that the arc length
Rbp ide
along the curve between x = a and x = b is given by
s = a 1 + y 02 dx, where v 0 = dv/dx
Solution: Let us first represent the curve in parametric

gu
form by setting u = x, so that
r(u) = ui + y(u)j
ics
Differentiating with respect to u, we find

dr dy
=i+ j
ys
du du
from which we obtain
Ph
2
dr dr dy
· =1+
du du du
Therefore, remembering that u = x, from equation (2.9)

the arc length between x = a and x = b is given by
T
s 2
Z br Z b
dr dr dy
NE
s= · du = 1+ dx (2.10)
a du du a dx
2.4.1 Torsion and Normal
ide
dr/du is a vector tangent to C at that point, in the direction
of increasing u. In the special case where the parameter u is
the arc length s along the curve then dr/ds is a unit tangent
vector to C and is denoted by t̂
gu
t̂ = dr/ds
ics
The rate at which the unit tangent t̂ changes with respect

to s is given by dt̂/ds, and its magnitude is defined as the
curvature κ of the curve C at a given point,
ys
2
dt̂ d r̂
κ = = 2
ds ds
Ph
We define the quantity ρ = 1/κ, which is called the radius of

curvature. since t̂ is of constant (unit) magnitude, it follows
from equation (2.8) that it is perpendicular to dt̂/ds. The
unit vector in the direction perpendicular to t̂ is denoted

by n̂ and is called the principal normal at the point. We
T
therefore have
dt̂
NE
= κn̂ (2.11)
ds
The unit vector b̂ = t̂ × n̂, which is perpendicular to the
plane containing t̂ and n̂, is called the binormal to C. The
vectors t̂, and b̂ form a right-handed rectangular cooordi-
nate system at any given point on C . As s changes so that
ide
the point of interest moves along C, the triad of vectors also
changes.
The rate at which b̂ changes with respect to s is given

gu
by db̂/ds and is a measure of the torsion τ of the curve
at any given point. Since b̂ is of constant magnitude, it is
perpendicular to db̂/ds. We may further show that db̂/ds
ics
is also perpendicular to t̂, as follows. By definition b̂ · t̂ = 0,

which on differentiating yields
ys
d db̂ dt̂
0= (b̂ · t̂) = · t̂ + b̂ ·
ds ds ds
db̂
= · t̂ + b̂ · κn̂
Ph
ds
db̂
= · t̂
ds
where we have used the fact that b̂ · n̂ = 0. Hence, since

db̂/ds is perpendicular to both b̂ and t̂, we must have
T
db̂/ds ∝ n̂. The constant of proportionality is −τ
NE
so we finally obtain
db̂
= −τ n̂ (2.12)
ds
Taking the dot product of each side with n̂, we see that
ide
the torsion of a curve is given by
db̂
τ = −n̂ ·
ds
gu
We may also define the quantity σ = 1/τ, which is called
the radius of torsion.
ics
Finally, we consider the derivative dn̂/ds. since n̂ = b̂× t̂

we have
ys
dn̂ db̂ dt̂

= × t̂ + b̂ ×
ds ds ds
Ph
(2.13)
= −τ n̂ × t̂ + b̂ × κn̂
= τ b̂ − κt̂
In summary, t̂, n̂ and b̂ and their derivatives with respect

to s are related to one another by the relations we have
T
proved. These are called the Frenet-Serret formulae,
NE
dt̂ dn̂ db̂
= κn̂, = τ b̂ − κt̂, = −τ n̂ (2.14)
ds ds ds
ide
Example: Show that the acceleration of a particle
traveling along a trajectory r(t) is given by
dv v2
a(t) = t̂ + n̂
gu
dt ρ
where v is the speed of the particle, t̂ is the unit tangent

to the trajectory, n̂ is its principal normal and ρ is its
ics
radius of curvature.
Solution: The velocity of the particle is given by

ys
dr dr ds ds
v(t) = = = t̂
dt ds dt dt
Ph
where ds/dt is the speed of the particle, which we denote by

v, and t̂ is the unit vector tangent to the trajectory. Writing
the velocity as v = v t̂, and differentiating once more with

respect to time t, we obtain
T
dv dv dt̂
a(t) = = t̂ + v
NE
dt dt dt
but we note that
dt̂ ds dt̂ v
= = vκn̂ = n̂
dt dt ds ρ
Therefore, we have ide dv v2
a(t) = t̂ + n̂
dt ρ
gu
This shows that in addition to an acceleration dv/dt along
the tangent to the particle’s trajectory, there is also an ac-
celeration v 2 /ρ in the direction of the principal normal. The
ics
latter is often called the centripetal acceleration.
Finally, we note that a curve r(u) representing the tra-

ys
jectory of a particle may sometimes be given in terms of

some parameter u that is not necessarily equal to the time
t but is functionally related to it in some way. In this case
Ph
the velocity of the particle is given by

dr dr du
v= =
dt du dt

Differentiating again with respect to time gives the acceler-
T
ation as
NE
2
d2 r du dr d2 u

dv d dr du
a= = = 2 +
dt dt du dt du dt du dt2
Example: Find the curvature and torsion of the curve

x = u cos t, y = a sin t, z = bt
ide
Solution: The vector equation of the curve is R =
a cos tI + a sin tJ + btK
gu
dR/dt = −a sin tI + a cos tJ + bK
Its are length from P0 (t = 0) to any point P (t) is given by

ics
Z t p
s= |dR/dt|dt = (a2 + b2 ) t
0
ys
ds p
= (a2 + b2 )
dt
Ph

Then you get one by one
T
dR dR ds −a sin tI + u cos tJ + bK
T= = / =
NE
p
ds dt dt (a2 + b2 )
dT dT ds −a(cos tI + sin tJ)
= / =
ds dt
dt a2 + b 2
dT a
k = = 2 and N = −(cos tI + sin tJ)
ds u + b2
p
dB dB ds
ds
=
dt dt
ide
B = T × N = (b sin tI − b cos tJ + aK)/ (a2 + b2 )
/ = b(cos tI + sin tJ)/ a2 + b2 = −τ N = τ (cos tI +

b
τ= 2
gu
a + b2
2.5 Vector Operators

ics
2.5.1 Gradient
ys
The gradient of a scalar field φ(x, y, z) is defined by

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇φ = i +j +k (2.15)
Ph
∂x ∂y ∂z
Clearly, ∇φ is a vector field whose x − y− and z - com-

ponents are the first partial derivatives of φ(x, y, z) with

respect to x, y and z respectively. Also note that the vector
T
field ∇φ should not be confused with the vector operator
φ∇, which has components (φ∂/∂x, φ∂/∂y, φ∂/∂z)
NE
Example: Find the gradient of the scalar field φ =
xy 2 z 3
Solution: From the definition of the gradient of φ is

given by ide
∇φ = y 2 z 3 i + 2xyz 3 j + 3xy 2 z 2 k
The gradient of a scalar field φ has some interesting ge-

gu
ometrical properties. Let us first consider the problem of
calculating the rate of change of φ in some particular direc-
tion. For an infinitesimal vector displacement dr, forming
ics
its scalar product with ∇φ we obtain

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ · dr = i +j +k · (idx + jdy + kdx)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ys
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
= dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ph
= dφ
which is the infinitesimal change in φ in going from position

r to r + dr. In particular, if r depends on some parameter u
such that r(u) defines a space curve then the total derivative

of φ with respect to u along the curve is simply
T
dφ dr
= ∇φ ·
NE
du du
In the particular case where the parameter u is the arc
length s along the curve, the total derivative of φ with re-
spect to s along the curve is given by
dφ
ds
ide
= ∇φ · t̂
where t̂ is the unit tangent to the curve at the given point.

gu
In general, the rate of change of φ with respect to the
distance s in a particular direction a is given by
dφ
ics
= ∇φ · â
ds
and is called the directional derivative. since â is a unit
vector we have
ys
dφ
= |∇φ| cos θ
ds
where θ is the angle between â and ∇φ as shown in figure
Ph
Clearly ∇φ lies in the direction of the fastest increase in φ,

and |∇φ| is the largest possible value of dφ/ds. Similarly,
the largest rate of decrease of φ is dφ/ds = −|∇φ| in the
direction of −∇φ

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 2.4: Geometrical properties of ∇φ. P Q gives the

value of dφ/ds in the direction a.
ics
Example: For the function φ = x2 y + yz at the point

ys
(1, 2, −1), find its rate of change with distance in the di-
rection a = i + 2j + 3k. At this same point is the greatest
possible rate of change with distance and in which direction
Ph
does it occur?
Solution: The gradient of φ is given by (2.15).

T
∇φ = 2xyi + x2 + z j + yk

= 4i + 2k at the point (1, 2, −1)
NE
The unit vector in the direction of a is
1
â = √ (i + 2j + 3k)
14
dφ
ide
so the rate of change of φ with distance s in this direction
is
1 10
= ∇φ · â = √ (4 + 6) = √
ds 14 14
gu
From the above discussion, at the point (1, 2, −1)dφ/ds will
be greatest in the direction of ∇φ = 4i + 2k and has the
√
value |∇φ| = 20 in this direction.
ics
We can extend the above analysis to find the rate of

change of a vector field (rather than a scalar field as above)
in a particular direction. The scalar differential operator
ys
â · ∇ can be shown to give the rate of change with distance

in the direction â of the quantity (vector or scalar) on which
Ph
it acts. In Cartesian coordinates it may be written as

∂ ∂ ∂
â · ∇ = ax + ay + az
∂x ∂y ∂z

Thus we can write the infinitesimal change in an electric
T
field in moving from r to r + dr given in (dE = ∂E
∂x dx +
∂E ∂E
∂y dy + ∂z dz) as dE = (dr · ∇)E
NE
A second interesting geometrical property of ∇φ may be
found by considering the surface defined by φ(x, y, z) = c,
where c is some constant. If t̂ is a unit tangent to this surface
at some point then clearly dφ/ds = 0 in this direction and
from ( dφ ide
ds = ∇φ· t̂) we have ∇φ· t̂ = 0. In other words, ∇φ is
a vector normal to the surface φ(x, y, z) = c at every point,
as shown in figure 2.4. If n̂ is a unit normal to the surface
in the direction of increasing φ(x, y, z), then the gradient is
gu
sometimes written
∂φ
∇φ ≡ n̂
∂n
ics
where ∂φ/∂n ≡ |∇φ| is the rate of change of φ in the direc-

tion n̂ and is called the normal derivative.
A vector normal to the surface φ(x, y, z) = c at the point

ys
P is simply ∇φ evaluated at that point; we denote it by n0 .

If r0 is the position vector of the point P relative to the
Ph
origin,
and r is the position vector of any point on the tangent

plane, then the vector equation of the tangent plane is, from

equation (1.14) we get
T
(r − r0 ) · n0 = 0
NE
Similarly, if r is the position vector of any point on the
straight line passing through P (with position vector r0 ) in
the direction of the normal n0 then the vector equation of
this line is, from vector equation of a line
ide
(r − r0 ) × n0 = 0
For the surface of the sphere φ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2

gu
∇φ = 2xi + 2yj + 2zk
= 2ak at the point (0, 0, a)
Therefore the equation of the tangent plane to the sphere

ics
at this point is
(r − r0 ) · 2ak = 0
This gives 2a(z−a) = 0 or z = a, as expected. The equation
ys
of the line normal to the sphere at the point (0, 0, a) is
(r − r0 ) × 2ak = 0
Ph
-which gives 2ayi − 2axj = 0 or x = y = 0, i.e. the z -axis,

as expected. The tangent plane eand normal to the surface
of the sphere at this point are shown in figure

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 2.5: The tangent plane and the normal to the sur-
face of the sphere φ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 at the point r0 with
ics
coordinates (0, 0, a)
So in summary
ys
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
∇φ = grad φ = i +j +k (2.16)
∂x ∂y ∂z
Ph
dφ
= ∇φ·u (directional derivative in the direction of u)
ds
(2.17)
The vector ∇φ is perpendicular to the surface φ = const
(2.18)

Example: Find the directional derivative of φ = x2 y + xz
T
at (1, 2, −1) in the direction
NE
A = 2i − 2j + k
Solution: Here u is a unit vector obtained by dividing

A by |A|. Then we have
ide
1
u = (2i − 2j + k)
3
You get
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
gu
∇φ =i +j +k = (2xy + z)i + x2 j + xk
∂x ∂y ∂z
∇φ at the point (1, 2, −1) = 3i + j + k
ics
Then the directional derivative

dφ 2 1 5
at (1, 2, −1) = ∇φ · u = 2 − + =
ds 3 3 3
ys
Example: Suppose that the temperature T at the point

(x, y, z) is given by the equation
Ph
T = x2 − y 2 + xyz + 273
In which direction is the temperature increasing most rapidly

at (−1, 2, 3), and at what rate?

Solution:
T
Here
NE
∇T = (2x + yz)i + (−2y + xz)j + xyk = 4i − 7j − 2k
at (−1, 2, 3)
The increase in temperature is fastest in the direction of

ide
∇T . The rate of increase is
√ √
dT /ds = |∇T | = 16 + 49 + 4 = 69
gu
We can also say that the temperature is decreasing most
rapidly in the direction −∇T in this direction, dT /ds =
√
− 69. Heat flows in the direction −∇T (that is, from hot
ics
to cold
Example: Given the surface x3 y 2 z = 12, find the equa-

tions of the tangent plane and normal line at (1, −2, 3)
ys
Solution:
Ph
This is a level surface of the function w = x3 y 2 z, so the

normal direction is the direction of the gradient
∇w = 3x2 y 2 zi+2x3 yzj+x3 y 2 k = 36i−12j+4k at (1, −2, 3)

A simpler vector in the same direction is 9i − 3j + k. Then
T
the equation of the tangent plane is
NE
9(x − 1) − 3(y + 2) + (z − 3) = 0
and the equations of the normal line are

x−1 y+2 z−3
= =
9 −3 1
2.5.2
ide
Divergence of a vector field
gu
The divergence of a vector field a(x, y, z) is defined by
∂ax ∂ay ∂az
div a = ∇ · a = + + (2.19)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ics
where ax , ay and az are the x−, y− and z− components of

a. Clearly, ∇·a is a scalar field. Any vector field a for which
∇ · a = 0 is said to be solenoidal.
ys
Example: Find the divergence of the vector field a a =

Ph
x y i + y 2 z 2 j + x2 z 2 k
2 2
Solution:
∇ · a = 2xy 2 + 2yz 2 + 2x2 z = 2 xy 2 + yz 2 + x2 z


Divergence can be considered as a quantitative measure
T
of how much a vector field diverges (spreads out) or con-
verges at any given point. For example, if we consider the
NE
vector field v(x, y, z) describing the local velocity at any
point in a fluid then ∇ · v is equal to the net rate of outflow
of fluid per unit volume, evaluated at a point.
Now if some vector field a is itself derived from a scalar

ide
field via a = ∇φ then ∇ · a has the form ∇ · ∇φ or, as it is
usually written, ∇2 φ, where ∇2 ( del squared ) is the scalar
differential operator
gu
2∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇ ≡ 2+ 2+ 2 (2.20)
∂x ∂y ∂z
ics
∇2 φ is called the Laplacian of φ and appears in sev-

eral important partial differential equations of mathemati-
cal physics, which we will learn later.
ys
Example: Find the Laplacian of the scalar field φ =

xy 2 z 3
Ph
Solution:
∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ ∂ 2φ
∇2 φ = 2
+ 2 + 2 = 2xz 3 + 6xy 2 z .
∂x ∂y ∂z
2.5.3 Curl of a vector field
T
NE
The curl of a vector field a(x, y, z) is defined by

∂az ∂ay ∂ax ∂az
curl a = ∇ × a = − i+ − j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
(2.21)
∂ay ∂ax
+ − k
∂x ∂y
ide
where ax , ay and az are the x− , y− and z - components of
a. The RHS can be written in a more memorable form as a
determinant:
gu

i j k

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × a = ∂x ∂y ∂z (2.22)
ics

ax ay az
Any vector field a for which ∇ × a = 0 is said to be

ys
irrotational.
Example: Find the curl of the vector field a =

Ph
x2 y 2 z 2 i + y 2 z 2 j + x2 z 2 k

T

i j k

NE
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × a = ∂x

∂y
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ∂z
xy z y z xz
= −2 y 2 zi + xz 2 − x2 y 2 z j + x2 yz 2 k

For a vector field v(x, y, z) describing the local velocity at

any point in a fluid, ∇ × v is a measure of the angular
ide
velocity of the fluid in the neighbourhood of that point.
Consider the vector field v describing the velocity at any

gu
point in a rigid body rotating about some axis with angular
velocity ω. If r is the position vector of the point with respect
to some origin on the axis of rotation then the velocity of
the point is given by v = ω × r. We take the z axis to the
ics
direction of ω, so that ω = ωk. The velocity field is then

v = −ωyi + ωxj. The curl of this vector field is then
ys

i j k

∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × v = ∂x ∂y ∂z = 2ωk = 2ω
Ph

−ωy ωx 0
Therefore the curl of the velocity field is a vector equal

to twice the angular velocity vector of the rigid body about

its axis of rotation
T
NE
2.5.4 Vector operator formula
There are many product rules for the vector operators. We

are doing prove of a few and state the rest. These theorems
can also be proved by levi-civita symbols which you will
ide
learn when you study the tensors.
Example:Prove
gu
∇ × (φa) = ∇φ × a + φ∇ × a
ics
Solution: The x -component of the LHS is

∂ ∂ ∂az ∂φ ∂ay ∂φ
(φaz ) − (φay ) = φ + az − φ − ay
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
ys

∂az ∂ay ∂φ ∂φ
=φ − + az − ay
∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z
= φ(∇ × a)x + (∇φ × ax
Ph
where, for example, (∇φ × a)x denotes the x -component of

the vector ∇φ×a. Incorporating the y− and z - components,
which can be similarly found, we obtain the stated result.

T
Example: Prove that curl of grad of any scalar func-
tion is ZERO. That is
NE
∇ × (∇φ) = 0 (2.23)
Solution:

i j k
∇ × (∇φ) = ∇ ×

ide
∂φ
∂x
i+
∂φ
∂y
j+
∂φ
∂z
k

∂
= ∂x
∂φ

∂x
∂
∂y
∂φ
∂y
∂
∂z
∂φ
∂z

∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ
= − i
gu
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y

∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ
+ − j
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂z

∂ ∂φ ∂ ∂φ
ics
+ − k
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
2
∂ 2φ
2
∂ 2φ

∂ φ ∂ φ
= − i+ − j
ys
∂y∂z ∂z∂y ∂z∂x ∂x∂z

2
∂ 2φ

∂ φ
+ − k=0
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
Ph

T
Example: Prove that divergence of curl of any vector
function is also ZERO.
NE
∇ · (∇ × A) = 0 (2.24)
Solution:

i j k

∂
∇ · (∇ × A) = ∇ · ∂x

∂
ide ∂
∂y
Ax A2 ∂z
1
∂

∂z
∂

A1 A2 A3
gu

∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1 ∂A3
=∇· − i+ − j
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x

∂A2 ∂A1
+ − k
ics
∂x ∂y

∂ ∂A3 ∂A2 ∂ ∂A1 ∂A3
= − + −
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂x
ys

∂ ∂A2 ∂A1
+ −
∂z ∂x ∂y
∂ 2 A3 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A3
Ph
= − + −
∂x∂y ∂x∂z ∂y∂z ∂y∂x
∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A1
+ − =0
∂z∂x ∂z∂y

T
Example: Prove that
∇ × (∇ × A) = −∇2 A + ∇(∇ · A) (2.25)
NE
Solution: We will prove for x component only as the
prove is little lengthy.

i j k

ide
∂ ∂ ∂
∇ × (∇ × A) = ∇ × ∂x ∂y ∂z

A1 A2 A3

∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1 ∂A3 ∂A2 ∂A1
=∇× − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
gu
The x component is

∂ ∂A2 ∂A1 ∂ ∂A1 ∂A3
− − −
ics
∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x
∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A3
=− 2 − + +
∂y ∂z 2 ∂y∂x ∂z∂x
ys
This can be written as

2
∂ A1 ∂ 2 A1 ∂ 2 A1
2
∂ A1 ∂ 2 A2 ∂ 2 A3

− 2 − − + + +
Ph
∂x ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x2 ∂y∂x ∂z∂x
∂2 ∂2 ∂2

∂ ∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
=− + + A1 + + +
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
This is the x component of
T
−∇2 A + ∇(∇ · A)
NE
You could have proved this using the triple product
A × (B × C) = B(A · C) − (A · B)C
Placing A = B = ∇ and C = F ide

∇ × (∇ × F) = ∇(∇ · F) − (∇ · ∇)F = ∇(∇ · F) − ∇2 F
gu
Please try to prove the following formulas by yourself
∇ · (φa) = φ∇ · a + a · ∇φ (2.26)
ics
∇ × (φa) = ∇φ × a + φ∇ × a (2.27)
∇(a·b) = a×(∇×b)+b×(∇×a)+(a·∇)b+(b·∇)a (2.28)
ys
∇ · (a × b) = b · (∇ × a) − a · (∇ × b) (2.29)
∇×(a×b) = a(∇·b)−b(∇·a)+(b·∇)a−(a·∇)b (2.30)
Ph
Example: Show that
∇ · (∇φ × ∇ψ) = 0

where φ and ψ are scalar fields.
T
Solution: We already know
NE
∇ · (a × b) = b · (∇ × a) − a · (∇ × b)
If we let a = ∇φ and b = ∇ψ then we obtain
∇ · (∇φ × ∇ψ) = ∇ψ · (∇ × ∇φ) − ∇φ · (∇ × ∇ψ) = 0

ide
since ∇ × ∇φ = 0 = ∇ × ∇ψ
gu
2.6 Cylindrical polar coordinates
As shown in figure below the position of a point in space

ics
P having Cartesian coordinates x, y, z may be expressed in

terms of cylindrical polar coordinates ρ, φ, z, where
ys
x = ρ cos φ, y = ρ sin φ, z=z (2.31)
and ρ ≥ 0, 0 ≤ φ < 2π and −∞ < z < ∞. The position

Ph
vector of P may therefore be written
r = ρ cos φi + ρ sin φj + zk (2.32)

If we take the partial derivatives of r with respect to ρ, φ
T
and z respectively then we obtain the three vectors
NE
∂r
eρ = = cos φi + sin φj (2.33)
∂ρ
∂r
eφ = = −ρ sin φi + ρ cos φj (2.34)
∂φ
∂r
ez = =k (2.35)
ide
∂z
These vectors lie in the directions of increasing ρ, φ and z
respectively but are not all of unit length. We will make
them unit vectors by dividing each vector by its modulus
gu
êρ = eρ = cos φi + sin φj (2.36)
1
ics
êφ = eφ = − sin φi + cos φj (2.37)

ρ
êz = ez = k (2.38)
ys
These three unit vectors, like the Cartesian unit vectors

i, j and k, form an orthonormal set at each point in space,
i.e. the basis vectors are mutually orthogonal and of unit
Ph
length .
Unlike the fixed vectors i, j and k however, êρ and êφ

change direction as P moves.

The inverse relations of the unit vectors are
T
i = cos φêρ − sin φêφ
NE
j = sin φêρ + cos φêφ (2.39)
k = êz
ide
gu
ics
ys
Figure 2.6: Cylindrical polar coordinates ρ, φ, z

Ph
The expression for a general infinitesimal vector dis-

placement dr in the position of P is
T
∂r ∂r ∂r
dr = dρ + dφ + dz
NE
∂ρ ∂φ ∂z
= dρeρ + dφeφ + dzez (2.40)
= dρêρ + ρdφêφ + dzêz
This expression illustrates an important difference be-

ide
tween Cartesian and non-Cartesian coordinates. In Carte-
sian coordinates, the distance moved in going from x to
x + dx, with y and z held constant, is simply ds = dx. How-
gu
ever, we see in cylindrical polars, if φ changes by dφ with ρ
and z held constant, then the distance moved is not dφ, but
ds = ρdφ .
ics
Factors, such as the ρ in ρdφ, that multiply the coordi-

nate differentials to give distances are known as scale fac-
tors. We see that the scale factors for the ρ, φ, and z coor-
ys
dinates are therefore 1, ρ and 1 respectively.
The magnitude ds of the displacement dr is given in

Ph
cylindrical polar coordinates by
(ds)2 = dr · dr = (dρ)2 + ρ2 (dφ)2 + (dz)2 (2.41)

you can get the same starting from
T
ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 (2.42)
NE
We can also find the volume element in a cylindrical polar
system by calculating the volume of the infinitesimal par-
allelepiped defined by the vectors dρêρ , ρdφêφ and dzêz as
shown in the figure below
ide
dV = |dρêρ · (ρdφêφ × dzêz )| = ρdρdφdz (2.43)
gu
ics
ys
Ph
Figure 2.7: The element of volume in cylindrical polar

coordinates is given by ρdρdφdz

The expression for gradient divergence curl and laplacian
T
are as follows. These can be proved using the generalized
orthogonal curvilinear coordinate which will be discussed
NE
later.
∂Φ 1 ∂Φ ∂Φ
∇Φ = êρ + êφ + êz (2.44)
∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
1 ∂
∇·a=
ide
(ρaρ ) +
1 ∂aφ ∂az
+ (2.45)
ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z

êρ ρêφ êz
gu
1 ∂ ∂ ∂

∇ × a = ∂ρ ∂φ ∂z (2.46)
ρ
aρ ρaφ az
1 ∂ 2Φ ∂ 2Φ

ics
2 1 ∂ ∂Φ
∇ Φ= ρ + 2 2 + 2 (2.47)
ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ρ ∂φ ∂z
ys
2.7 Spherical polar coordinates
As shown in figure below the position of a point in space

Ph
P, with Cartesian coordinates x, y, z, may be expressed in

terms of spherical polar coordinates r, θ, φ, where
x = r sin θ cos φ, y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ (2.48)

and r ≥ 0, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and 0 ≤ φ < 2π. The position vector
T
of P can be written as
NE
r = r sin θ cos φi + r sin θ sin φj + r cos θk (2.49)
We proceed similarly as cylindrical polars, we find the

ide
partial derivatives of r with respect to r, θ and φ respectively
and divide each of the resulting vectors by its modulus then
we obtain the unit basis vectors
gu

∂r ∂r
êr = / = sin θ cos φi + sin θ sin φj + cos θk (2.50)
∂r ∂r
ics

∂r ∂r
êθ = / = cos θ cos φi + cos θ sin φj − sin θk (2.51)
∂θ ∂θ
ys

∂r ∂r
êφ = / = − sin φi + cos φj (2.52)
Ph
∂φ ∂φ
These unit vectors are in the directions of increasing r, θ

and φ respectively and are the orthonormal basis set for
spherical polar coordinates.

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 2.8: Spherical polar coordinates r, θ, φ

ics
The infinitesimal displacement

ys
dr = drêr + rdθêθ + r sin θdφêφ (2.53)

Ph
The line element
(ds)2 = dr · dr = (dr)2 + r2 (dθ)2 + r2 sin2 θ(dφ)2 (2.54)

The volume element
T
dV = |drêr · (rdθêθ × r sin θdφêφ )| = r2 sin θdrdθdφ
NE
(2.55)
ide
gu
ics
ys
Figure 2.9: The element of volume in spherical polar coor-

dinates is given by r2 sin θdrdθdφ
Ph
Gradient
∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
∇Φ = êr + êθ + êφ (2.56)
∂r r ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Divergence
T
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂aφ
∇·a = r ar + (sin θaθ )+ (2.57)
NE
2
r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ
Curl

êr rêθ r sin θêφ
1 ∂ ∂ ∂

∇×a= 2 (2.58)

∂r ∂θ ∂φ
r sin θ

Laplacian
ide
ar raθ r sin θaφ
∂ 2Φ

2 1 ∂ 2 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ∂ 1
∇ Φ= 2 r + sin θ + 2 2
gu
r ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ
∂θ r sin θ ∂φ2
(2.59)
we can rewrite the first term on the RHS of Laplacian as
ics
follows:
1 ∂2

1 ∂ 2 ∂Φ
r = (rΦ)
r2 ∂r ∂r r ∂r2
which can often be useful in shortening calculations.
ys
2.8 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate

Ph
Cylindrical and spherical polars are just two examples of

what are called general curvilinear coordinates. In the gen-

eral case, the position of a point P having Cartesian coor-
T
dinates x, y, z may be expressed in terms of the three curvi-
linear coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 , where
NE
x = x (u1 , u2 , u3 ) , y = y (u1 , u2 , u3 ) , z = z (u1 , u2 , u3 )
(2.60)
and inversely
u1 = u1 (x, y, z), ide

u2 = u2 (x, y, z), u3 = u3 (x, y, z)
(2.61)
We need to express the r vector in terms of u1 , u2 , u3 .

gu
r = x(u1 , u2 , u3 )i + y(u1 , u2 , u3 )j + z(u1 , u2 , u3 )k
Then define the scale factors

ics
h1 = |∂r/∂u1 | , h2 = |∂r/∂u2 | and h3 = |∂r/∂u3 | (2.62)

ys
So the unit vectors

1 ∂r 1 ∂r 1 ∂r
ê1 = , ê2 = , ê3 = (2.63)
Ph
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

The quantities h1 , h2 , h3 are the scale factors of the curvilin-
ear coordinate system. The element of distance associated
with an infinitesimal change dui in one of the coordinates is

hi dui . In the previous section we found that the scale factors
T
for cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates were
NE
for cylindrical polars hρ = 1, hφ = ρ, hz = 1
for spherical polars hr = 1, hθ = r, hφ = r sin θ
(2.64)
Infinitesimal vector displacement in general curvilinear

coordinates
dr =
∂r
ide
du1 +
∂r
du2 +
∂r
du3
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
= du1 e1 + du2 e2 + du3 e3 (2.65)
gu
= h1 du1 ê1 + h2 du2 ê2 + h3 du3 ê3
In the case of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, where the

ics
êi are mutually perpendicular, the element of arc length is

given by
(ds)2 = dr · dr = h21 (du1 )2 + h22 (du2 )2 + h23 (du3 )2 (2.66)

ys
The volume element for the coordinate system is the vol-

Ph
ume of the infinitesimal parallelepiped defined by the vec-

tors (∂r/∂ui ) dui = dui ei = hi dui êi , for i = 1, 2, 3.
For orthogonal coordinates this is given by

T
dV = |du1 e1 · (du2 e2 × du3 e3 )|
= |h1 ê1 · (h2 ê2 × h3 ê3 )| du1 du2 du3 (2.67)
NE
= h1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3
2.8.1 Gradient
ide
The change dΦ in a scalar field Φ resulting from changes
du1 , du2 , du3 in the coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 is given by,
∂Φ ∂Φ ∂Φ
dΦ = du1 + du2 + du3 (2.68)
gu
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3
For orthogonal curvilinear coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 we can write
this as
ics
dΦ = ∇Φ · dr (2.69)
where ∇Φ is given by
ys
1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
∇Φ = ê1 + ê2 + ê3 (2.70)
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3
This implies that the del operator can be written
Ph
ê1 ∂ ê2 ∂ ê3 ∂

∇= + + (2.71)
h1 ∂u1 h2 ∂u2 h3 ∂u3

2.8.2 Divergence
T
NE
A vector in terms of the basis vectors
a = a1 ê1 + a2 ê2 + a3 ê3
The divergence is

1 ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·a =
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 ide
(h2 h3 a1 ) +
∂u2
(h3 h1 a2 ) +
∂u3
(h1 h2 a3 )
(2.72)
We can prove this by following logic Let us consider the sub-
expression ∇ · (a1 ê1 ) . Now ê1 = ê2 × ê3 = h2 ∇u2 × h3 ∇u3 .
gu
Therefore
∇ · (a1 ê1 ) = ∇ · (a1 h2 h3 ∇u2 × ∇u3 )
ics
= ∇ (a1 h2 h3 ) · (∇u2 × ∇u3 ) + a1 h2 h3 ∇ · (∇u2 × ∇u3 )
We have proved earlier that ∇ · (∇u2 × ∇u3 ) = 0,. So we

obtain
ys

ê2 ê3 ê1
∇ · (a1 ê1 ) = ∇ (a1 h2 h3 ) · × = ∇ (a1 h2 h3 ) ·
h2 h3 h2 h3
Ph
letting Φ = a1 h2 h3 in ( ∇Φ = h11 ∂u
∂Φ
1
ê1 + h12 ∂u
∂Φ
2
ê2 + 1 ∂Φ
h3 ∂u3 ê3 )
and substituting into the above equation, we find
1 ∂
∇ · (a1 ê1 ) = (a1 h2 h3 )
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1
Repeating the analysis for ∇ · (a2 ê2 ) and ∇ · (a3 ê3 ) , and
T
adding the results we get the final result.
NE
2.8.3 Laplacian
In the expression of divergence use

1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ 1 ∂Φ
a = ∇Φ = ide
h1 ∂u1
You easily get the expression
ê1 +
h2 ∂u2
ê2 +
h3 ∂u3
ê3

1 ∂ h2 h 3 ∂Φ ∂ h3 h1 ∂Φ
∇2 Φ =
gu
+
h1 h2 h3 ∂u1 h1 ∂u1 ∂u2 h2 ∂u2

∂ h1 h2 ∂Φ
+
∂u3 h3 ∂u3
ics
(2.73)
2.8.4 Curl
ys
The curl of a vector field a = a1 ê1 +a2 ê2 +a3 ê3 in orthogonal
Ph
curvilinear coordinates is given by

h ê h ê h ê
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 ∂
∇×a= ∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u∂ 3
∂
(2.74)

h1 h2 h3
h1 a1 h2 a2 h3 a3

This can be proved as follows Let us consider the sub-
T
expression ∇ × (a1 ê1 ) . since ê1 = h1 ∇u1 we have
NE
∇ × (a1 ê1 ) = ∇ × (a1 h1 ∇u1 )
= ∇ (a1 h1 ) × ∇u1 + a1 h1 ∇ × ∇u1
But ∇ × ∇u1 = 0, so we obtain

ê1
ide
∇ × (a1 ê1 ) = ∇ (a1 h1 ) ×
h1
Letting Φ = a1 h1 in ( ∇Φ = h11 ∂u
∂Φ
1
ê1 + h12 ∂u
∂Φ
2
ê2 + h13 ∂u
∂Φ
3
ê3 )
gu
and substituting into the above equation, we find
ê2 ∂ ê3 ∂
∇ × (a1 ê1 ) = (a1 h1 ) − (a1 h1 )
h3 h1 ∂u3 h1 h2 ∂u2
ics
Similarly find ∇ × (a2 ê2 ) . you get terms in ê3 and ê1 ,. Find
∇ × (a3 ê3 ) and you get terms in ê1 and ê2 .
ys
Just add and you get the result.

Ph

2.9 Exersizes
T
2.1. For the twisted space curve y 3 + 27axz − 81a2 y = 0,
NE
given parametrically by
x = au 3 − u2 , y = 3au2 , z = au 3 + u2

show that the following hold:

√
(a) ds/du = 3 2a 1 + u2 , where s is the distance along
ide
the curve measured from the origin
(b) the length of the curve from the origin to the Cartesian
√
point (2a, 3a, 4a) is 4 2a
gu
(c) the radius of curvature at the point with parameter u is
2
3a 1 + u2
(d) the torsion τ and curvature κ at a general point are
ics
equal
(e) any of the Frenet-Serret formulae that you have not al-
ready used directly are satisfied.
ys
2.2. The shape of the curving slip road joining two motor-
ways, that cross at right angles and are at vertical heights
Ph
z = 0 and z = h, can be approximated by the space curve

√ √
2h zπ 2h zπ
r= ln cos i+ ln sin j + zk
π 2h π 2h

Show that the radius of curvature ρ of the slip road is
T
(2h/π) csc(zπ/h) at height z and that the torsion τ = −1/ρ.
To shorten the algebra, set z = 2hθ/π and use θ as the pa-
NE
rameter.
2.3. Parameterising the hyperboloid
x2 y 2 z 2
+ − 2 =1
a2 b2 c
ide
by x = a cos θ sec φ, y = b sin θ sec φ, z = c tan φ, show that
an area element on its surface is
1/2
dS = sec2 φ c2 sec2 φ b2 cos2 θ + a2 sin2 θ + a2 b2 tan2 φ

dθdφ
gu
Use this formula to show that the area of the curved surface
x2 + y 2 − z 2 = a2 between the planes z = 0 and z = 2a is
√
ics

1
πa2 6 + √ sinh−1 2 2
2
2.4. For the function
ys
2 2
z(x, y) = x2 − y 2 e−x −y

p √
(a) Find the location , (s = x2 + y 2 = ρ) , at which the
Ph
steepest gradient occurs.

(b) What are the magnitude and direction of that gradient?
(The algebra involved is easier if plane polar coordinates are
used.)

2.5. In the following exercises, a, b and c are vector fields.
T
(a) Simplify
NE
∇ × a(∇ · a) + a × [∇ × (∇ × a)] + a × ∇2 a
(b) By explicitly writing out the terms in Cartesian coordi-
nates, prove that
[c · (b · ∇) − b · (c · ∇)]a = (∇ × a) · (b × c)
ide
(c) Prove that a × (∇ × a) = ∇ 12 a2 − (a · ∇)a

2.6. Evaluate the Laplacian of the function

zx2
ψ(x, y, z) = 2
x + y2 + z2
gu
(a) directly in Cartesian coordinates, and (b) after changing
to a spherical polar coordinate system. Verify that, as they
ics
must, the two methods give the same result.

2.7. Paraboloidal coordinates u, v, φ are defined in terms of
Cartesian coordinates by
ys
1 2
u − v2

x = uv cos φ, y = uv sin φ, z =
2
(a) Show that the system of coordinates is an orthogonal
Ph
one and determine its scale factors.

(b) Prove that the u -component of ∇ × a is given by

1 aφ ∂aφ 1 ∂av
+ −
(u2 + v 2 )1/2 v ∂v uv ∂φ

2.8. Hyperbolic coordinates u, v, φ are defined in terms of
T
Cartesian coordinates as by
NE
x = cosh u cos v cos φ, y = cosh u cos v sin φ, z = sinh u sin v
(a) Prove that the scale factors are

1/2
hu = hv = cosh2 u − cos2 v , hφ = cosh u cos v
ide
(b) Find the most general function ψ(u) of u only that sat-
isfies Laplace’s equation= ∇2 ψ = 0
gu
ics
ys
Ph

2.9.1 Ans keys
T
NE
2.1.
(a) Evaluate (dr/du) · (dr/du)
(b) Integrate the previous result between u = 0 and u = 1
√ −1
(c) t̂ = 2 1 + u2 1 − u2 i + 2uj + 1 + u2 k . Use
dt̂/ds = (dt̂/du)/(ds/du) ρ−1 = |dt̂/ds|
−1
(d) n̂ = 1 + u2 −2ui + 1 − u2 j .
ide
√ −1 2
b̂ = 2 1 + u2 u − 1 i − 2uj + 1 + u2 k
Use db̂/ds = (db̂/du)/(ds/du) and show that this equals

i−1
gu
h
2 2
− 3a 1 + u n̂
(e) Show that dn̂/ds = τ (b̂ − t̂) =
h √ i−1
ics
2 3
1 − u2 i + 2u

−2 3 2a 1 + u
√ √
5± 17
2.4. (a) s = (3 ± 5)/2 , s = 1 or s = 4 ,
s = 0 or
ys
√
s = 1, s = (3 ± 5)/2
√ √
(b) 0.541, along the lines x ± y = ± 2 and x ± y = ∓ 2
Ph

2.9.2 Solutions
T
NE
Solution: 2.1. (a) We must first calculate
dr
= 3a − 3au2 , 6au, 3a + 3au2

du
from which it follows that
1/2
ds
du
=

dr dr
·
du du
ide 1/2
= 3a 1 − 2u2 + u4 + 4u2 + 1 + 2u2 + u4
√
= 3 2a 1 + u2

gu
(b) The point (2a, 3a, 4a) is given by u = 1; the origin is

ics
u = 0. The length of the curve from the origin to the point

is therefore given by
Z 1 √ 1
√ u3 √

2

s= 3 2a 1 + u du = 3 2a u + = 4 2a
ys
0 3 0
Ph
(c) Using
dr dr du 3a
1 − u2 , 2u, 1 + u2

t̂ = = = √
ds du ds 3 2a (1 + u2 )

we find that
T
dt̂ dt̂ du
=
NE
ds du ds
d 1 − u2

1 1 d 2u
= √ √ , ,
3 2a (1 + u2 ) 2 du 1 + u2 du 1 + u2
d 1 + u2

du 1 + u2
1
=
6a (1 + u2 )3
−4u, ide
2 − 2u2
, 0

We now recall that dt̂/ds = κn̂, where κ is the curvature

gu
and the principal normal n̂ is a unit vector in the same
direction as dt̂/ds. Thus
dt̂ 2 4u2 + 1 − 2u2 + u4 1/2

ics

1 1
= κ = = =
ρ ds 6a (1 + u2 )3 3a (1 + u2 )2
ys
(d) From part (c) we have the two results

1
1 − u2 , 2u, 1 + u2

t̂ = √
Ph
2 (1 + u2 )
1 2

n̂ = −2u, 1 − u , 0
1 + u2

and so the binormal b̂ is given by
T
b̂ = t̂ × n̂
NE
1 h
4 2
i
2 2
=√ u − 1, −2u 1 + u , 1 + u
2 (1 + u2 )2
1 u2 − 1 −2u

=√ , ,1
2 u2 + 1 u2 + 1
From this it follows that
db̂ db̂ du
=
ide
ds du ds !
1 1 4u 2 u2 − 1
= √ √ , ,0
gu
3 2a (1 + u2 ) 2 (1 + u2 )2 (1 + u2 )2
Comparing this with −τ n̂, with n̂ as given above, shows

ics
that
2
τ=
6a (1 + u2 )2
But
ys
1 1
κ= =
ρ 3a (1 + u2 )2
thus establishing the result that τ equals κ for this curve.
Ph
(e) The remaining Frenet-Serret formula is

dn̂
= τ b̂ − κt̂
ds

Consider the two sides of the equation separately:
T
dn̂ dn̂ du
LHS = =
NE
ds du ds
d 1 − u2

1 d −2u
= √ , ,0
3 2a (1 + u2 ) du 1 + u2 du 1 + u2
2
1 2u − 2 −4u
= √ , ,0
3 2a (1 + u2 ) (1 + u2 )2 (1 + u2 )2
1
= √
3 2a (1 + u2 )3
2uide
2
− 2, −4u, 0

RHS = τ b̂ − κt̂ = κ(b̂ − t̂)

κ 2
u − 1 − 1 − u2 ,

=√
gu
2 (1 + u2 )
−2u − 2u, 1 + u2 − 1 + u2

1 2

= √ − −4u,
ics
2u 2, 0
3 2a (1 + u2 )3
Thus, the two sides are equal and the unused formula is
verified.
ys
Solution: 2.2. The slip road is given by

√
Ph
r = A(ln cos θ, ln sin θ, 2θ)

√
where A = 2h/π. It follows that
dr √
= A(− tan θ, cot θ, 2)
dθ
and
T
ds 1/2
= A tan2 θ + cot2 θ + 2
dθ
NE
1/2
= A sec2 θ + csc2 θ
A A
= 1/2
=
sin2 θ cos2 θ sin θ cos θ

Next,
dr dr dθ
t̂ = =
ide
ds dθ ds
√ sin θ cos θ
= A(− tan θ, cot θ, 2)
A

2 2
√
= − sin θ, cos θ, 2 sin θ cos θ
gu
from which it follows that
1 dt̂ dt̂ dθ sin θ cos θ √
n̂ = = = (− sin 2θ, − sin 2θ, 2 cos 2θ)
ics
ρ ds dθ ds A
Thus,
1 sin θ cos θ 1/2
sin2 2θ + sin2 2θ + 2 cos2 2θ
ys
=
ρ A
√
2 sin θ cos θ
=
A
Ph
and, as was required to be shown,

√ 2h πz
ρ= 2A csc 2θ = csc
π h

With n̂ a unit vector in the direction of dt̂/ds we have
T
1 √
n̂ = √ (− sin 2θ, − sin 2θ, 2 cos 2θ)
NE
2 √
2 2
t̂ = − sin θ, cos θ, 2 sin θ cos θ

2 2
√
⇒ b̂ = t̂ × n̂ = cos θ, − sin θ, 2 sin θ cos θ
db̂ dθ sin θ cos θ √
⇒ b̂ = = (− sin 2θ, − sin 2θ, 2 cos 2θ)
dθ ds √ A
=
ide
2 sin θ cos θ
A
gu
√
db̂ − 2 sin θ cos θ π zπ 1
τ = −n̂ · = √ = − sin =−
ds 2h/π 2h h ρ
ics
Solution: 2.3. With x = a cos θ sec φ, y = b sin θ sec φ

and z = c tan φ, the tangent vectors to the surface are given
in Cartesian coordinates by
ys
dr
= (−a sin θ sec φ, b cos θ sec φ, 0)
dθ
Ph
dr
= a cos θ sec φ tan φ, b sin θ sec φ tan φ, c sec2 φ
dφ

and the element of area by
T

dr dr
dS = × dθdφ
NE
dθ dφ
= bc cos θ sec3 φ, ac sin θ sec3 φ, −ab sec2 φ tan φ dθdφ

1/2
= sec2 φ c2 sec2 φ b2 cos2 θ + a2 sin2 θ + a2 b2 tan2 φ

dθdφ
We set b = c = a and note that the plane z = 2a corresponds

ide
to φ = tan−1 2. The ranges of integration are therefore 0 ≤
θ < 2π and 0 ≤ φ ≤ tan−1 2, while
1/2
dS = sec2 φ a4 sec2 φ + a4 tan2 φ dθdφ
gu
i.e. it is independent of θ To evaluate the integral of dS,
√
we set tan φ = sinh ψ/ 2, with
ics
1 1
sec2 φdφ = √ cosh ψdψ and sinh2 ψ
sec2 φ = 1 +
2 2
√
ys
The upper limit for ψ will be given by Ψ = sinh−1 2 2; we

note that cosh Ψ = 3 Integrating over θ and making the
Ph

above substitutions yields
T
Z Ψ 1/2
1 1 1
S = 2π √ cosh ψdψa2 1 + sinh2 ψ + sinh2 ψ
NE
0 2 2 2
√ Z Ψ
= 2πa 2
cosh2 ψdψ
0
√ 2 Z Ψ
2πa
cosh2 ψ + 1 dψ

=
2 0
√ 2
Ψ
=
πa
2
2

2πa sinh 2ψ
2
+ψide0
= √ [sinh ψ cosh ψ + ψ]Ψ 0

2
gu
πa2 h √ −1
√ i
= √ (2 2)(3) + sinh 2 2
2
√

2 1 −1
= πa 6 + √ sinh 2 2
ics
Solution: 2.4. With x = ρ cos φ and y = ρ sin φ we can

write z(x, y) = f (ρ, φ) as
ys
2 2
f (ρ, φ) = ρ2 cos2 φ − sin2 φ e−ρ = ρ2 cos 2φe−ρ


Ph
2 2
∇f = 2 ρ − ρ3 e−ρ cos 2φêρ − 2ρ2 e−ρ sin 2φêφ

h i
2 2 −2ρ2 2 2 2 2 2

|∇f | = 4ρ e 1 − ρ cos 2φ + ρ sin 2φ
= 4 se−2s (1 − s)2 cos2 2φ + s sin2 2φ


where we have set ρ2 = s
T
For the line of steepest gradient
NE
(i) ∂|∇f |2 /∂φ = 0 giving
−4(1 − s)2 cos 2φ sin 2φ + 4s sin 2φ cos 2φ = 0
i.e. sin 4φ = 0 and φ = nπ/4 or

ide
2
s = (1 − s) ⇒ s = (3 ±
√
5)/2
gu
(ii) ∂|∇f |2 /∂ρ = 0 or, alternatively, ∂|∇f |2 /∂s = 0. We
therefore require that
(1 − 2s) (1 − s)2 cos2 2φ + s sin2 2φ

ics
(2.75)
+ s −2(1 − s) cos2 2φ + sin2 2φ = 0

We now need to examine the various possible combina-

ys
tions of conditions. For sin 2φ = 0, cos2 2φ = 1 and equation

(2.75) reduces to
Ph
(1 − 2s)(1 − s)2 − 2s(1 − s) = 0

√
5 ± 17
⇒ s = 1 or s =
4

The corresponding values of |∇f |2 , obtained by direct sub-
T
stitution, are 0, 0.156 and 0.345 For cos 2φ = 0, sin2 2φ = 1
and the equation (2.75) reduces to
NE
(1 − 2s)s + s = 0 ⇒ s = 0 or s = 1
The corresponding values of |∇f |2 , obtained by direct sub-

stitution, are 0 and 4e−2 = 0.541
ide
In the third case, when s = (1 − s)2 , |∇f |2 has no φ
dependence and takes the form 4s2 e−2s , which has values
√
0.146 and 0.272 at s = (3 ± 5)/2.
gu
The largest of these seven values is 0.541, obtained when
cos 2φ = 0, i.e. when φ = ±π/4 and s = 1.
ics
Thus the steepest gradient occurs on the circle ρ = 1

√ √
at the points x = ±1/ 2, y = ±1/ 2. The gradient vector
there is
ys
∇f (ρ, φ) = 0, −2e−2 sin 2φ

√
and is therefore azimuthal along the lines x ± y = ± 2 and
√
Ph
x±y =∓ 2
Solution: 2.5. (a) Using results for ∇ × (φa) and for

∇×(∇×a), the first two terms can be expanded, as follows.
T
∇ × a(∇ · a) = ∇(∇ · a) × a + (∇ · a)(∇ × a)
NE
a × [∇ × (∇ × a)] = [a × ∇(∇ · a)] − a × ∇2 a

Substituting these into the original expression gives
∇(∇·a)×a+(∇·a)(∇×a)+a×∇(∇·a)−a×∇2 a+a×∇2 a
ide
Thus the original expression is equal to (∇ · a)(∇ × a)
(b) The first term on the LHS is

gu
∂ax ∂ax ∂ax
c · (b · ∇)a = cx bx + cx by + cx bz
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ay ∂ay ∂ay
+cy bx + cy by + cy bz
∂x ∂y ∂z
ics
∂az ∂az ∂az

+ cz bx + cz by + cz b z
∂x ∂y ∂z
The second term has the same form, but with b and c in-
ys
Ph

terchanged. The difference between the two is therefore
T
∂ax ∂ax ∂ay
(cx by − bx cy ) + (cx bz − bx cz ) + (cy bx − by cx )
∂y ∂z ∂x
NE
∂ay ∂az ∂az
+ (cy bz − by cz ) + (cz bx − bz cx ) + (cz by − bz cy )
∂z ∂x ∂y

∂ay ∂ax ∂az ∂ay
= (bx cy − by cx ) − + (by cz − bz cy ) −
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z

∂ax ∂az
+ (bz cx − bx cz ) −
ide
∂z ∂x
=(b × c)z (∇ × a)z + (b × c)x (∇ × a)x + (b × c)y (∇ × a)y
=(b × c) · (∇ × a)
gu
(c) Consider the z-component of the LHS.
[a × (∇ × a)]z = ax (∇ × a)y − ay (∇ × a)x

∂ax ∂az ∂az ∂ay
ics
= ax − − ay −
∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ax ∂ay ∂az ∂az ∂az ∂az
= ax + ay + az − az − ax − ay
∂z ∂z ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂y
ys
1 ∂
a2x + a2y + a2z − (a · ∇)az

=
2 ∂z
1 2
= ∇ a − (a · ∇)a
Ph
2 z
= z -component of RHS.
In the third line az (∂az /∂z) was both added and subtracted.
The corresponding results for the x - and y -components

can be proved in the same way, thus establishing the vector
T
result.
NE
Solution: 2.6. (a) In Cartesian coordinates we need to
evaluate
2 ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
∇ψ= + 2 + 2
∂x2 ∂y ∂z
The required derivatives are
∂ψ
∂x
=
2xz y 2 + z 2

(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2
,
ide ∂ 2ψ
∂x2
=

y 2 + z 2 2zy 2 + 2z 3 − 6x2 z
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3

∂ψ −2x2 yz ∂ 2ψ 2zx2 x2 + z 2 − 3y 2
= , =−
∂y (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 ∂y 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3
gu
∂ψ x2 x2 + y 2 − z 2 ∂ 2ψ 2zx2 3x2 + 3y 2 − z 2
= , =−
∂z (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )2 ∂z 2 (x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3
Thus, writing r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2
ics
2 2
2 2 2
4

2z y + z y + z − 3x − 4x
∇2 ψ =
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )3

2z r2 − x2 r2 − 4x2 − 4x4
ys
=
r6
2z r2 − 5x2
=
Ph
r4
(b) In spherical polar coordinates,

r cos θr2 sin2 θ cos2 φ
ψ(r, θ, φ) = 2
= r cos θ sin2 θ cos2 φ
r
The three contributions to ∇2 ψ in spherical polars are
T

2
1 ∂ 2 ∂ψ
∇ψ r= 2 r
r ∂r ∂r
NE
2
= cos θ sin2 θ cos2 φ
r

1 ∂ ∂ψ
∇2 ψ θ = 2

sin θ
r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
=
ide
1 cos2 φ ∂
r sin θ ∂θ

sin θ
∂
∂θ
2
cos θ sin θ

cos2 φ
4 cos3 θ − 8 sin2 θ cos θ

=
r
gu
1 ∂ 2ψ
∇2 ψ φ = 2 2

r sin θ ∂φ2
cos θ
−2 cos2 φ + 2 sin2 φ

ics
=
r
Thus, the full Laplacian in spherical polar coordinates is
cos θ
∇2 ψ = 2 sin2 θ cos2 φ + 4 cos2 θ cos2 φ
ys
r
−8 sin2 θ cos2 φ − 2 cos2 φ + 2 sin2 φ

cos θ
4 cos2 φ − 10 sin2 θ cos2 φ − 2 cos2 φ + 2 sin2 φ

Ph
=
r
cos θ
2 − 10 sin2 θ cos2 φ

=
r
2r cos θ r2 − 5r2 sin2 θ cos2 φ

=
r4
Rewriting this last expression in terms of Cartesian coordi-
T
nates, one finally obtains
NE
2 2

2z r − 5x
∇2 ψ =
r4
which establishes the equivalence of the two approaches.
Solution: 2.7. (a)
e1 =
∂r
∂u
∂r
ide
= (v cos φ, v sin φ, u)
e2 = = (u cos φ, u sin φ, −v)

∂v
∂r
gu
e3 = = (−uv sin φ, uv cos φ, 0)
∂φ
e1 · e2 = uv(cos φ cos φ + sin φ sin φ) − uv = 0
e2 · e3 = u2 v(− cos φ sin φ + sin φ cos φ) = 0
ics
e1 · e3 = uv 2 (− cos φ sin φ + sin φ cos φ) = 0

This shows that all pairs of tangential vectors are orthogonal
ys
and therefore that the coordinate system is an orthogonal

one. Its scale factors are given by the magnitudes of these
tangential vectors:
Ph
h2u = |e1 |2 = (v cos φ)2 + (v sin φ)2 + u2 = u2 + v 2

h2v = |e2 |2 = (u cos φ)2 + (u sin φ)2 + v 2 = u2 + v 2
h2φ = |e3 |2 = (uv sin φ)2 + (uv cos φ)2 = u2 v 2

Thus
T
p
hu = hv = u2 + v 2 , hφ = uv
NE
(b) The u -component of ∇ × a is given by

hu ∂ ∂
[∇ × a]u = (hφ aφ ) − (hv av )
hu hv hφ ∂v ∂φ

1 ∂ ∂ p 2
= √ (uvaφ ) − u + v 2 av
2
uv u + v 2 ∂v ∂φ
=√
1
u2 + v 2 v
ide
aφ ∂aφ
+
∂v

−
1 ∂av
uv ∂φ
Solution: 2.8. (a) In Cartesian coordinates a general

gu
point and its derivatives with respect to u, v and φ are given
by
ics
r = cosh u cos v cos φi + cosh u cos v sin φj + sinh u sin vk

∂r
e1 =
∂u
ys
= sinh u cos v cos φi + sinh u cos v sin φj + cosh u sin vk

∂r
e2 =
∂v
Ph
= − cosh u sin v cos φi − cosh u sin v sin φj + sinh u cos vk

∂r
e3 = = cosh u cos v(− sin φi + cos φj)
∂φ
Now consider the scalar products:

T
e1 · e2 = sinh u cos v cosh u sin v − cos2 φ − sin2 φ + 1 = 0

NE
e1 · e3 = sinh u cos2 v cosh u(− sin φ cos φ + sin φ cos φ) = 0
e2 · e3 = cosh2 u sin v cos v(sin φ cos φ − sin φ cos φ) = 0
As each is zero, the system is an orthogonal one.
ide
The scale factors are given by |ei | and are thus found
from:
|e1 |2 = sinh2 u cos2 v cos2 φ + sin2 φ + cosh2 u sin2 v

gu
= cosh2 u − 1 cos2 v + cosh2 u 1 − cos2 v

= cosh2 u − cos2 v
|e2 |2 = cosh2 u sin2 v cos2 φ + sin2 φ + sinh2 u cos2 v

ics
= cosh2 u 1 − cos2 v + cosh2 u − 1 cos2 v

= cosh2 u − cos2 v
ys
|e3 |2 = cosh2 u cos2 v sin2 φ + cos2 φ = cosh2 u cos2 v

The immediate deduction is that

Ph
1/2
hu = hv = cosh2 u − cos2 v , hφ = cosh u cos v
1/2
An alternative form for hu and hv is sinh2 u + sin2 v

(b) If a solution of Laplace’s equation is to be a function,
T
ψ(u), of u only, then all differentiation with respect to v and
φ can be ignored. The expression for ∇2 ψ reduces to
NE

1 ∂ h h
v φ ∂ψ
∇2 ψ =
hu hv hφ ∂u hu ∂u

1 ∂ ∂ψ
= cosh u cos v
cosh u cos v cosh2 u − cos2 v ∂u

∂u

ide
Laplace’s equation itself is even simpler and reduces to

∂ ∂ψ
cosh u =0
∂u ∂u
gu
This can be rewritten as
∂ψ k 2k 2keu
ics
= = = 2u
∂u cosh u eu + e−u e +1
u
Ae du −1 u
dψ =
u 2 ⇒ ψ = B tan e +c
1 + (e )
ys
This is the most general function of u only that satisfies

Laplace’s equation.
Ph

3 Line Surface and Volume Inte-
T
grals
NE
3.1 Line Integral
Line integrals are mainly three types.

Z
φdr,
Z
C C
ide
a · dr,
Z
a × dr
C
(3.1)
where φ is a scalar field and a is a vector field. The three in-

gu
tegrals themselves are respectively vector, scalar and vector
in nature. As we will see below, in physical applications line
integrals of the second type are by far the most common.
ics
The method of evaluating a line integral is to reduce it

to a set of scalar integrals. It is usual to work in Cartesian
coordinates, in which case dr = dxi + dyj + dzk The first
ys
type of line integral then becomes simply

Z Z Z Z
φdr = i φ(x, y, z)dx+j φ(x, y, z)dy+k φ(x, y, z)dz
Ph
C C C C
The three integrals on the RHS are ordinary scalar integrals

that can be evaluated in the usual way once the path of
integration C has been specified. Note that in the above we

have used relations of the form
T
Z Z
φidx = i φdx
NE
which is allowable since the Cartesian unit vectors are of
constant magnitude and direction and hence may be taken
out of the integral. If we had been using a different coordi-
nate system, such as spherical polars, then, as we saw in the
ide
previous chapter, the unit basis vectors would not be con-
stant. In that case the basis vectors could not be factorised
out of the integral.
gu
The second and third line integrals can also be reduced
to a set of scalar integrals by writing the vector field a in
terms of its Cartesian components as a = ax i + ay j + az k,
ics
where ax , ay , az are each (in general) functions of x, y, z The

second line integral, for example, can then be written as
Z Z
ys
a · dr = (ax i + ay j + az k) · (dxi + dyj + dzk)

C ZC
= (ax dx + ay dy + az dz)
Ph
Z C Z Z
= ax dx + ay dy + az dz
C C C
A similar procedure may be followed for the third type

of line integral , which involves a cross product. Line inte-
T
grals have properties that are analogous to those of ordinary
integrals. In particular, the following are useful properties
NE
(which we illustrate using the second form of line integral
but which are valid for all three types)
(i) Reversing the path of integration changes the sign of

the integral. If the path C along which the line integrals are
Z B
ide
evaluated has A and B as its end-points then
Z A
a · dr = − a · dr
A B
gu
This implies that if the path C is a loop then integrating
around the loop in the opposite direction changes the sign
of the integral.
ics
(ii) If the path of integration is subdivided into smaller

segments then the sum of the separate line integrals along
each segment is equal to the line integral along the whole
ys
path. So, if P is any point on the path of integration that

lies between the path’s end-points A and B then
Ph
Z B Z P Z B
a · dr = a · dr + a · dr
A A P
Example: Find the work done by the force F~ = xy î −

y 2 ĵ along the four paths indicated by the figure from the
T
point (0,0) to (2,1).
NE
ide
gu
ics
Solution: The work done by a force F on an object

which undergoes an infinitesimal vector displacement dr is
ys
dW = F · dr
Ph
In the xy plane
r = idx + jdy; F · dr = xydx − y 2 dy

We need to evaluate
T
Z
xydx − y 2 dy

W =
NE
(a) Along path 1, y = 12 x, dy = 12 dx.
W =
Z 2"
0
1
x · xdx −
2

ide1
2
2
1
# Z
x · dx =
2
2
0 8
3 2
2
x3
x dx = = 1
8 0
gu
Along path 2, y = 14 x2 , dy = 12 xdx
ics
Z 2 Z 2
1 1 1 1 3 1 5
W = x · x2 dx − x4 · xdx = x − x dx
0 4 16 2 0 4 32
2
x4 x6

2
= − =
ys
16 192 0 3
Along path 3, We integrate first from (0, 0) to (0, 1) and

Ph
then from (0, 1) to (2, 1) and add the results. Along (0, 0)
to (0, 1), x = 0 and dx = 0 so we must use y as the variable.
Then we have

T
1
1
y 3
Z
2
1
0 · y · 0 − y dy = − = −
y=0 3 0 3
NE
Along (0, 1) to (2, 1), y = 1, dy = 0
2
2
x2
Z
(x · 1 · dx − 1 · 0) = = 2
2 0
x=0
Total work done = −1/3 + 2 = 5/3

ide
Path 4 is the example of another technique. Instead of
gu
using either x or y as the integration variable, we can use a
parameter t. For x = 2t3 , y = t2 , we have dx = 6t2 dt, dy =
2tdt. At the origin, t = 0, and at (2, 1), t = 1. we get
ics
Z 1 Z 1
3 2 2 4 12 2
12t7 − 2t5 dt = −

W = 2t · t · 6t dt − t · 2tdt =
ys
0 0 8 6
Example: Find the value of

Ph
xdy − ydx
Z
I=
x2 + y 2
along each of the two paths indicated in Figure below from
(−1, 0) to (1, 0).

T
NE
ide
Solution: The problem may be given as: Evaluate
Z
I = F · dr with F = (−iy + xj)/ x2 + y 2

gu
So you need to identify the line integral sometimes.
Along the circle it is simplest to use polar coordinates;

ics
then r = 1 at all points of the circle and θ is the only

variable. We then have
x = cos θ, dx = − sin θdθ
ys
y = sin θ, dy = cos θdθ, x2 + y 2 = 1

xdy − ydx cos2 θdθ − sin θ(− sin θ)dθ
= = dθ
Ph
x2 + y 2 1
At (−1, 0), θ = π; at (1, 0), θ = 0. Then we get
Z 0
I1 = dθ = −π
π

Along path 2, we integrate from (−1, 0) to (0, 1) and
T
from (0, 1) to (1, 0) and add the results. The first straight
line has the equation y = x + 1; then dy = dx and the
NE
integral is
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0
xdx − (x + 1)dx −dx −2dx
2 2
= 2
= 2
−1 x + (x + 1) −1 2x + 2x + 1 −1 (2x + 1) + 1
= − arctan(2x + 1)|0−1
ide
= − arctan 1 + arctan(−1)
π π
=− + − =−
π
4 4 2
Along the second straight line y = 1 − x, dy = −dx, and the
gu
integral is
Z 1
xdx + (1 − x)dx
−
ics
0 x2 + (1 − x)2
Z 1
−2dx
= 2
= − arctan(2x − 1)|10
0 (2x − 1) + 1
π
ys
=−
2
Adding the results for the integrals along the two parts
Ph
of path 2, we get I2 = −π
Sometimes while evaluating line integral for closed loops

in the xy -plane (and also for some open curves) we find

that x, y and z are not single-valued functions . In such
T
cases the path may be subdivided into shorter line segments
along which one coordinate is a single-valued function of the
NE
other two.
The sum of the line integrals along these segments is then

equal to the line integral along the entire curve C. A better
solution, however, is to represent the curve in a parametric
ide
form r(u) that is valid for its entire length.
H
Example: Evaluate the line integral I = C xdy, where
C is the circle in the xy - plane defined by
gu
x 2 + y 2 = a2 , z = 0
ics
Solution: Adopting the usual convention mentioned

above, the circle C is to be traversed in the anticlockwise
direction. Taking the circle as a whole means x is not a
ys
single-valued function of y. We must therefore divide the

p
path into two parts with x = + a2 − y 2 for the semicircle
p
Ph
lying to the right of x = 0, and x = − a2 − y 2 for the semi-

circle lying to the left of x = 0. The required line integral
is then the sum of the integrals along the two semicircles.

Substituting for x, it is given by
T
I Z ap Z −a p
I= xdy = 2 2
a − y dy + (− a2 − y 2 )dy
NE
C −a a
Z ap
=4 a2 − y 2 dy = πa2
0
Alternatively, we can represent the entire circle parametri-

cally, in terms of the azimuthal angle φ, so that x = a cos φ
ide
and y = a sin φ with φ running from 0 to 2π. The integral
can therefore be evaluated over the whole circle at once.
Noting that dy = a cos φdφ, we can rewrite the line integral
completely in terms of the parameter φ and obtain
gu
I Z 2π
I= xdy = a2 cos2 φdφ = πa2
C 0
ics
3.2 Green’s theorem in a plane

ys
Suppose the functions P (x, y), Q(x, y) and their partial deriva-
tives are singlevalued, finite and continuous inside and on
the boundary C of some simply connected region R in the
Ph
xy -plane. Green’s theorem in a plane - sometimes called

the divergence theorem in two dimensions - then states
I ZZ
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Qdy) = − dxdy (3.2)
C R ∂x ∂y
and so relates the line integral around C to a double integral
T
over the enclosed region R. This theorem may be proved in
the following way.
NE
Consider the simply connected region R in figure 11.3,
and let y = y1 (x) and y = y2 (x) be the equations of the
curves ST U and SV U respectively. We then write
ZZ Z b Z y2 (x) Z b
∂P ∂P
R ∂y
dxdy =
a
Z b
dx
y1 (x)
ide
dy
∂y
=
a
y=y (x)
dx[P (x, y)]y=y21 (x)
= [P (x, y2 (x)) − P (x, y1 (x))] dx

a
gu
Z b Z a
=− P (x, y1 (x)) dx − P (x, y2 (x)) dx
Ia b
= − P dx
ics
If we now let x = x1 (y) and x = x2 (y) be the equations

of the curves T SV and T U V respectively, we can similarly
ys
show that
ZZ Z d Z x2 (y) Z d
∂Q ∂Q x=x (y)
dxdy = dy dx = dy[Q(x, y)]x=x21 (y)
R ∂x ∂x
Ph
c x1 (y) c
Z d
= [Q (x2 (y), y) − Q (x1 (y), y)] dy
Zc c Z d I
= Q (x1 , y) dy + Q (x2 , y) dy = Qdy
d c C

Subtracting these two results gives Green’s theorem in a
T
plane.
NE
Example: show that the area of a region R enclosed by
a simple closed curve C is given by
I I I
1
A= (xdy − ydx) = xdy = − ydx
2 C C C
Hence calculate the area of the ellipse

ide
x = a cos φ, y = b sin φ
Solution: In Green’s theorem in a plane put P = −y

gu
and Q = x; then
I ZZ ZZ
(xdy − ydx) = (1 + 1)dxdy = 2 dxdy = 2A
ics
C R R
1
H
Therefore the area of the region is A = 2 C (xdy − ydx).
Alternatively, we could put P = 0 and Q = x and obtain
ys
H
A = C xdy, or put P = −y and Q = 0, which gives A =
H
− C ydx The area of the ellipse x = a cos φ, y = b sin φ is
given by
Ph
1 2π
I Z
1
ab cos2 φ + sin2 φ dφ

A= (xdy − ydx) =
2 C 2 0
ab 2π
Z
= dφ = πab
2 0
Example: Evaluate the line integral
T
I
I= [(ex y + cos x sin y) dx + (ex + sin x cos y) dy]
NE
C
around the ellipse x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1
Solution: Clearly, it is not straightforward to calculate

this line integral directly. However, if we let
ide
P = ex y + cos x sin y and Q = ex + sin x cos y
then ∂P/∂y = ex + cos x cos y = ∂Q/∂x, and so applying

gu
Green’s theorem in a plane we get
I ZZ ZZ
∂Q ∂P
(P dx+Qdy) = − dxdy = (0)dxdy = 0
C R ∂x ∂y R
ics
3.3 Conservative field and potential

ys
R
For line integrals of the form C a · dr, there exists a class of
vector fields for which the line integral between two points is
Ph
independent of the path taken. Such vector fields are called

conservative. A vector field a that has continuous partial
derivatives in a simply connected region R is conservative
if, and only if, any of the following is true.

RB
(i) The integral A a · dr, where A and B lie in the re-
T
gion R, is independent of the path from A to B. Hence the
H
integral C a · dr around any closed loop in R is zero.
NE
(ii) There exists a single-valued function φ of position
such that a = ∇φ
(iii) ∇ × a = 0
ide
(iv) a · dr is an exact differential.
The validity or otherwise of any of these statements im-

gu
plies the same for the other three, as we will now show.
First, let us assume that (i) above is true. If the line

integral from A to B is independent of the path taken be-
ics
tween the points then its value must be a function only of

the positions of A and B. We may therefore write
Z B
ys
a · dr = φ(B) − φ(A)
A
which defines a single-valued scalar function of position φ.

Ph
If the points A and B are separated by an infinitesimal

displacement dr then the previous equation becomes
a · dr = dφ

which shows that we require a ·dr to be an exact differ-
T
ential: condition (iv). From ( ∇φ · dr = dφ) we can write
dφ = ∇φ · dr, and so we have
NE
(a − ∇φ) · dr = 0
since dr is arbitrary, we find that a = ∇φ; this immediately

implies ∇ × a = 0 condition (iii) ( as ∇ × ∇φ = 0 ).
ide
Alternatively, if we suppose that there exists a single-
valued function of position φ such that a = ∇φ then ∇×a =
0 follows as before. The line integral around a closed loop
gu
then becomes
I I I
a · dr = ∇φ · dr = dφ
C C
ics
since we defined φ to be single-valued, this integral is zero

as required. Now suppose ∇×a = 0. From Stoke’s theorem,
H
which is discussed later, we immediately obtain C a·dr = 0;
ys
then a = ∇φ and a · dr = dφ follow as above.
Finally, let us suppose a · dr = dφ. Then immediately we

Ph
have a = ∇φ, and the other results follow as above.
Example: Show that
F = 2xy − z 3 i + x2 j − 3xz 2 + 1 k


is conservative, and find a scalar potential φ such that F =
T
−∇φ
NE
Solution: Calculate the curl

i j k

∂ ∂ ∂
∇×F= =0

∂x ∂y ∂z
2xy − z 3 x2 −3xz 2 − 1
so F is conservative. Then
Z B Z B
ide
2xy − z 3 dx + x2 dy − 3xz 2 + 1 dz

W = F · dr =
A A
gu
is independent of the path.
Now the technique is to integrate the Force as definite

integral and exclude the repeated terms.
ics
In the first integral you get x2 y − xz 3 . In the second

integral you get x2 y. In the third integral you get −xz 3 − z.
ys
So you get TWO x2 y, TWO −xz 3 and ONE −z. We take

the work done then
Ph
W = x2 y − xz 3 − z
and so the potential
φ = −W = −x2 y + xz 3 + z

If you want to be more rigorous the explanation is the
T
following.
NE
We need to make the line integral independent of the
path. Let us choose the origin as our reference point and
RB
integrate the force ( A F · dr) from the origin to the point
(x, y, z).
ide
As the path of integration, we choose the broken line
from (0, 0, 0) to (x, 0, 0) to (x, y, 0) to (x, y, z). From (0, 0, 0)
to (x, 0, 0), we have y = z = 0, dy = dz = 0, so the integral
is zero along this part of the path.
gu
From (x, 0, 0) to (x, y, 0), we have x = const., z = 0, dx =
dz = 0, so the integral is
ics
Z y Z y
x2 dy = x2 dy = x2 y
0 0
From (x, y, 0) to (x, y, z) we have x = const., y = const.,
ys
dx = dy = 0, so the integral is
Z z
3xz 2 + 1 dz = −xz 3 − z

−
Ph
0
Adding the three results, we get
W = x2 y − xz 3 − z

or the potential
T
φ = −W = −x2 y + xz 3 + z
NE
3.4 Surface integrals
As with line integrals, integrals over surfaces can involve

ide
vector and scalar fields and, equally, can result in either a
vector or a scalar. The simplest case involves entirely scalars
and is of the form Z
φdS (3.3)
gu
S
We may also encounter surface integrals involving vectors
like Z Z Z
ics
φdS, a · dS, a × dS (3.4)

S S S
We will briefly discuss the technique to evaluate the surface
integrals over some surface.
ys
We need to write the scalar area element dS in terms of

the coordinate differentials of our chosen coordinate system.
Ph
In some particularly simple cases this is very straightfor-

ward. For example, if S is the surface of a sphere of radius
a (or some part thereof) then using spherical polar coordi-
nates θ, φ on the sphere we have dS = a2 sin θdθdφ. For a

general surface, however, it is not usually possible to repre-
T
sent the surface in a simple way in any particular coordinate
system. In such cases, it is usual to work in Cartesian coor-
NE
dinates and consider the projections of the surface onto the
coordinate planes.
Consider a surface (or part of a surface) S as in figure 3.1

below. The surface S is projected onto a region R of the xy
ide
-plane, so that an element of surface area dS projects onto
the area element dA. From the figure, we see that dA =
| cos α|dS where α is the angle between the unit vector k in
the z -direction and the unit normal n̂ to the surface at P
gu
. So, at any given point of S , we have simply
ics
ys
Ph

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 3.1: A surface S projected onto a region R in the

ics
xy -plane; dS is a surface element.
dA dA
ys
dS = = (3.5)
| cos α| |n̂ · k|
So you have also seen that
Ph
1 1
sec α = = (3.6)
cos α |n · k|
Now, if the surface S is given by the equation f (x, y, z) =

0 then, the unit normal at any point of the surface is given by
T
n̂ = ∇f /|∇f | evaluated at that point. The scalar element
of surface area then becomes
NE
dA |∇f |dA |∇f |dA
dS = = = (3.7)
|n̂ · k| ∇f · k ∂f /∂z
don’t miss that

∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f · k = i +j
ide +k ·k=
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂z
where |∇f | and ∂f /∂z are evaluated on the surface S.

We can therefore express any surface integral over S as a
gu
double integral over the region R in the xy -plane.
Surface area can be written as

ics
ZZ ZZ
dA = sec αdxdy
ys
where the limits on x and y must be such that we integrate

over the projected area in the (x, y) plane.
Ph
R
Example: Evaluate the surface integral I = S a · dS,
where a = xî and S is the surface of the hemisphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 with z ≥ 0

Solution: The surface of the hemisphere is shown in
T
figure below. In this case dS may be easily expressed in
spherical polar coordinates as dS = a2 sin θdθdφ, and the
NE
unit normal to the surface at any point is simply r̂. On the
surface of the hemisphere we have x = a sin θ cos φ and you
also know
r̂ = sin θ cos φî + sin θ sin φĵ + cos θk̂
so you get
ide
a · dS = x(î · r̂)dS = (a sin θ cos φ)(sin θ cos φ) a2 sin θdθdφ

gu
Therefore, inserting the correct limits on θ and φ, we have
Z π/2 Z 2π
2πa3
Z
3 3 2
ics
I= a · dS = a dθ sin θ dφ cos φ =
S 0 0 3
ys
Ph

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 3.2: The surface of the hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
a2 , z ≥ 0
ics
We could, however, follow the general prescription above

and project the hemisphere S onto the region R in the xy
ys
-plane that is a circle of radius a centred at the origin.

Writing the equation of the surface of the hemisphere as
Ph
f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 + z 2 − a2 = 0 and using equation (3.7) we

have
|∇f |dA
Z Z Z
I= a · dS = x(î · r̂)dS = x(î · r̂)
S S R ∂f /∂z

Now
T
∇f = 2xî + 2y ĵ + 2z k̂ = 2r
NE
so on the surface S we have |∇f | = 2a.
On S we also have
p
∂f /∂z = 2z = 2 a2 − x2 − y 2 and î · r̂ = x/a
ZZ
ide
Therefore, the integral becomes
x2
I= p dxdy
R a2 − x 2 − y 2
gu
Although this integral may be evaluated directly, it is
quicker to transform to plane polar coordinates:
ics
ρ2 cos2 φ
ZZ
I= p ρdρdφ
R0 a2 − ρ 2
Z 2π Z a
ρ3 dρ
ys
= cos2 φdφ p
0 0 a2 − ρ 2
Making the substitution ρ = a sin u, we finally obtain

Ph
Z 2π Z π/2
2 3 3 2πa3
I= cos φdφ a sin udu =
0 0 3

T
Example: Find the area cut from the upper half of the
sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 by the cylinder x2 + y 2 − y = 0
NE
Solution : You need to first convince yourself that the
equation of the cylinder transform into
1 1
x2 + (y − )2 =
2 4
ide
So the base of the cylinder is in the xy plane. The area
cut from the upper half of the sphere will be the same as the
area on the sphere which projects onto the disk x2 +y 2 −y ≤
gu
0 in the (x, y) plane. Now the surface area
ics
ZZ ZZ
dA = sec θdxdy
where θ is the angle between the area vector and the z axis.
1 1
ys
sec θ = = . The projection on xy plane will be

cos θ |n · k|
like this
Ph

T
NE
ide
gu
Figure 3.3:
Now as the surface φ = x2 + y 2 + z 2 , we find

ics
| grad φ| 1p
sec θ = = (2x)2 + (2y)2 + (2z)2
ys
|∂φ/∂z| 2z
1 1
= =p
z 1 − x2 − y 2
Ph
The area is
Z 1 Z √y−y2
dxdy
A=2 p
y=0 x=0 1 − x2 − y 2
Change the integration to polar
T
NE
Z π/2 Z sin θ
rdrdθ
A=2 √
θ=0 r=0 1 − r2
√
Then change variable z = 1 − r2
Finally
A = −2
Z
ideπ/2 Z cos θ
dzdθ = π − 2
θ=0 z=1
gu
Example: Find the vector area of the surface of the
hemisphere
ics
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
with z ≥ 0
ys
Solution:
The vector area of a surface S is defined as

Ph
Z
S= dS
S
where the surface integral may be evaluated as above.

The area element, dS = a2 sin θdθdr̂ in spherical polar
T
coordinates. Therefore the vector area is given by
NE
ZZ
S= a2 sin θr̂dθdφ
S
Now, since r̂ varies over the surface S, it also must be inte-

grated. This is most easily achieved by writing r̂ in terms
of the constant Cartesian basis vectors. On S we have
ide
r̂ = sin θ cos φi + sin θ sin φj + cos θk
so the expression for the vector area becomes

gu
!
Z 2π
Z π/2
2
S =i a cos φdφ sin2 θdθ
0 0
ics
!
Z 2π Z π/2
+ j a2 sin φdφ sin2 θdθ
0 0
!
Z 2π Z π/2
+ k a2 dφ sin θ cos θdθ
ys
0 0
=0 + 0 + πa2 k = πa2 k
Ph
Note that the magnitude of S is the projected area, of the

hemisphere onto the xy -plane, and not the surface area of
the hemisphere.

T
Example: Find the vector area of the surface of the
hemisphere
NE
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z ≥ 0,
by evaluating the line integral

I
1
S= r × dr
2 C
around its perimeter.
ide
Solution: The perimeter C of the hemisphere is the
gu
circle x2 + y 2 = a2 , on which we have
r = a cos φi + a sin φj, dr = −a sin φdφi + a cos φdφj

ics
Therefore the cross product r × dr is given by

i j k
ys

r × dr = a cos φ a sin φ 0

−a sin φdφ a cos φdφ 0
Ph
= a2 cos2 φ + sin2 φ dφk = a2 dφk

and the vector area becomes

Z 2π
1 2
S= a k dφ = πa2 k
2 0

3.5 Volume integrals
T
NE
Volume integrals are defined in an obvious way and are gen-
erally simpler than line or surface integrals since the element
of volume dV is a scalar quantity. We may encounter vol-
ume integrals of the forms
Z Z
φdV, adV (3.8)
V ide V
The volume of a three-dimensional region V is simply

Z
V = dV
gu
V
which may be evaluated directly once the limits of integra-

tion have been found.
ics
3.6 Divergence Theorem

ys
The statement of Divergence theorem is—-

Ph
Suppose τ is the volume bounded by a closed surface

σ and V is a vector function of position with continuous
derivatives. Then

3.6.1 Physical demonstration of Divergence theo-
T
rem
NE
Let A = velocity v at any point of a moving fluid. From a
part of the figure below we have: Volume of fluid crossing
dS in ∆t seconds = volume contained in cylinder of base dS
and slant height v∆t.
ide
gu
ics
Figure 3.4:
ys
So the Volume of fluid crossing dS in ∆t seconds becomes

= (v∆t) · ndS = v · ndS∆t
Ph
Then, volume per second of fluid crossing dS = v · ndS
From the (b) part of the figure above we get

Total volume per second of fluid emerging from closed
T
RR
surface S = S v · ndS
NE
We know that ∇ · vdV is the volume per second of fluid
emerging from a volume element dV. Then Total volume
per second of fluid emerging from all volume elements in
RRR
S= V ∇ · vdV Thus
ZZ
v · ndS =
S
ide
ZZZ
∇ · vdV
V
gu
ZZZ ZZ
∇ · Vdτ = V · ndσ (3.9)
surface
volume τ inclosing τ
ics
Where n points out of the closed surface σ
3.6.2 Continuity equation

ys
For a compressible fluid with time-varying position-dependent

Ph
density ρ(r, t) and velocity field v(r, t), in which fluid is nei-
ther being created nor destroyed, we will show that
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

For an arbitrary volume V in the fluid, the conservation of
T
mass tells us that the rate of increase or decrease of the
mass M of fluid in the volume must equal the net rate at
NE
which fluid is entering or leaving the volume, i.e.
I
dM
= − ρv · dS
dt S
where S is the surface bounding V. But the mass of fluid in
d
R
Z
ide
V is simply M = V ρdV, so we have
I
ρdV + ρv · dS = 0
dt V S
gu
Taking the derivative inside the first integral on the RHS
and using the divergence theorem to rewrite the second in-
tegral, we obtain
ics
Z Z Z
∂ρ ∂ρ
dV + ∇ · (ρv)dV = + ∇ · (ρv) dV = 0
V ∂t V V ∂t
ys
since the volume V is arbitrary, the integrand (which is

assumed continuous) must be identically zero, so we obtain
Ph
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t
This is known as the continuity equation. It can also be
applied to other systems, for example those in which ρ is

the density of electric charge or the heat content, etc. For
T
the flow of an incompressible fluid, ρ = constant and the
continuity equation becomes simply
NE
∇·v =0
3.6.3 Proof of Divergence theorem

ide
Let S be a closed surface such that any line coordinate axes
cuts S in, at most, two points. Assume the equations of
the lower and upper portions, S1 and S2 , to be z = f1 (x, y)
gu
and z = f2 (x, y), respectively. Denote the projection of the
surface on the xy -plane by R (see Figure below). Consider:
ics
ys
Ph
Figure 3.5:

T
ZZZ ZZZ
∂A3 ∂A3
dV = dzdydx
∂z ∂z
NE
V V
Z Z "Z f2 (x,y) #
∂A3
= dz dydx
R z=f1 (x,y) ∂z
ZZ f2 ZZ

= A3 (x, y, z) dydx = [A3 (x, y, f2 ) −
R z=f1 R
ide
For the upper portion S2 , dydx = cos γ2 dS2 = k·n2 dS2 since
the normal n2 to S2 makes an acute angle γ2 with k
For the lower portion S1 , dydx = − cos γ1 dS1 = −k ·

gu
n1 dS1 since the normal n1 to S1 makes an obtuse angle γ1
with k. Then
ZZ ZZ
ics
A3 (x, y, f2 ) dydx = A3 k · n2 dS2 ;

R S2
ZZ ZZ
A3 (x, y, f1 ) dydx = − A3 k · n1 dS1
R S1
ys
And
ZZ ZZ
A3 (x, y, f2 ) dydx − A3 (x, y, f1 ) dydx
Ph
ZR Z ZZ R
= A3 k · n2 dS2 + A3 k · n1 dS1
S2 S1
ZZ
= A3 k · ndS
S

So that
T
ZZZ ZZ
∂A3
dV = A3 k · ndS
V ∂z S
NE
Similarly, by projecting S on the other coordinate planes,
ZZZ ZZ
∂A1
dV = A1 i · ndS
V ∂x S
and
ZZZ
ide
∂A2
dV =
ZZ
A2 j · ndS
V ∂y S
Adding we get
gu
ZZZ ZZ
∂A1 ∂A2 ∂A3
+ + dV = (A1 i + A2 j + A3 k)·ndS
V ∂x ∂y ∂z S
ics
Hence ZZZ ZZ
∇ · AdV = A · ndS
V S
ys
Example: Evaluate the surface integral

Ph
Z
I= a · dS,
S
where
a = (y − x)i + x2 zj + z + x2 k


and S is the open surface of the hemisphere
T
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z ≥ 0
NE
Solution: We could evaluate this surface integral di-
rectly, but the algebra is somewhat lengthy. We will there-
fore evaluate it by use of the divergence theorem. since the
latter only holds for closed surfaces enclosing a non-zero vol-
ide
ume V, let us first consider the closed surface S 0 = S + S1 ,
where S1 is the circular area in the xy -plane given by
x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 , z = 0; S 0 then encloses a hemispherical vol-
ume V. By the divergence theorem we have
gu
Z I Z Z
∇ · adV = a · dS = a · dS + a · dS
V S0 S S1
ics
Now ∇ · a = −1 + 0 + 1 = 0, so we can write

Z Z
a · dS = − a · dS
S S1
ys
The surface integral over S1 is easily evaluated. Remem-

bering that the normal to the surface points outward from
Ph
the volume, a surface element on S1 is simply dS = −kdxdy

On S1 we also have a = (y − x)i + x2 k, so that
Z ZZ
I=− a · dS = x2 dxdy
S1 R

where R is the circular region in the xy -plane given by
T
x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 . Transforming to plane polar coordinates we
have
NE
Z 2π Z a
πa4
ZZ
2 2 2 3
I= ρ cos φρdρdφ = cos φdφ ρ dρ =
R0 0 0 4
3.6.4 Green’s theorems

ide
Consider two scalar functions φ and ψ that are continuous
and differentiable in some volume V bounded by a surface
gu
S. Applying the divergence theorem to the vector field φ∇ψ
we obtain
I Z
φ∇ψ · dS = ∇ · (φ∇ψ)dV
ics
S ZV
2 (3.10)
= φ∇ ψ + (∇φ) · (∇ψ) dV
V
ys
Now apply the divergence theorem to the vector field

ψ∇φ to get
Ph
I Z
ψ∇φ · dS = ∇ · (ψ∇φ)dV
S V
Z (3.11)
2

= ψ∇ φ + (∇ψ) · (∇φ) dV
V

Now subtracting (3.10) and (3.11) we get
T
I Z
φ∇2 ψ − ψ∇2 φ dV

(φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ) · dS = (3.12)
NE
S V
Equation (3.10) called Green’s first theorem and (3.11)

called Green’s second theorem.
3.6.5
ide
Other Related Integral theorems
There exist two other integral theorems which are closely

gu
related to the divergence theorem and which are of some use
in physical applications. If φ is a scalar field and b is a vector
field and both φ and b satisfy our usual differentiability
ics
conditions in some volume V bounded by a closed surface

S then Z I
∇φdV = φdS (3.13)
ys
V S
Z I
∇ × bdV = dS × b (3.14)
V S
Ph
We will prove the first and leave the second to the stu-
dent

In the divergence theorem let a = φc, where c is a con-
T
stant vector. We then have
NE
Z I
∇ · (φc)dV = φc · dS
V S
Expanding out the integrand on the LHS we have
∇ · (φc) = φ∇ · c + c · ∇φ = c · ∇φ
Z
ide
since c is constant. Also, φc · dS = c · φdS, so we obtain
I
c · (∇φ)dV = c · φdS
V S
gu
since c is constant we may take it out of both integrals to
give Z I
ics
c· ∇φdV = c · φdS
V S
and since c is arbitrary we obtain the stated result in the
equation (3.13)
ys
Equation (3.14) may be proved in a similar way by let-

ting a = b × c in the divergence theorem, where c is again
Ph
a constant vector.

3.7 Stokes’ theorem
T
NE
Stokes’ theorem relates the integral of the curl of a vector
field over an open surface S to the line integral of the vector
field around the perimeter C bounding the surface.
Suppose S is an open, two-sided surface bounded by a

closed, nonintersecting curve C (simple closed curve), and
ide
suppose A is a vector function of position with continuous
derivatives. Then
gu
I ZZ ZZ
A · dr = (∇ × A) · ndS = (∇ × A) · dS (3.15)
C S S
ics
3.7.1 Proof of Stokes’ theorem

ys
Let S be a surface such that its projections on the xy, yz,

and xz planes are regions bounded by simple closed curves,
as indicated in Fig 3.6 below. Assume S to have repre-
Ph
sentation z = f (x, y) or x = g(y, z) or y = h(x, z), where

f, g, and h are single-valued, continuous, and differentiable

functions, respectively. We must show that
T
ZZ ZZ
(∇ × A) · ndS = [∇ × (A1 i + A2 j + A3 k)] · ndS
NE
S I S
= A · dr
C
where C is the boundary of S.
ide
gu
ics
ys
Ph
Figure 3.6:

RR
Consider first [∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS. since
T
S

i j k
NE
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂A1 ∂A1

∇ × (A1 i) = ∂x ∂y ∂z = j− k
∂z ∂y
A1 0 0
then

∂A1 ∂A1
[∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS = n·j− n · k dS (3.16)
ide ∂z ∂y
If z = f (x, y) is taken as the equation of S, then the position

vector to any point of S is r = xi+yj+zk = xi+yj+f (x, y)k
gu
so that ∂r/∂y = j + (∂z/∂y)k = j + (∂f /∂y)k. But ∂r/∂y
is a vector tangent to S and is thus perpendicular to n, so
that
ics
∂r ∂z ∂z
n· =n·j+ n·k=0 or n·j=− n·k
∂y ∂y ∂y
ys
Substitute in equation (3.16) to get

∂A1 ∂A1 ∂A1 ∂z ∂A1
n·j− n · k dS = − n·k− n · k dS
Ph
∂z ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂y
or

∂A1 ∂A1 ∂z
[∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS = − + n · kdS (3.17)
∂y ∂z ∂y

Now on S, A1 (x, y, z) = A1 (x, y, f (x, y)) = F (x, y); hence
T
∂A1 ∂A1 ∂z ∂F
∂y + ∂z ∂y = ∂y and (3.17) becomes
NE
∂F ∂F
[∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS = − n · kdS = − dxdy
∂y ∂y
then ZZ ZZ
∂F
S
ide
[∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS =
R ∂y
dxdy −
where R is the projection of S on the xy -plane. By Green’s

H
theorem for the plane, the last integral equals Γ F dx where
gu
Γ is the boundary of R. since at each point (x, y) of Γ the
value of F is the same as the value of A1 at each point
(x, y, z) of C, and since dx is the same for both curves, we
ics
must have I I
F dx = A1 dx
Γ C
or ZZ I
ys
[∇ × (A1 i)] · ndS = A1 dx

S C
Similarly, by projections on the other coordinate planes,
Ph
ZZ I
[∇ × (A2 j)] · ndS = A2 dy and
S C
ZZ I
[∇ × (A3 k)] · ndS = A3 dz
S C

Thus, by addition,
T
ZZ I
(∇ × A) · ndS = A · dr
NE
S C
The theorem is also valid for surfaces S which may not

satisfy the restrictions imposed above. Specifically sup-
pose S can be subdivided into surfaces S1 , S2 , . . . , Sk with
boundaries C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck which do satisfy the restrictions.
ide
Then Stokes’ theorem holds for each such surface. Adding
these surface integrals, the total surface integral over S
is obtained. Adding the corresponding line integrals over
C1 , C2 , . . . , Ck , the line integral over C is obtained.
gu
Example: Given the vector field a = yi − xj + zk, verify

Stokes’ theorem for the hemispherical surface x2 + y 2 + z 2 =
ics
a2 , z ≥ 0 Solution: Let us first evaluate the surface integral

Z
(∇ × a) · dS
ys
over the hemisphere. It is easily shown that ∇ × a = −2k,

and the surface element is dS = a2 sin θdθdφr̂ in spherical
Ph

polar coordinates. Therefore
T
Z Z 2π Z π/2
dθ −2a2 sin θ r̂ · k

(∇ × a) · dS = dφ
NE
S 0 0
Z 2π Z π/2 z
2
= −2a dφ sin θ dθ
0 0 a
Z 2π Z π/2
2
= −2a dφ sin θ cos θdθ = −2πa2
0 0
ide
We now evaluate the line integral around the perimeter
curve C of the surface, which is the circle x2 + y 2 = a2
in the xy -plane. This is given by
gu
I I
a · dr = (yi − xj + zk) · (dxi + dyj + dzk)
C IC
= (ydx − xdy)
ics
Using plane polar coordinates, on C we have x = a cos φ, y =

a sin φ so that dx = −a sin φdφ, dy = a cos φdφ, and the line
ys
integral becomes
I Z 2π Z 2π
2 2 2 2

(ydx−xdy) = −a sin φ + cos φ dφ = −a dφ = −
Ph
C 0 0
since the surface and line integrals have the same value, we
have verified Stokes’ theorem.

3.7.2 Related integral theorem
T
NE
As for the divergence theorem, there exist two other integral
theorems that are closely related to Stokes’ theorem. If φ
is a scalar field and b is a vector field, and both φ and b
satisfy our usual differentiability conditions on some two-
sided open surface S bounded by a closed perimeter curve
C, then Z
S
ide I
dS × ∇φ =
C
φdr (3.18)
and Z I
(dS × ∇) × b = dr × b (3.19)
gu
S C
The proof of the first theorem is as follows
ics
In Stokes’ theorem, let a = φc, where c is a constant

vector. We then have
Z I
[∇ × (φc)] · dS = φc · dr (3.20)
ys
S C
Expanding out the integrand on the LHS we have
∇ × (φc) = ∇φ × c + φ∇ × c = ∇φ × c
Ph
since c is constant, and the scalar triple product on the LHS

of (3.20) can therefore be written
[∇ × (φc)] · dS = (∇φ × c) · dS = c · (dS × ∇φ)

Substituting this into (3.20) and taking c out of both inte-
T
grals because it is constant, we find
NE
Z I
dS × ∇φ = c · φdr
S C
since c is an arbitrary constant vector we therefore obtain

the stated result (3.18)
ide
Equation (3.19) may be proved in a similar way, by let-
ting a = b×c in Stokes theorem, where c is again a constant
vector.
gu
R
Example: Given V = 4yi + xj + 2zk, find (∇ × V) ·
ndσ over the hemisphere
ics
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z ≥ 0
Solution: We find that ∇×V = −3k. There are several

ys
ways we could do the problem:

(a) integrate the expression as it stands;
H
(b) use Stokes’ theorem and evaluate V · dr around the
Ph
circle x2 + y 2 = a2 in the (x, y) plane;

(c) use Stokes atheorem to say that the integral is the same
over any surface bounded by this circle,

If we proceed as in the way of (c) we see that the plane
T
area inside the circle is also bounded by the same circle
which binds the hemisphere ! Since this plane area is in the
NE
(x, y) plane, we have
n = k, (∇ × V) · n = −3k · k = −3
so the integral is
Z
−3 ide
dσ = −3 · πa2 = −3πa2
This is the easiest way to do the problem; however, for this

simple case it is not too hard by the other methods. We
gu
shall leave (b) for you to do and do (a). since the surface
is a sphere with center at the origin, r is normal to it (but
for any surface we could get the normal from the gradient).
ics
Then on the surface

r r ix + jy + kz
n= = =
|r| a a
ys
and so
r z
(∇ × V) · n = −3k · = −3
a a
Ph
R
We want to evaluate −3(z/a)dσ over the hemisphere. In
spherical coordinates we have
z = r cos θ
dσ = r2 sin θdθdφ

For our surface r = a. Then the integral is
T
NE
Z 2π Z π/2
a cos θ 2
−3 a sin θdθdφ
φ=0 θ=0 a
Z 2π Z π/2
2
= −3a dφ sin θ cos θdθ
0 0
1
= −3a2 · 2π · = −3πa2
ide 2
gu
ics
ys
Ph

3.8 Exercises
T
R
3.1. Evaluate the line integral I = C a · dr, where a =
NE
(x + y)i + (y − x)j, along each of the paths in the xy-plane
shown in figure below ,
ide
gu
ics
Figure 3.7: Different possible paths between the points (1, 1)

and (4, 2)
(i) the parabola y 2 = x from (1, 1) to (4, 2)

ys
(ii) the curve x = 2u2 + u + 1, y = 1 + u2 from (1, 1) to

(4, 2)
Ph
(iii) the line y = 1 from (1, 1) to (4, 1), followed by the

line x = 4 from (4, 1) to (4, 2)
RB
3.2. Evaluate the line integral I = A a · dr, where a =

xy 2 + z i + x2 y + 2 j + xk, A is the point (c, c, h) and B

is the point (2c, c/2, h), along the different paths
T
(i) C1 , given byx = cu, y = c/u, z = h
(ii) C2 , given by 2y = 3c − x, z = h
NE
(iii) Show that the vector field a is in fact conservative, and
find φ such that a = ∇φ
3.3. The vector field F is defined by
F = 2xzi + 2yz 2 j + x2 + 2y 2 z − 1 k

ide
Calculate ∇×F and deduce that F can be written F = ∇φ.
Determine the form of φ
gu
3.4. The vector field Q is defined by
Q = 3x2 (y + z) + y 3 + z 3 i + 3y 2 (z + x) + z 3 + x3 j

+ 3z 2 (x + y) + x3 + y 3 k

ics
Show that Q is a conservative field, construct its potential

R
function and hence evaluate the integral J = Q · dr along
ys
any line connecting the point A at (1, −1, 1) to B at (2, 1, 2)

3.5. F is a vector field xy 2 i + 2j + xk, and L is a path
Ph
parameterised by x = ct, y = c/t z = d for the range 1 ≤

R R R
t ≤ 2. Evaluate (a) Li Fdt, (b) L Fdy and (c) L F · dr
3.6. By making an appropriate choice for the functions P (x, y)
and Q(x, y) that appear in Green’s theorem in a plane, show

that the integral of x − y over the upper half of the unit cir-
T
cle centred on the origin has the value − 23 . Show the same
result by direct integration in Cartesian coordinates.
NE
3.7. Evaluate the line integral
I
y 4x2 + y 2 dx + x 2x2 + 3y 2 dy

I=
C
around the ellipse x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1

ide
3.8. The vector field f has components yi- xj + k and γ is a
curve given parametrically by
r = (a − c + c cos θ)i + (b + c sin θ)j + c2 θk,

gu
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π
Describe the shape of the path γ and show that the line
R
integral γ f · dr vanishes. Does this result imply that f is a
ics
conservative field?
3.9. A vector field a = f (r)r is spherically symmetric and
everywhere directed away from the origin. Show that a is
ys
irrotational but that it is also solenoidal only if f (r) is of

the form Ar−3
Ph
R
3.10. Evaluate the surface integral r·dS, where r is the po-
sition vector, over that part of the surface z = a2 −x2 −y 2 for
which z ≥ 0, by each of the following methods. (a) Param-
eterise the surface as x = a sin θ cos φ, y = a sin θ sin φ, z =

a2 cos2 θ and show that
T
r · dS = a4 2 sin3 θ cos θ + cos3 θ sin θ dθdφ

NE
(b) Apply the divergence theorem to the volume bounded
by the surface and the plane z = 0
3.11. (a) Prove
Z I
V
ide
∇ × bdV =
S
dS × b
(b) A rigid body of volume V and surface S rotates with

angular velocity ω. Using the result of part (a) show that
gu
I
1
ω=− u × dS
2V S
ics
where u(x) is the velocity of the point x on the surface S

3.12. Demonstrate the validity of the divergence theorem:
(a) by calculating the flux of the vector
ys
αr
F=
(r2 + a2 )3/2
Ph
√
through the spherical surface |r| = 3a (b) by showing that
3αa2
∇·F=
(r2 + a2 )5/2

and evaluating the volume integral of ∇ · F over the interior
T
√
of the sphere |r| = 3a. The substitution r = a tan θ will
prove useful in carrying out the integration.
NE
3.13. A vector field F is defined in cylindrical polar coordi-
nates ρ, θ, z by

x cos λz y cos λz
F = F0 i+ j + (sin λz)k
a a
≡
F0 ρ
a
ide
(cos λz)eρ + F0 (sin λz)k
where i, j and k are the unit vectors along the Cartesian
axes and eρ is the unit vector (x/ρ)i + (y/ρ)j (a) Calculate,
gu
as a surface integral, the flux of F through the closed sur-
face bounded by the cylinders ρ = a and ρ = 2a and the
planes z = ±aπ/2 (b) Evaluate the same integral using the
ics
divergence theorem.
3.14. The vector field F is given by
F = 3x2 yz + y 3 z + xe−x i + 3xy 2 z + x3 z + yex j

ys
+ x3 y + y 3 x + xy 2 z 2 k

Calculate (a) directly, and (b) by using Stokes’ theorem the

Ph
R
value of the line integral L F · dr, where L is the (three-
dimensional) closed contour OABCDEO defined by the
successive vertices (0, 0, 0), (1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 0), (0, 1
(0, 0, 0)

3.15. A vector force field F is defined in Cartesian coordi-
T
nates by
NE
3 2
y y xy/a2 xy x + y xy/a2
F = F0 + e +1 i+ + e j
3a3 a a3 a
z xy/a2 i
+ e k
a
Use Stokes’ theorem to calculate
I
ide
F · dr
L
where L is the perimeter of the rectangle ABCD given by

gu
A = (0, a, 0), B = (a, a, 0), C = (a, 3a, 0), D = (0, 3a, 0)
ics
ys
Ph

3.8.1 Ans Keys
T
3.1. (i) 11 13 , (ii) 10 23 , (iii) 8
NE
3.2. (i) c(h − 1), (ii) c(h − 1)
3.3. φF (r) = x2 z + y 2 z 2 − z

3.5. (a) c3 ln 2i+2j+(3c/2)k; (b) −3c4 /8 i−cj− c2 ln 2 k;
(c) c4 ln 2 − c
3.5. I = πa3 b/2 ide
3.13. 6πF0 a2 + 2a λπa

λ sin 2
e 5
3.14. 2 − 6

3.15. F0 a 2e3 − 4
gu
ics
ys
Ph

3.8.2 Solution
T
NE
Solution: 3.1. since each of the paths lies entirely in the
xy -plane, we have dr = dxi + dyj. We can therefore write
the line integral as
Z Z
I= a · dr = [(x + y)dx + (y − x)dy] (3.21)
C C
ide
We must now evaluate this line integral along each of the
prescribed paths. Case (i). Along the parabola y 2 = x we
have 2ydy = dx. Substituting for x in ( 11.3) and using just
gu
the limits on y, we obtain
Z (4,2)
I= [(x + y)dx + (y − x)dy]
(1,1)
ics
Z 2
1
y 2 + y 2y + y − y 2 dy = 11

=
1 3
ys
Note that we could just as easily have substituted for y and

obtained an integral in x which would have given the same
result.
Ph
Case (ii) The second path is given in terms of a pa-

rameter u We could eliminate u between the two equa-
tions to obtain a relationship between x and y directly and

proceed as above, but it is usually quicker to write the
T
line integral in terms of the parameter u Along the curve
x = 2u2 + u + 1, y = 1 + u2 we have dx = (4u + 1)du and
NE
dy = 2udu
Substituting for x and y in equation (3.21) and writing

the correct limits on u, we obtain
Z (4,2)
I=
Z
(1,1)
1
ide
[(x + y)dx + (y − x)dy]
2
3u2 + u + 2 (4u + 1) − u2 + u 2u du = 10

=
0 3
gu
Case (iii). For the third path the line integral must be
evaluated along the two line segments separately and the
results added together. First, along the line y = 1 we have
ics
dy = 0. Substituting this into equation (3.21) and using just

the limits on x for this segment, we obtain
Z (4,1) Z 4
1
ys
[(x + y)dx + (y − x)dy] = (x + 1)dx = 10

(1,1) 1 2
Next, along the line x = 4 we have dx = 0. Substituting
Ph
this into equation (3.21) and using just the limits on y for
this segment, we obtain
Z (4,2) Z 2
1
[(x + y)dx + (y − x)dy] = (y − 4)dy = −2
(4,1) 1 2
The value of the line integral along the whole path is just the
T
sum of the values of the line integrals along each segment,
and is given by I = 10 12 − 2 12 = 8
NE
Solution: 3.2. Expanding out the integrand, we have
Z (2c,c/2,h)
xy 2 + z dx + x2 y + 2 dy + xdz

I=
(c,c,h)
ide
which we must evaluate along each of the paths C1 and C2

(i) Along C1 we have dx = cdu, dy = − c/u2 du, dz = 0,
and on substituting in the integral and finding the limits on
u, we obtain
gu
Z 2
2
I= c h − 2 du = c(h − 1)
1 u
ics
(ii) Along C2 we have 2dy = −dx, dz = 0 and, on substitut-

ing in the integral and using the limits on x, we obtain
ys
Z 2c
1 3 9 2 9 2
I= x − cx + c x + h − 1 dx = c(h − 1)
c 2 4 4
Ph
Hence the line integral has the same value along paths C1
and C2 . Taking the curl of a, we have
∇ × a = (0 − 0)i + (1 − 1)j + (2xy − 2xy)k = 0

so a is a conservative vector field, and the line integral be-
T
tween two points must be independent of the path taken.
since a is conservative, we can write a = ∇φ.
NE
Now you integrate each of the function and take the
repeating term only once as shown in the example before in
the chapter and show that
Z
1
Z
ide
xy 2 + z dx = x2 y 2 + zx

2
1
x2 y + 2 dy = φ = x2 y 2 + 2y

2
gu
Z
xdz = xz
hence
ics
1
φ = x2 y 2 + zx + 2y + k
2
where k is a constant.
ys
We can be more explicit to find the function φ.
φ must satisfy
Ph
∂φ
= xy 2 + z
∂x
which implies that φ = 21 x2 y 2 +zx+f (y, z) for some function

f. Secondly, we require
T
∂φ ∂f
= x2 y + = x2 y + 2
NE
∂y ∂y
which implies f = 2y + g(z). Finally, since
∂φ ∂g
=x+ =x
∂z ∂z
we have g = constant = k.
So the function
ide
1
φ = x2 y 2 + zx + 2y + k
gu
2
Solution: 3.3.
ics
With F as given, we calculate the curl of F to see whether

or not it is the zero vector:
ys
∇ × F = (4yz − 4yz, 2x − 2x, 0 − 0) = 0
The fact that it is implies that F can be written as ∇φ for

Ph
some scalar φ The form of φ(x, y, z) is found by integrating,

in turn, the components of F until consistency is achieved,
i.e. until a φ is found that has partial derivatives equal to

the corresponding components of F :
T
∂φ
⇒ φ(x, y, z) = x2 z + g(y, z)
2xz = Fx =
∂x
NE
∂
2yz 2 = Fy = x2 z + g(y, z) ⇒ g(y, z) = y 2 z 2 + h(z)

∂y
∂ 2
x2 + 2y 2 z − 1 = Fz = x z + y 2 z 2 + h(z)

∂z
⇒ h(z) = −z + k
ide
Hence, to within an unimportant constant, the form of φ is
φ(x, y, z) = x2 z + y 2 z 2 − z
gu
Solution: 3.4.
To test whether Q is conservative we consider the com-

ics
ponents of ∇ × Q, which are

∂Qy
(∇ × Q)x = ∂Q 2 2
2 2

∂y
z
− ∂z = 3z + 3y − 3y + 3z =0
∂Qx ∂Qz

(∇ × Q)y = ∂z − ∂x = 3x2 + 3z 2 − 3z 2 + 3x2 = 0
ys
∂Q
(∇ × Q)z = ∂xy − ∂Q 2 2
2 2

∂y
x
= 3y + 3x − 3x + 3y =0
Hence, ∇ × Q = 0 which implies that Q is indeed a con-
Ph
servative field. Let its potential function be φ(x, y, z) =

f (x, y, z) + g(y, z) + h(z). Then, from the x -component of
Q
∂f
= 3x2 (y + z) + y 3 + z 3
∂x
f (x, y, z) = x3 (y + z) + x y 3 + z 3

⇒
T
From its y -component,
NE
∂g
x3 +3y 2 x+ = 3y 2 (z+x)+z 3 +x3 ⇒ g(y, z) = y 3 z+z 3 y
∂y
And finally, from its z-component,
∂h
x3 + 3z 2 x + y 3 + 3z 2 y + = 3z 2 (x + y) + x3 + y 3
∂z
Thus,
ide
⇒ h(z) = c
φ(x, y, z) = x3 (y + z) + y 3 + z 3 x + y 3 z + z 3 y + c

gu
= yz y 2 + z 2 + zx z 2 + x2 + xy x2 + y 2 + c

Because the field is conservative, J is independent of the

path taken and equal to φ(2, 1, 2) − φ(1, −1, 1) = (52 + c) −
ics
(−2 + c) = 54
Solution: 3.5. Although all three integrals are along

ys
the same path L, they are not necessarily of the same type.
The vector or scalar nature of the integral is determined
by that of the integrand when it is expressed in a form
Ph
containing the infinitesimal dt
(a) This is a vector integral and contains three separate

integrations. We express each of the integrands in terms of

t, according to the parameterisation of the integration path
T
L, before integrating:
NE
Z Z 2 3
c
Fdt = i + 2j + ctk dt
L 1 t
2
1
= c3 ln ti + 2tj + ct2 k
2 1
3
= c3 ln 2i + 2j + ck
ide 2
(b) This is a similar vector integral but here we must

also replace the infinitesimal dy by the infinitesimal −cdt/t2
gu
before integrating:
Z 2 3
−c
Z
c
Fdy = i + 2j + ctk dt
t t2
ics
L 1
4 2
c 2c
= 2
i + j − c2 ln tk
2t t 1
4
3c
ys
= − i − cj − c2 ln 2k
8
Ph
(c) This is a scalar integral and before integrating we

must take the scalar product of F with dr = dxi + dyj + dzk

to give a single integrand:
T
Z Z 2 3
c c
F · dr = i + 2j + ctk · ci − 2 j + 0k dt
NE
L 1 t t
Z 2 4
c 2c
= − 2 dt
1 t t
2
4 2c
= c ln t +
t 1
ide
= c4 ln 2 − c
Solution: 3.6.
gu
To obtain the integral of x−y over the bounded region we
must choose Q(x, y) such that ∂Q/∂x is x, and P (x, y) such
that ∂P/∂y is y. Clearly Q(x, y) = 21 x2 and P (x, y) = 21 y 2
ics
will do. Green’s theorem then reads

I ZZ
1 2 2

y dx + x dy = (x − y)dxdy
2 C
ys
We now evaluate the line integral on the LHS using x = cos θ

and y = sin θ on the semi-circular part of the contour and
Ph
ordinary integration with y = 0 on the straight-line por-

tion joining (−1, 0) to (1, 0). Clearly, the latter contributes
nothing, as both y = 0 and dy = 0

With this parameterisation, the integral is
T
Z π
I= sin2 θ(− sin θdθ) + cos2 θ(cos θdθ)
NE
0Z
π Z π
1 − cos2 θ sin θdθ + 1 − sin2 θ cos θdθ

=−
0 π 0
π
1 3 1 3
= cos θ − cos θ + sin θ − sin θ
3 0 3 0
2 4
= −2 + + 0 − 0 = −
3
ide3
The integral of x − y is therefore one-half of this, i.e. − 23
gu
As a double integral in Cartesian coordinates, we have
√
Z 1 Z 1−x2 p
Z 1
1
1 − x2 dx

dx (x − y)dy = x 1 − x2 −
2
ics
−1 0 −1
1 1
x3

1 2 3/2
1
= − 1−x − x−
3 −1 2 3 −1
1 2
=0−0−1+ =−
ys
3 3
Solution: 3.7.
Ph
As it stands this integral is complicated and, in fact, it

is the sum of two integrals. The form of the integrand, con-
taining powers of x and y that can be differentiated easily,

makes this problem one to which Green’s theorem in a plane
T
might usefully be applied. The theorem states that
NE
I ZZ
∂Q ∂P
(P dx + Qdy) = − dxdy
C R ∂x ∂y
where C is a closed contour enclosing the convex region R

In the notation used above,
P (x, y) = y 4x2 + y 2
It follows that
ide

and Q(x, y) = x 2x2 + 3y 2

∂P ∂Q
gu
= 4x2 + 3y 2 and = 6x2 + 3y 2
∂y ∂x
leading to
ics
∂Q ∂P
− = 2x2
∂x ∂y
This can now be substituted into Green’s theorem and the y
ys
-integration carried out immediately as the integrand does

Ph

not contain y. Hence,
T
ZZ
I= 2x2 dxdy
NE
R
a 2 1/2
Z
x
= 2x2 2b 1 − 2 dx
−a a
Z 0
= 4b a2 cos2 φ sin φ(−a sin φdφ), on setting x = a cos φ
π
= −ba3
Z 0
π
ide1
sin2 (2φ)dφ = πba3
2
In the final line we have used the standard result for the
integral of the square of a sinusoidal function.
gu
Solution: 3.8.
ics
As θ increases from 0 to 2π, the x - and y -components

of r vary sinusoidally and in quadrature about fixed values
a − c and b. Both variations have amplitude c and both
ys
return to their initial values when θ = 2π. However, the

z-component increases monotonically from 0 to a value of
2πc2 . The curve γ is therefore one loop of a circular spiral
Ph
of radius c and pitch 2πc2 . Its axis is parallel to the z -axis

and passes through the points (a − c, b, z)

The line element dr has components
T
−c sin θdθ, c cos θdθ, c2 dθ

NE
and so the line integral of f along γ is given by
Z Z 2π
y(−c sin θ) − x(c cos θ) + c2 dθ

f · dr =
=
γ
Z 2π

0 ide
−c(b + c sin θ) sin θ − c(a − c + c cos θ) cos θ + c2 dθ

Z0 2π
−bc sin θ − c2 sin2 θ − c(a − c) cos θ − c2 cos2 θ + c2 dθ
gu

=
0
= 0 − πc2 − 0 − πc2 + 2πc2 = 0
ics
However, this does not imply that f is a conservative

field since (i) γ is not a closed loop, and (ii) even if it were,
the line integral has to vanish for every loop, not just for a
ys
particular one. Further,
∇ × f = (0 − 0, 0 − 0, −1 − 1) = (0, 0, −2) 6= 0
Ph
showing explicitly that f is not conservative.
Solution: 3.9. In spherical polar coordinates, a =

f (r)r = rf (r)êr , and
T

êr rêθ r sin θêφ
1 ∂
NE

∂ ∂
∇×a= 2

∂r ∂θ ∂φ
r sin θ rf (r)

∂r 0 0
1 ∂(rf ) 1 ∂(rf )
= 0êr + êθ − êφ
r sin θ ∂φ r ∂θ
=0
ide
Hence a is irrotational. For it also to be solenoidal requires
that
1 ∂ 2 A
r rf (r) +0+0 ⇒ r3 f (r) = A ⇒ f (r) = 3

0 = ∇·a = 2
gu
r ∂r r
Solution: 3.10. (a) With x = a sin θ cos φ, y = a sin θ sin φ, z

a2 cos2 θ, we first check that this does parameterise the sur-
ics
face appropriately:
a2 − x2 − y 2 = a2 − a2 sin2 θ cos2 φ + sin2 φ

ys
= a2 1 − sin2 θ = a2 cos2 θ = z

We see that it does so for the relevant part of the surface,

Ph
i.e. that which lies above the plane z = 0 with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2.

It would not do so for the part with z < 0 for which x2 + y 2
has to be greater than a2 ; this is not catered for by the given
parameterisation.

Having carried out this check, we calculate expressions
T
for dS and hence r · dS in terms of θ and φ as follows:
NE
r = a sin θ cos φi + a sin θ sin φj + a2 cos2 θk
and the tangent vectors at the point (θ, φ) on the surface

are given by
∂r
= a cos θ cos φi + a cos θ sin φj − 2a2 cos θ sin θk
∂θ
∂r
∂φ
ide
= −a sin θ sin φi + a sin θ cos φj
The corresponding vector element of surface area is thus

∂r ∂r
dS = ∂θ × ∂φ
gu
= 2a3 cos θ sin2 θ cos φi+2a3 cos θ sin2 θ sin φj+a2 cos θ sin θk
ics
giving r · dS as
r · dS = 2a4 cos θ sin3 θ cos2 φ + 2a4 cos θ sin3 θ sin2 φ

+ a4 cos3 θ sin θ
ys
= 2a4 cos θ sin3 θ + a4 cos3 θ sin θ

Ph
This is to be integrated over the ranges 0 ≤ φ < 2π and

0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 as follows:
T
Z Z 2π Z π/2
r · dS = a4 2 sin3 θ cos θ + cos3 θ sin θ dθ

dφ
NE
0 0
4 π/2 4
π/2 !
sin θ − cos θ
= 2πa4 2 +
4 0 4 0
3πa4

2 1
= 2πa4 + =
4 4 2
ide
(b) The divergence of the vector field r is 3, a constant,
R
and so the surface integral r · dS taken over the complete
surface Σ (including the part that lies in the plane z = 0) is,
gu
by the divergence theorem, equal to three times the volume
V of the region bounded by Σ. Now,
Z a2 Z a2
ics

1 1
πρ2 dz = π a2 − z dz = π a4 − a4 = πa4

V =
0 0 2 2
R
and so Σ r·dS = 3πa4 /2 However, on the part of the surface
ys
lying in the plane z = 0, r = xi + yj + 0k whilst dS = −dSk.

Consequently the scalar product r · dS = 0; in words, for
any point on this face its position vector is orthogonal to
Ph
the normal to the face. The surface integral over this face
therefore contributes nothing to the total integral and the
value obtained is that due to the curved surface alone, in
agreement with the result in (a)

Solution: 3.11. (a) Let a = b × c, where c is an arbi-
T
trary but fixed vector. Then, from the divergence theorem
NE
Z I
∇·a= a · dS
Z V IS
∇ · (b × c) = (b × c) · dS
Z V IS
[c · (∇ × b) − b · (∇ × c)]dV = (dS × b) · c
V
We have used
ide S
∇ · (a × b) = b · (∇ × a) − a · (∇ × b)
gu
And the cyclic property of a triple scalar product
But ∇ × c = 0 and so
ics
Z I
c · (∇ × b)dV = c · dS × b
V S
and, since c is also arbitrary, it follows that

ys
Z I
(∇ × b)dV = dS × b
V S
Ph
(b) We have proved that

Z I
(∇ × b)dV = dS × b
V S

For the current application we set b equal to u(x) = ω × x,
T
giving
NE
I Z
dS × u = ∇ × (ω × x)dV
S ZV
= [ω(∇ · x) − x(∇ · ω) + (x · ∇)ω − (ω · ∇)x]dV

ZV
= [3ω − 0 − 0 − (ωx i + ωy j + ωz k)] dV
V
= 3ωV − ωV
ide
To obtain the second line we used the standard identity for
∇ × (a × b)
gu
∇ × (a × b) = a(∇ · b) − b(∇ · a) + (b · ∇)a − (a · ∇)b
Thus
ics
I
1
ω=− u × dS
2V S
Solution: 3.12. (a) The field is radial with

ys
αr αr
F= = êr
(r2 + a2 )3/2 (r2 + a2 )3/2
Ph
The total flux is therefore given by

2
√ √
4πr αr 4πa3 α3 3 3 3πα
Φ= 3/2
= 3
=
8a 2

2 2
(r + a ) r=a 3 √

(b) From the divergrence theorem, the total flux over
T
the surface of the sphere is equal to the volume integral of
its divergence within the sphere. The divergence is given by
NE
!
2
1 ∂ 2 1 ∂ r αr
∇·F= 2 r Fr = 2
r ∂r r ∂r (r2 + a2 )3/2
" #
1 3αr2 3αr4
= 2 −
r (r2 + a2 )3/2 (r2 + a2 )5/2
=
ide
3αa2
(r2 + a2 )5/2
and on integrating over the sphere, we have
gu
Z √3a
3αa2
Z
∇ · FdV = 5/2
4πr2 dr,
V 0 (r2 + a2 )
π
ics
set r = a tan θ, 0 ≤ θ ≤
3
Z π/3 2
2 a tan θa sec2 θ
2
= 12παa dθ
0 a5 sec5 θ
ys
Z π/3
= 12πα sin2 θ cos θdθ
0
3 π/3 √ √
Ph
sin θ 3 3 3πα
= 12πα = 12πα = ,
3 0 8 2
as in (a).
The equality of the results in parts (a) and (b) is in accor-

dance with the divergence theorem.
T
Solution: 3.13. (a) The flux through the cylindrical
NE
surfaces
Z aπ/2 Z 2π ρ=2a
F0
= cos λzdz ρρdφ
−aπ/2 a 0 ρ=a
Z aπ/2
2πF0
(2a)2 − (a)2 cos λzdz

=
−aπ/2
= 6πF0 a
a
Z aπ/2
ide
cos λzdz
−aπ/2

12πF0 a λπa
gu
= sin
λ 2
The flux through the planes

ics

λπa λπa
= π 4a2 − a2 F0 sin

− F0 sin −
2 2

λπa
= 6πa2 F0 sin
ys
Adding these together gives

Ph

2 2a λπa
Total flux = 6πF0 a + sin
λ 2
(b) Using the Cartesian form

T
F0
∇·F= (cos λz + cos λz + aλ cos λz)
a
NE
which is independent of ρ. Thus the ρ and φ integrations are
trivial and the volume integral of the divergence reduces to

πF0 4a2 − a2 (2 + aλ)
Z Z aπ/2
∇ · FdV = cos λzdz
V −aπ/2 a
aπ/2
sin λz

2a
ide
= 3πF0 a(2 + aλ)

λ
−aπ/2
λπa

= 6πF0 + a2 sin , as in part (a)
λ 2
gu
Solution: 3.14. (a) This calculation is a piece-wise
evaluation of the line integral, made up of a series of scalar
products of the length of a straight piece of the contour
ics
and the component of F parallel to it (integrated if that

component varies along the particular straight section). On
OA, y = z = 0 and Fx = xe−x
ys
Z 1 Z 1
−x −x 1
e−x dx = 1 − 2e−1

I1 = xe dx = −xe 0 +
0 0
Ph
On AB, x = 1 and y = 0 and Fz = 0; the integral I2 is zero.

On BC, x = 1 and z = 1 and Fy = 3y 2 + 1 + ey
Z 1
1
3y 2 + 1 + ey dy = 1 + 1 + e

I3 =
0 2
On CD, x = 1 and y = 1 and Fz = 1 + 1 + z 2
T
Z 0
1
1 + 1 + z 2 dz = −1 − 1 −

I4 =
NE
1 3
On DE, y = 1 and z = 0 and Fx = xe−x

Z 0
I5 = xe−x dx = −1 + 2e−1
1
ide
On EO, x = z = 0 and Fy = ye0
Z 0
1
I6 = ye0 dy = −
1 2
gu
Adding up these six contributions shows that the complete
e 5
line integral has the value −
2 6
ics
(b) As a simple sketch shows, the given contour is three-

dimensional. However, it is equivalent to two plane square
contours, one OADEO (denoted by S1 ) lying in the plane
ys
z = 0 and the other ABCDA (S2 ) lying in the plane x = 1;

the latter is traversed in the negative sense. The common
Ph
segment AD does not form part of the original contour but,

as it is traversed in opposite senses in the two constituent
contours, it (correctly) contributes nothing to the line inte-
gral.

To use Stokes’ theorem we first need to calculate
T
NE
(∇ × F)x = x3 + 3y 2 x + 2yxz 2 − 3xy 2 − x3 = 2yxz 2
(∇ × F)y = 3x2 y + y 3 − 3x2 y − y 3 − y 2 z 2 = −y 2 z 2
(∇ × F)z = 3y 2 z + 3x2 z + yex − 3x2 z − 3y 2 z = yex
Now, S1 has its normal in the positive z-direction and so

ide
only the z-component of ∇ × F is needed in the first surface
integral of Stokes’ theorem. Likewise only the x -component
of ∇ × F is needed in the second integral, but its value must
gu
be subtracted because of the sense in which its contour is
traversed:
Z
(∇ × F) · dr
ics
OABCDEO
Z Z
= (∇ × F)z dxdy − (∇ × F)x dydz
S S
Z 11 Z 1 Z 1 Z2 1
ys
= yex dxdy − 2y × 1 × z 2 dydz

0 0 0 0
1 11 e 5
= (e − 1) − 2 = −
2 23 2 6
Ph
As they must, the two methods give the same value.
Solution: 3.15. The rectangle ABCD lies in the plane

z = 0 and so to apply Stokes’ theorem we need only the z

-component of ∇ × F. this is given by
T
2
y 1 xy/a2 (x + y)y xy/a2
(∇ × F)z =F0 + e + e
NE
a3 a a3
2
y 1 xy/a2 xy xy/a2
− F0 + e + 3e
a3 a a
2
F0 y 2
= 3 exy/a
a
ide
So, by Stokes’ theorem, the line integral has the same value
as this component of curl F integrated over the area of the
rectangle, i.e.
gu
Z a Z 3a
F0 y 2 xy/a2
I
F · dr = dx dy 3 e
L 0 a a
since x appears in the integrand only in the form eλx , the x

ics
-integration is straightforward and is therefore carried out

first to give

F0 3a a2 ey/a − 1 y 2
ys
I Z
F · dr = 3 dy
L a a y
After simplification, this can be integrated by parts to yield
Ph

the final value for the contour integral:
T
F0 3a y/a
I Z
F · dr = ye − y dy
NE
L a a
( Z 3a 2 3a )
F0 h y/a i3a y
= aye − aey/a dy −
a a a a a

F0 9 1
= 3a2 e3 − a2 e − a2 e3 + a2 e − a2 + a2
a 2 2
= F0 a 2e3 − 4 ide

4 More Exercises with Ans Key

gu
Exercise 4.1. Let φ = ex cosy. Let φ represent either tem-
perature or electrostatic potential. Find
ics
(a) The direction in which the temperature is increasing

most rapidly at (1, −π/4) and the magnitude of the rate of
increase. (b) The rate of change of temperature with dis-
√
ys
tance at (0, π/3) in the direction î + ĵ 3. (c) The direction

and magnitude of the electric field at (0, π)
Exercise 4.2. Evaluate the Laplacian of the function
Ph
zx2
φ(x, y, z) = 2
x + y2 + z2
(a) Directly in Cartesian coordinates

(b) Transforming to spherical polar coordinates
T
Exercise 4.3. Show that the force field
NE
F = ysin2xî + sin2 xĵ
is conservative. Find a scaler potential such as F = −∇φ ~

H
Exercise 4.4. Evaluate (2xdy − 3ydx) around the square
with vertices (0,2), (2,0) , (-2,0), (0, - 2). (Hint: use Green’s
theorem in a plane) ide
Exercise 4.5. For a simple closed curve C in the plane
show (by Green’s theorem in a plane) that the area enclosed
gu
is Z
1
A= (xdy − ydx)
2 C
With the help of that formula find the area inside the curve
ics
x2/3 + y 2/3 = 4
Exercise 4.6. For the vector F~ = x2 î + y 2 ĵ + z 2 k̂ Find
→
−
the surface integral F~ .ds over the whole surface of the cube
ys
of side of unit length with vertices (0,0,0), (0,0,1), (0,1,0),

(1,0,0). Convince your result is same for both direct surface
Ph
integration and applying Divergence theorem.

→
−
Exercise 4.7. Evaluate F~ .ds for F~ = x cos2 y î + xz ĵ +
zsin2 y k̂ over the surface of a sphere with center at (0, 0)
and radius 3.

→
−
Exercise 4.8. Evaluate F~ .ds for F~ = xî + y ĵ over the part
T
of the surface z = 4 − x2 − y 2 that is above the (x,y) plane.
(Apply divergence theorem to the volume bounded by the
NE
surface and the piece that it cuts out of the (x,y) plane) .
Exercise 4.9. Find (∇ × V).ds for vector V~ = 4y î+xĵ +
R
2z k̂ over the hemisphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , z ≥ 0.

(This problem can be solved by 3 line calculation in just 30
ide
seconds. If you are doing long calculation then you don’t
know the trick)
Exercise 4.10. Find a vector field A such that F = ∇ × A
for the given vector
gu
F = (y + z)î + (x − z)ĵ + (x2 + y 2 )k̂
ics
Exercise 4.11. Evaluate

Z
1
√ (ydx + zdy + xdz)
2 C
ys
where C is the curve of intersection of the surfaces whose

equations are x + y = 2 and x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 2(x + y)
Ph
Exercise 4.12. Find the line element vector d~s, square of

line element (ds2 ), the scale factors, volume element, and
the orthogonal unit vectors for the parabolic cylinder coor-

dinates
T
1
x = (u2 − v 2 )
NE
2
y = uv
z=z
Exercise 4.13. Suppose that the temperature T at the point

(x, y, z) is given by the equation T = x2 − y 2 + xyz + 273. In
ide
which direction is the temperature increasing most rapidly
at (−1, 2, 3), and at what rate?
Exercise 4.14. Find the value of
gu
xdy − ydx
Z
I=
x2 + y 2
ics
along each of the two paths indicated in Figure from (−1, 0)

to (1, 0)
ys
Ph

Exercise 4.15. Show that
T
F = 2xy − z 3 î + x2 ĵ − 3xz 2 + 1 k̂

NE
→
−
is conservative, and find a scalar potential φ such that F =
→
−
− ∇φ.
RRR →− → −
Exercise 4.16. Evaluate ∇ · V dτ over the volume x2 +
→
−
x2 + y 2 (~ix + ~jy).
p
y 2 ≤ 4, 0 ≤ z ≤ 5, V =
ide
Exercise 4.17. Given the vector A = x2 − y 2 i + 2xyj
RR
[(a)] Find ∇ × A. [(b)] Evaluate (∇ × A) · dσ over
gu
a rectangle in the (x, y) plane bounded by the lines x =
H
0, x = a, y = 0, y = b . [(c)] Evaluate A · dr around the
boundary of the rectangle and thus verify Stoke’s theorem
ics
for this case.

Exercise 4.18. Find vector fields A such that V = ∇ × A
for
ys
V = i (zezy + x sin zx) + jx cos xz − kz sin zx

Ph
Exercise 4.19. Find whether the following field is conser-

vative
y x
F= p i+ p j
1 − x2 y 2 1 − x2 y 2
If yes then find a scalar potential φ such that F = −∇φ.

H
Exercise 4.20. Evaluate (2ydx−3xdy) around the square
T
bounded by x = 3, x = 5, y = 1 and y = 3.
NE
4.1 Ans keys of More Exercises
4.1. (a)i + j, |∇φ| = e 4.12.
(b) − 1/2
îu + ĵv
(c)i, |E| = 1
4.2. 2zr−4 (r2 − 5x2 )

ide êu = √
u2 + v 2
−îv + ĵu
êv = √
u2 + v 2
4.3. −y sin2 x
gu
êx = k̂
4.4. 40 hu = hv = (u2 + v 2 )1/2 , hz = 1
4.5. 24π d~s = (u2 + v 2 )1/2
ics
4.6. 3 (êu du + êv dv + êz dz)

dV = (u2 + v 2 )dudvdz
4.7. 36π
√
ys
4.8. 16π 4.13. 4 î − 7ĵ − 2 k̂, 69

π
4.9. −3πa 2 4.14. −
2
Ph
2 3
4.10. î(xz − y 3 /3)+ ĵ(−yz + 4.15. φ = −x y + xz + z
x3 /3)+ k̂(x + y)z + ∇u~ 4.16. 80π
4.11. −2π 4.17. 2ab2

4.18. A = i sin zx + j cos zx 4.19. − sin−1 xy
T
+kezy + ∇u 4.20. 20
NE
ide
gu
ics
ys
Ph

02 Vectors Notes

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T

He has been teaching CSIR NET aspirants since 2012

1.2 Scalar product or dot product . . . . . . . . 12

Scalar triple product . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6 Equations of lines, planes and spheres . . . . 21

1.6.4 Distance from a point to a line . . . 26

1.6.5 Distance from a point to a plane . . 27

1.6.6 Distance from a line to a line . . . . 29

jahir@physicsguide.in 2 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

1.6.7 Distance from a line to a plane . . . 31

1.8.1 Ans keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.2 Velocity and acceleration in 2D polar coordi-

2.3 Differentiation of composite . . . . . . . . . 47

2.3.1 Derivative of constant magnitude vector 48

2.4 Space curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.4.1 Torsion and Normal . . . . . . . . . 52

2.5 Vector Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

jahir@physicsguide.in 3 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

2.5.4 Vector operator formula . . . . . . . 72

2.6 Cylindrical polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . 77

2.8 Orthogonal curvilinear coordinate . . . . . . 86

2.9.1 Ans keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

jahir@physicsguide.in 4 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

3 Line Surface and Volume Integrals 116

3.3 Conservative field and potential . . . . . . . 128

3.4 Surface integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

3.6 Divergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

3.6.2 Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . 147

3.6.3 Proof of Divergence theorem . . . . . 149

3.6.4 Green’s theorems . . . . . . . . . . . 153

3.6.5 Other Related Integral theorems . . . 154

3.7 Stokes’ theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

3.7.1 Proof of Stokes’ theorem . . . . . . . 156

jahir@physicsguide.in 5 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

3.7.2 Related integral theorem . . . . . . . 162

3.8.2 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

4 More Exercises with Ans Key

jahir@physicsguide.in 6 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

Pictorial representation of addition and subtraction of vec-

Figure 1.1: Addition of vectors

jahir@physicsguide.in 7 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

Multiplication with scalars

Given any three different vectors e1 , e2 and e3 , which do

not all lie in a plane, it is possible, in a three-dimensional

jahir@physicsguide.in 8 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

which may be positive, negative or zero, are called the com-

If we wish to label points in space using a Cartesian co-

ordinate system (x, y, z) we may introduce the unit vectors

jahir@physicsguide.in 9 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

of three vectors, each parallel to a different coordinate axis:

Figure 1.3: A Cartesian basis set. The vector a is the sum

We can consider the addition and subtraction of vectors

jahir@physicsguide.in 10 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

in terms of their components. The sum of two vectors a and

and their difference by subtracting them,

The magnitude of the vector a is denoted by |a| or a.

A vector whose magnitude equals unity is called a unit

jahir@physicsguide.in 11 physicsguide CSIR NET, GATE

1.2 Scalar product or dot product

a · b ≡ |a||b| cos θ, 0≤θ≤π

where θ is the angle between the two vectors, placed ’tail to

a·b=0 =⇒ a is perpendicular to b (1.4)

It should be noted in particular that the Cartesian basis