Security hacker

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Not to be confused with Hacker or Hacker culture.

This article is part of a series on

Computer hacking

History

 Phreaking
 Cryptovirology
 Hacking of consumer electronics
 List of hackers

Hacker culture & ethic
 Hacker Manifesto
 Black hat
 Grey hat
 White hat
 Hackerspace
 Hackathon
 Hacktivism
 Maker culture

Conferences
 Black Hat Briefings
 Chaos Communication Congress
 DEF CON
 Hackers on Planet Earth
 Security_BSides
 ShmooCon
 Summercon

Computer crime
 Crimeware
  List of computer criminals
 Script kiddie

Hacking tools
 Forensics OS
 Vulnerability
 Exploit
 Payload
 Social engineering
 Kali

Practice sites
 HackThisSite
 Zone-H

Malware
 Rootkit
 Backdoor
 Trojan horse
 Virus
 Worm
 Spyware
 Ransomware
 Logic bomb
 Botnet
 Keystroke logging
 HIDS
 Web shell
 RCE

Computer security
 Application security
 Network security
 Cloud computing security

Groups
 Anonymous
 Chaos Computer Club
 Homebrew Computer Club (defunct)
 Legion of Doom (defunct)
  Masters of Deception (defunct)
 LulzSec (defunct)
 Red and Blue Teams

Publications
 2600: The Hacker Quarterly
 Hacker News
 Nuts and Volts
 Phrack

 v
 t
 e

A security hacker is someone who explores methods for breaching defenses

and exploiting weaknesses in a computer system or network.[1] Hackers may be
motivated by a multitude of reasons, such as profit, protest, information gathering,
[2]
 challenge, recreation,[3] or evaluation of a system weaknesses to assist in formulating
defenses against potential hackers. The subculture that has evolved around hackers is
often referred to as the "computer underground." [4]
Longstanding controversy surrounds the meaning of the term "hacker". In this
controversy, computer programmers reclaim the term hacker, arguing that it refers
simply to someone with an advanced understanding of computers and computer
networks[5] and that cracker is the more appropriate term for those who break into
computers, whether computer criminals (black hats) or computer security experts (white
hats).[6][7] A 2014 article noted that "... the black-hat meaning still prevails among the
general public".[8]

Contents

 1History
 2Classifications
o 2.1Cracker
o 2.2White hat
o 2.3Black hat
o 2.4Grey hat
o 2.5Elite hacker
o 2.6Script kiddie
o 2.7Neophyte
o 2.8Blue hat
o 2.9Hacktivist
o 2.10Nation state
o 2.11Organized criminal gangs
 3Attacks
 o 3.1Security exploits
o 3.2Techniques
 4Notable intruders and criminal hackers
 5Notable security hackers
 6Customs
o 6.1Hacker groups and conventions
 7Consequences for malicious hacking
o 7.1India
o 7.2Netherlands
o 7.3United States
 8Hacking and the media
o 8.1Hacker magazines
o 8.2Hackers in fiction
 8.2.1Books
 8.2.2Films
o 8.3Non-fiction books
 9See also
 10References
 11Further reading
 12External links

History
Further information: Timeline of computer security hacker history

Bruce Sterling, author of The Hacker Crackdown

In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of

computer and network systems. While including those who endeavor to strengthen such
mechanisms, it is more often used by the mass media and popular culture to refer to
those who seek access despite these security measures. That is, the media portrays
the 'hacker' as a villain. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting
security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the name given to
ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming
a necessary part of the information security field. [9] They operate under a code, which
acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering
and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting
activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong
connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.
The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker
scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of phreaking during
the 1960s and the microcomputer BBS scene of the 1980s. It is implicated with 2600:
The Hacker Quarterly and the alt.2600 newsgroup.
In 1980, an article in the August issue of Psychology Today (with commentary by Philip
Zimbardo) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers". It was an excerpt
from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In
the 1982 film Tron, Kevin Flynn (Jeff Bridges) describes his intentions to break into
ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here". CLU is
the software he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer
security had already been in use as computer jargon, [10] but there was no public
awareness about such activities.[11] However, the release of the film WarGames that
year, featuring a computer intrusion into NORAD, raised the public belief that computer
security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This
concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, known as The 414s, broke into computer systems throughout the United
States and Canada, including those of Los Alamos National Laboratory, Sloan-Kettering
Cancer Center and Security Pacific Bank.[12] The case quickly grew media attention,[12]
[13]
 and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a
cover story in Newsweek entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph
on the cover.[14] The Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by
the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.
Pressured by media coverage, congressman Dan Glickman called for an investigation
and began work on new laws against computer hacking. [15][16] Neal Patrick testified before
the U.S. House of Representatives on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of
computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the
House that year.[16] As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, grey
hat and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on
the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in The Mentor's "The
Hacker Manifesto", published 1986 in Phrack.
Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title
"Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by Clifford Stoll in the May 1988 issue of
the Communications of the ACM. Later that year, the release by Robert Tappan Morris,
Jr. of the so-called Morris worm provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The
popularity of Stoll's book The Cuckoo's Egg, published one year later, further
entrenched the term in the public's consciousness.

Classifications
Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use
different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also
used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree.
Cracker
Eric S. Raymond, author of The New Hacker's Dictionary, advocates that members of
the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves
as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider
hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected. Instead of a hacker/cracker
dichotomy, they emphasize a spectrum of different categories, such as white hat, grey
hat, black hat and script kiddie. In contrast to Raymond, they usually reserve the
term cracker for more malicious activity.
According to Ralph D. Clifford, a cracker or cracking is to "gain unauthorized access to
a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained
in that system".[17] These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their
activities.[18]
White hat
Main article: White hat (computer security)
A white hat hacker breaks security for non-malicious reasons, either to test their own
security system, perform penetration tests or vulnerability assessments for a client, or
while working for a security company which makes security software. The term is
generally synonymous with ethical hacker, and the EC-Council,[19] among others, have
developed certifications, courseware, classes, and online training covering the diverse
arena of ethical hacking.[18]
Black hat
Main article: Black hat (computer security)
A black hat hacker is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond
maliciousness or for personal gain" (Moore, 2005). [20] The term was coined by Richard
Stallman, to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of
playfulness and exploration in hacker culture, or the ethos of the white hat hacker who
performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate
employment.[21] Black hat hackers form the stereotypical, illegal hacking groups often
portrayed in popular culture, and are "the epitome of all that the public fears in a
computer criminal".[22]
Grey hat
Main article: Grey hat
A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker. A grey hat hacker
may surf the Internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying
the administrator that their system has a security defect, for example. They may then
offer to correct the defect for a fee.[22] Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect of a
system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though
grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain,
unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical.
Elite hacker
A social status among hackers, elite is used to describe the most skilled. Newly
discovered exploits circulate among these hackers. Elite groups such as Masters of
Deception conferred a kind of credibility on their members. [23]
Script kiddie
Main article: Script kiddie
A script kiddie (also known as a skid or skiddie) is an unskilled hacker who breaks into
computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black
hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking)
kiddie (i.e. kid, child an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature),
[24]
 usually with little understanding of the underlying concept.
Neophyte
A neophyte ("newbie", or "noob") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and
has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking. [22]
Blue hat
Main article: BlueHat
A blue hat hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to
bug-test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be
closed. Microsoft also uses the term BlueHat to represent a series of security briefing
events.[25][26][27]
Hacktivist
A hacktivist is a hacker who utilizes technology to publicize a social, ideological,
religious or political message.
Hacktivism can be divided into two main groups:

 Cyberterrorism – Activities involving website

defacement or denial-of-service attacks; and,
 Freedom of information – Making information that is
not public, or is public in non-machine-readable
formats, accessible to the public.
Nation state
Intelligence agencies and cyberwarfare operatives of nation states.[28]
Organized criminal gangs
Groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit. [28] Modern-
day computer hackers have been compared to the privateers of by-gone days.[29] These
criminals hold computer systems hostage, demanding large payments from victims to
restore access to their own computer systems and data.[30] Furthermore, recent
ransomware attacks on industries, including energy, food, and transportation, have
been blamed on criminal organizations based in or near a state actor – possibly with the
country’s knowledge and approval.[31] Cyber theft and ransomware attacks are now the
fastest-growing crimes in the United States. [32] Bitcoin and
other cryptocurrencies facilitate the extortion of huge ransoms from large companies,
hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught. [33]
Attacks
Main article: Computer security
Hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks: mass attacks and targeted
attacks.[34] They are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and
how they act on the attacks.[34]

Part of a series on

Information security

Related security categories

 Automotive security
 Cybercrime 
o Cybersex trafficking
o Computer fraud
 Cybergeddon
 Cyberterrorism
 Cyberwarfare
 Electronic warfare
 Information warfare
 Internet security
 Mobile security
 Network security
 Copy protection
 Digital rights management

Threats
 Adware
 Advanced persistent threat
 Arbitrary code execution
 Backdoors
 Hardware backdoors
  Code injection
 Crimeware
 Cross-site scripting
 Cryptojacking malware
 Botnets
 Data breach
 Drive-by download
 browser helper objects
 Computer crime
 Viruses
 Data scraping
 Denial of service
 Eavesdropping
 Email fraud
 Email spoofing
 Exploits
 Keyloggers
 Logic bombs
 Time bombs
 Fork bombs
 Zip bombs
 Fraudulent dialers
 Malware
 Payload
 Phishing
 Polymorphic engine
 Privilege escalation
 Ransomware
 Rootkits
 Bootkits
 Scareware
 Shellcode
 Spamming
 Social engineering (security)
 Screen scraping
 Spyware
 Software bugs
 Trojan horses
  Hardware Trojans
 Remote access trojans
 Vulnerability
 Web shells
 Wiper
 Worms
 SQL injection
 Rogue security software
 Zombie

Defenses
 Application security 
o Secure coding
o Secure by default
o Secure by design 
 Misuse case
 Computer access control 
o Authentication 
 Multi-factor authentication
o Authorization
 Computer security software 
o Antivirus software
o Security-focused operating system
 Data-centric security
 Code obfuscation
 Encryption
 Firewall
 Intrusion detection system 
o Host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS)
o Anomaly detection
 Security information and event management
 Mobile secure gateway
 Runtime application self-protection

 v
 t
 e

A typical approach in an attack on Internet-connected system is:

 1. Network enumeration: Discovering information
about the intended target.
2. Vulnerability analysis: Identifying potential ways
of attack.
3. Exploitation: Attempting to compromise the
system by employing the vulnerabilities found
through the vulnerability analysis.[35]
In order to do so, there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by
computer criminals and security experts.
Security exploits
Main article: Exploit (computer security)
A security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness.
[36]
 Common examples of security exploits are SQL injection, cross-site
scripting and cross-site request forgery which abuse security holes that may result from
substandard programming practice. Other exploits would be able to be used
through File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP), PHP, SSH, Telnet and some Web pages. These are very common in
Web site and Web domain hacking.
Techniques
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Vulnerability scanner
A vulnerability scanner is a tool used to quickly check
computers on a network for known weaknesses.
Hackers also commonly use port scanners. These
check to see which ports on a specified computer are
"open" or available to access the computer, and
sometimes will detect what program or service is
listening on that port, and its version number.
(Firewalls defend computers from intruders by limiting
access to ports and machines, but they can still be
circumvented.)
Finding vulnerabilities
Hackers may also attempt to find vulnerabilities
manually. A common approach is to search for possible
vulnerabilities in the code of the computer system then
test them, sometimes reverse engineering the software
if the code is not provided. Experienced hackers can
easily find patterns in code to find common
vulnerabilities.
Brute-force attack
Password guessing. This method is very fast when used
to check all short passwords, but for longer passwords
other methods such as the dictionary attack are used,
because of the time a brute-force search takes. [37]
Password cracking
Password cracking is the process of recovering
passwords from data that has been stored in or
transmitted by a computer system. Common
approaches include repeatedly trying guesses for the
password, trying the most common passwords by hand,
and repeatedly trying passwords from a "dictionary", or
a text file with many passwords.[38]
Packet analyzer
A packet analyzer ("packet sniffer") is an application that
captures data packets, which can be used to capture
passwords and other data in transit over the network.
Spoofing attack (phishing)
A spoofing attack involves one program, system or
website that successfully masquerades as another by
falsifying data and is thereby treated as a trusted
system by a user or another program – usually to fool
programs, systems or users into revealing confidential
information, such as user names and passwords.
Rootkit
A rootkit is a program that uses low-level, hard-to-detect
methods to subvert control of an operating system from
its legitimate operators. Rootkits usually obscure their
installation and attempt to prevent their removal through
a subversion of standard system security. They may
include replacements for system binaries, making it
virtually impossible for them to be detected by
checking process tables.
Social engineering
In the second stage of the targeting process, hackers
often use social engineering tactics to get enough
information to access the network. They may contact
the system administrator and pose as a user who
cannot get access to his or her system. This technique
is portrayed in the 1995 film Hackers, when protagonist
Dade "Zero Cool" Murphy calls a somewhat clueless
employee in charge of security at a television network.
Posing as an accountant working for the same
company, Dade tricks the employee into giving him the
phone number of a modem so he can gain access to the
company's computer system.
Hackers who use this technique must have cool
personalities, and be familiar with their target's security
practices, in order to trick the system administrator into
giving them information. In some cases, a help-desk
employee with limited security experience will answer
the phone and be relatively easy to trick. Another
approach is for the hacker to pose as an angry
supervisor, and when his/her authority is questioned,
threaten to fire the help-desk worker. Social engineering
is very effective, because users are the most vulnerable
part of an organization. No security devices or programs
can keep an organization safe if an employee reveals a
password to an unauthorized person.
Social engineering can be broken down into four sub-
groups:

 Intimidation As in the "angry supervisor"

technique above, the hacker convinces the
person who answers the phone that their job
is in danger unless they help them. At this
point, many people accept that the hacker is
a supervisor and give them the information
they seek.
 Helpfulness The opposite of intimidation,
helpfulness exploits many people's natural
instinct to help others solve problems. Rather
than acting angry, the hacker acts distressed
and concerned. The help desk is the most
vulnerable to this type of social engineering,
as (a.) its general purpose is to help people;
and (b.) it usually has the authority to change
or reset passwords, which is exactly what the
hacker wants.[39]
 Name-dropping The hacker uses names of
authorized users to convince the person who
answers the phone that the hacker is a
legitimate user him or herself. Some of these
names, such as those of webpage owners or
company officers, can easily be obtained
online. Hackers have also been known to
obtain names by examining discarded
documents ("dumpster diving").
 Technical Using technology is also a way to
get information. A hacker can send a fax or
email to a legitimate user, seeking a response
that contains vital information. The hacker
 may claim that he or she is involved in law
enforcement and needs certain data for an
investigation, or for record-keeping purposes.
Trojan horses
A Trojan horse is a program that seems to be doing one
thing but is actually doing another. It can be used to set
up a back door in a computer system, enabling the
intruder to gain access later. (The name refers to
the horse from the Trojan War, with the conceptually
similar function of deceiving defenders into bringing an
intruder into a protected area.)
Computer virus
A virus is a self-replicating program that spreads by
inserting copies of itself into other executable code or
documents. By doing this, it behaves similarly to
a biological virus, which spreads by inserting itself into
living cells. While some viruses are harmless or mere
hoaxes, most are considered malicious.
Computer worm
Like a virus, a worm is also a self-replicating program. It
differs from a virus in that (a.) it propagates through
computer networks without user intervention; and (b.)
does not need to attach itself to an existing program.
Nonetheless, many people use the terms "virus" and
"worm" interchangeably to describe any self-
propagating program.
Keystroke
logging
A keylogger is a tool designed to record ("log") every
keystroke on an affected machine for later retrieval,
usually to allow the user of this tool to gain access to
confidential information typed on the affected machine.
Some keyloggers use virus-, trojan-, and rootkit-like
methods to conceal themselves. However, some of
them are used for legitimate purposes, even to enhance
computer security. For example, a business may
maintain a keylogger on a computer used at a point of
sale to detect evidence of employee fraud.
Attack
patterns
Attack patterns are defined as series of repeatable
steps that can be applied to simulate an attack against
the security of a system. They can be used for testing
purposes or locating potential vulnerabilities. They also
provide, either physically or in reference, a common
solution pattern for preventing a given attack.
 Tools
and
Proced
ures
A thorough examination of hacker tools and procedures
may be found in Cengage Learning's E|CSA certification
workbook.[40]

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fo
u
n
d
er
of
th
e 
H
a
c
k
er
s
o
n
Pl
a
n
et
E
ar
th 
(
H
O
P
E
)
c
o
nf
er
e
n
c
e
s.
H
e
h
a
s
b
e
e
n
p
ar
 t
of
th
e
h
a
c
k
er
c
o
m
m
u
ni
ty
si
n
c
e
th
e
la
te
1
9
7
0
s.
 S
u
s
a
n
H
e
a
dl
e
y 
(a
ls
o
k
n
o
w
n
a
s
S
u
s
a
n
T
h
u
n
d
er
),
w
a
s
a
n
A
m
er
ic
a
n
h
a
c
k
er
a
ct
iv
e
d
ur
in
g
th
e
la
te
1
9
7
0
s
a
n
d
e
ar
ly
1
9
8
0
s
w
id
el
y
re
s
p
e
ct
e
d
fo
r
h
er
e
x
p
er
ti
s
e
in 
s
o
ci
al
e
n
gi
n
e
er
in
g, 
pr
et
e
xt
in
g,
a
n
d 
p
s
y
c
h
ol
o
gi
c
al
s
u
b
v
er
si
o
n.
[41]
 
S
h
e
b
e
c
a
m
e
h
e
a
vi
ly
in
v
ol
v
e
d
in 
p
hr
e
a
ki
n
g 
w
it
h 
K
e
vi
n
M
it
ni
c
k 
a
n
d
L
e
w
is
d
e
P
a
y
n
e
in 
L
o
s
A
n
g
el
e
s,
b
ut
la
te
r
fr
a
m
e
d
th
e
m
fo
r
er
a
si
n
g
th
e
s
y
st
e
m
fil
e
s
at
U
S
L
e
a
si
n
g
af
te
r
a
 fa
lli
n
g
o
ut
,
le
a
di
n
g
to
M
it
ni
c
k'
s
fir
st
c
o
n
vi
ct
io
n.
[42]

 G
ar
y
M
c
Ki
n
n
o
n 
is
a
S
c
ot
ti
s
h
h
a
c
k
er
w
h
o
w
a
s
fa
ci
n
g 
e
xt
ra
di
ti
o
n 
to
th
e 
U
ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s 
to
fa
c
e
cr
i
m
in
al
c
h
ar
g
e
s.
M
a
n
y
p
e
o
pl
e
in
th
e
U
K
c
al
le
d
o
n
th
e
a
ut
h
or
iti
e
s
to
b
e
le
ni
e
nt
w
it
h
M
c
Ki
n
n
o
n,
w
h
o
h
a
s 
A
s
p
er
g
er
s
y
n
dr
o
m
e.
T
h
e
e
xt
ra
di
ti
o
n
h
a
s
n
o
w
b
e
e
n
dr
o
p
p
e
 d.
[43]

 G
or
d
o
n
L
y
o
n,
k
n
o
w
n
b
y
th
e
h
a
n
dl
e
F
y
o
d
or
,
a
ut
h
or
e
d
th
e 
N
m
a
p
S
e
c
ur
it
y
S
c
a
n
n
er 
a
s
w
el
l
a
s
m
a
n
y
n
et
w
or
k
s
e
c
ur
it
y
b
o
o
k
s
a
n
d
w
e
b
si
te
s.
H
e
is
a
fo
u
n
di
n
g
m
e
m
b
er
of
th
e 
H
o
n
e
y
n
et
P
ro
je
ct 
a
n
d
Vi
c
e
P
re
si
d
e
nt
of 
C
o
m
p
ut
er
 P
ro
fe
s
si
o
n
al
s
fo
r
S
o
ci
al
R
e
s
p
o
n
si
bi
lit
y.
 G
u
c
ci
fe
r
2.
0,
w
h
o
cl
ai
m
e
d
th
at
h
e
h
 a
c
k
e
d
in
to
th
e 
D
e
m
o
cr
at
ic
N
at
io
n
al
C
o
m
m
itt
e
e 
(
D
N
C
)
c
o
m
p
ut
er
n
et
w
or
k
 J
a
c
o
b
A
p
p
el
b
a
u
m 
is
a
n
a
d
v
o
c
at
e,
s
e
c
ur
it
y
re
s
e
ar
c
h
er
,
a
n
d
d
e
v
el
o
p
er
fo
r
th
e 
T
or 
pr
oj
e
ct
.
H
e
s
p
e
a
k
s
in
te
rn
at
io
n
al
ly
fo
r
u
s
a
g
e
of
T
or
b
y
h
u
m
a
n
ri
g
ht
s
gr
o
u
p
s
a
n
d
ot
h
er
s
c
o
n
c
er
n
e
d
a
b
o
ut
In
te
rn
et
a
n
o
n
y
m
it
y
a
n
d
c
e
n
s
or
s
 hi
p.
 J
o
a
n
n
a
R
ut
k
o
w
s
k
a 
is
a
P
ol
is
h
c
o
m
p
ut
er
s
e
c
ur
it
y
re
s
e
ar
c
h
er
w
h
o
d
e
 v
el
o
p
e
d
th
e 
Bl
u
e
Pi
ll 
ro
ot
ki
t 
a
n
d 
Q
u
b
e
s
O
S
.
 J
u
d
e
M
il
h
o
n 
(k
n
o
w
n
a
s
S
t.
J
u
d
e)
w
a
s
a
n
A
m
er
ic
a
n
h
a
c
k
er
a
n
d
a
ct
iv
is
t,
fo
u
n
di
n
g
m
e
m
b
er
of
th
e 
c
y
p
h
er
p
u
n
k 
m
o
v
e
m
e
nt
,
a
n
d
o
n
e
of
th
e
cr
e
at
or
s
of 
C
o
m
m
u
ni
ty
M
e
m
or
y,
th
e
fir
st 
p
u
 bl
ic
c
o
m
p
ut
er
iz
e
d
b
ul
le
ti
n
b
o
ar
d
s
y
st
e
m
.
[44]

 K
e
vi
n
M
it
ni
c
k 
is
a
c
o
m
p
ut
er
s
e
c
ur
it
y
c
o
n
s
ul
ta
nt
a
n
d
a
ut
h
or
,
fo
r
m
er
ly
th
e
m
o
st
w
a
nt
e
d
c
o
m
p
ut
er
cr
i
m
in
al
in 
U
 ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s 
hi
st
or
y.
[45]

 L
e
n
S
a
s
s
a
m
a
n 
w
a
s
a
B
el
gi
a
n
c
o
m
p
ut
er
pr
o
gr
a
m
m
er
a
n
 d
te
c
h
n
ol
o
gi
st
w
h
o
w
a
s
al
s
o
a
pr
iv
a
c
y
a
d
v
o
c
at
e.
 M
er
e
di
th
L.
P
at
te
rs
o
n 
is
a
w
el
l-
k
n
o
w
n
te
c
h
n
ol
o
gi
st
a
n
d 
bi
o
h
a
c
k
er 
w
h
o
h
a
s
pr
e
s
e
nt
e
d
re
s
e
ar
c
h
w
it
h 
D
a
n
K
a
m
in
s
k
y 
a
n
d 
L
e
n
S
a
s
s
a
m
a
n 
at
m
a
n
y
in
te
rn
at
io
n
al
s
e
c
ur
it
y
a
n
d
 h
a
c
k
er
c
o
nf
er
e
n
c
e
s.
 Ki
m
b
er
le
y
V
a
n
v
a
e
c
k 
(k
n
o
w
n
a
s
G
ig
a
b
yt
e)
is
a
B
el
gi
 a
n
h
a
c
k
er
re
c
o
g
ni
z
e
d
fo
r
w
rit
in
g
th
e
fir
st
vi
ru
s
in 
C
#.
[46]

 M
ic
h
ał
Z
al
e
w
s
ki 
(l
c
a
m
tu
 f)
is
a
pr
o
m
in
e
nt
s
e
c
ur
it
y
re
s
e
ar
c
h
er
.
 S
ol
ar
D
e
si
g
n
er 
is
th
e
p
s
e
u
d
o
n
y
m
of
th
 e
fo
u
n
d
er
of
th
e 
O
p
e
n
w
al
l
P
ro
je
ct
.
 K
a
n
e
G
a
m
bl
e,
s
e
nt
e
n
c
e
d
to
2
y
e
ar
s
in
y
o
ut
h
d
et
e
nt
io
n,
w
h
o
is
a
ut
is
ti
c,
g
ai
n
e
d
a
c
c
e
s
s
to
hi
g
hl
y
s
e
n
si
ti
v
e
in
fo
r
m
at
io
n
a
n
d
"c
y
b
er
-
te
rr
or
is
e
d
"
hi
g
h-
pr
of
il
e 
U
.
S
.
in
te
lli
g
e
n
c
e 
of
fi
ci
al
s
s
u
c
h
a
s
th
e
n 
C
I
A 
c
hi
ef 
J
o
h
n
B
re
n
n
a
n 
or
D
ir
e
ct
or
of
N
at
io
n
al
In
te
lli
g
e
n
c
e 
J
a
m
e
s
C
 la
p
p
er
.
[47]
[48]

[49]

Cu
sto
ms
The
com
puter
unde
rgrou
nd[3] 
has
prod
uced
its
own
speci
alize
d
slang
,
such
as 1
337s
peak
.
Writi
ng
softw
are
and
perfo
rmin
g
other
activi
ties
to
supp
ort
thes
e
view
s is
referr
ed to
as h
ackti
vism.
Som
e
consi
der
illega
l
crack
ing
ethic
ally
justifi
ed
for
thes
e
goals
;a
com
mon
form
is we
bsite
defa
cem
ent.
The
com
puter
unde
rgrou
nd is
frequ
ently
com
pare
d to
the
Wild
West
.[50] It
is
com
mon
for
hack
ers
to
use
alias
es to
conc
eal
their
identi
ties.
Hac
ker
gro
ups
and
con
ven
tion
s
Main
articl
es: 
Hack
er
conf
eren
ce a
nd H
acke
r
grou
p
The
com
puter
unde
rgrou
nd is
supp
orted
by
regul
ar
real-
world
gath
ering
s
calle
d ha
cker
conv
entio
ns or
"hac
ker
cons
".
Thes
e
even
ts
inclu
de S
umm
erCo
n (Su
mme
r), D
EF
CON
, Ho
HoC
on (
Chris
tmas
), Sh
moo
Con 
(Febr
uary)
, Bla
ckHa
t, Ch
aos
Com
muni
catio
n
Cong
ress,
AthC
on,
Hack
er
Halte
d,
and
HOP
E.
[citation

 L
needed]

ocal
Hack
fest
grou
ps
orga
nize
and
com
pete
to
devel
op
their
skills
to
send
a
team
to a
prom
inent
conv
entio
n to
com
pete
in
grou
p
pent
estin
g,
explo
it
and
foren
sics
on a
large
r
scale
.
Hack
er
grou
ps
beca
me
popu
lar in
the
early
1980
s,
provi
ding
acce
ss to
hacki
ng
infor
mati
on
and
reso
urce
s
and
a
place
to
learn
from
other
mem
bers.
Com
puter 
bullet
in
boar
d
syste
ms (
BBS
s),
such
as
the
Utopi
as,
provi
ded
platf
orms
for
infor
mati
on-
shari
ng
via
dial-
up
mod
em.
Hack
ers
could
also
gain
credi
bility
by
bein
g
affilia
 ted
with
elite
grou
ps.[51]

Co
nse
qu
enc
es
for
ma
lici
ous
hac
kin
g
Indi
a
Sectio Punishmen
Offence
n t

65 Tampering Imprisonme
with nt up to
computer three years,
source or/and with
documents  fine up to
– 20000
Intentional rupees
concealme
nt,
destruction
or
alteration
of source
code when
the
computer
source
 code is
required to
be kept or
maintained
by law for
the time
being in
force

Imprisonme
nt up to
three years,
66 Hacking or/and with
fine up to
50000
rupees

Net
herl
and
s

 A
rti
cl
e
1
3
8
a
b
of 
W
et
b
o
e
k
v
a
n
S
tr
af
re
c
ht 
pr
o
hi
bi
ts 
c
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
v
r
e
d
e
b
r
e
u
k,
w
hi
c
h
is
d
ef
in
e
d
a
s
in
tr
u
di
n
g
a
n
a
ut
o
m
at
e
d
w
or
k
or
a
p
ar
t
th
er
e
of
w
it
h
in
te
nt
io
n
a
n
d
a
g
ai
n
st
th
e
la
w
.
In
tr
u
si
o
n
is
 d
ef
in
e
d
a
s
a
c
c
e
s
s
b
y
m
e
a
n
s
of
:
o Defeatin
g securit
y
measure
s
o By
technical
means
o By false
signals
or a
false cry
ptograph
ic key
o By the
use of
stolen u
sername
s and pa
sswords.
Maxi
mum
impri
son
ment
is
one
year
or a
fine
of
the
fourt
h
cate
gory.
[52]

Unit
ed
Stat
es
18 U.
S.C. 
§ 10
30,
more
com
monl
y
know
n as
the C
omp
uter
Frau
d
and
Abus
e
Act,
prohi
bits
unau
thori
zed
acce
ss or
dam
age
of
"prot
ecte
d
com
puter
s".
"Prot
ecte
d
com
puter
s"
are
defin
ed
in 18
U.S.
C. § 
1030
(e)
(2) a
s:

 A
c
o
m
p
ut
er
e
x
cl
u
si
v
el
y
fo
r
th
e
u
s
e
of
a
fi
n
a
n
ci
al
in
st
it
ut
io
n
or
th
e
U
ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s
G
o
v
er
n
m
e
nt
,
or
,
in
th
e
c
a
s
e
of
a
c
o
m
p
ut
er
n
ot
e
x
cl
u
si
v
el
y
fo
r
s
u
c
h
u
s
e,
u
s
e
d
b
y
or
fo
r
a
fi
n
a
n
ci
al
in
st
it
ut
io
n
or
th
e
U
ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s
G
o
v
er
n
m
e
nt
a
n
d
th
e
c
o
n
d
u
ct
c
o
n
st
it
ut
in
g
th
e
of
fe
n
s
e
 af
fe
ct
s
th
at
u
s
e
b
y
or
fo
r
th
e
fi
n
a
n
ci
al
in
st
it
ut
io
n
or
th
e
G
o
v
er
n
m
e
nt
.
 A
c
o
m
p
ut
er
w
hi
c
h
is
u
s
e
d
in
or
af
fe
ct
in
g
in
te
rs
ta
te
or
fo
re
ig
n
c
o
m
m
er
c
e
or
c
o
m
m
u
ni
c
at
io
n,
in
cl
u
di
n
g
a
c
o
m
p
ut
er
lo
c
at
e
d
o
ut
si
d
e
th
e
U
ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s
th
at
is
u
s
e
d
in
a
m
a
n
n
er
th
at
af
fe
ct
s
in
te
rs
ta
te
or
fo
re
ig
n
c
o
m
m
er
c
e
or
c
o
m
m
u
ni
c
at
io
n
of
th
e
U
ni
te
d
S
ta
te
s;
The
maxi
mum
impri
son
ment
or
fine
for
violat
ions
of
the 
Com
puter
Frau
d
and
Abus
e
Act d
epen
ds
on
the
seve
rity
of
the
violat
ion
and
the
offen
der's
histo
ry of
violat
ions
unde
r
the 
Act.
The 
FBI h
as
dem
onstr
ated
its
abilit
y to
reco
ver
rans
oms
paid
in cry
ptoc
urren
cy by
victi
ms
of
cybe
rtheft
.[53]

Ha
cki
ng
an
d
the
me
dia
Hac
ker
ma
gazi
nes
Main
cate
gory: 
Hack
er
mag
azin
es
The
most
nota
ble
hack
er-
orien
ted
print
publi
catio
ns
are 
Phra
ck, H
akin
9 an
d 26
00:
The
Hack
er
Quar
terly.
Whil
e the
infor
mati
on
cont
aine
d in
hack
er
mag
azine
s
and 
ezine
s wa
s
often
outd
ated
by
the
time
they
were
publi
shed
,
they
enha
nced
their
contr
ibuto
rs'
reput
ation
s by
docu
ment
ing
their
succ
esse
s.[51]
Hac
ker
s in
ficti
on
See
also: 
List
of
fictio
nal
hack
ers
Hack
ers
often
show
an
inter
est in
fictio
nal c
yber
punk 
and 
cybe
rcult
ure li
terat
ure
and
movi
es.
The
adop
tion
of fict
ional 
pseu
dony
ms,[54] 
symb
ols,
value
s
and 
meta
phor
s fro
m
thes
e
work
s is
very
com
mon.
[55]

Book
s

 T
h
e 
c
y
b
er
p
u
n
k 
n
o
v
el
s
of 
W
illi
a
m
G
ib
s
o
n 
–
e
s
p
e
ci
al
ly
th
e 
S
pr
a
w
l
tri
lo
g
y 
–
ar
e
v
er
y
 p
o
p
ul
ar
w
it
h
h
a
c
k
er
s.
[56]

 H
el
b
a 
fr
o
m
th
e 
.
h
a
c
k 
m
a
n
g
a
a
n
d
a
ni
m
e
s
er
ie
s
 M
er
li
n
of
A
m
b
er
,
th
e
pr
ot
a
g
o
ni
st
of
th
e
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
er
ie
s
in 
T
h
e
C
h
r
o
ni
cl
e
s
o
f
A
m
b
e
r 
b
y 
R
o
g
er
Z
el
a
z
n
y,
is
a
y
o
u
n
g
i
m
m
or
ta
l
h
a
c
k
er
-
m
a
g
e
pr
in
c
e
w
h
 o
h
a
s
th
e
a
bi
lit
y
to
tr
a
v
er
s
e
s
h
a
d
o
w
di
m
e
n
si
o
n
s.
 Li
s
b
et
h
S
al
a
n
d
er 
in 
T
h
e
 G
irl
w
it
h
t
h
e
D
r
a
g
o
n
T
a
tt
o
o 
b
y 
S
ti
e
g
L
ar
s
s
o
n
 Al
ic
e
fr
o
m 
H
e
a
v
e
n'
s
M
e
 m
o
P
a
d
 E
n
d
e
r'
s
G
a
m
e 
b
y 
O
rs
o
n
S
c
ot
t
C
ar
d
 E
vi
l
G
e
ni
u
s 
b
y 
C
at
h
er
in
e
Ji
n
 k
s
 H
a
c
k
e
r
s 
(a
nt
h
ol
o
g
y) 
b
y 
J
a
c
k
D
a
n
n 
a
n
d 
G
ar
d
n
er
D
o
z
oi
s
 Li
ttl
e
B
r
o
t
 h
e
r 
b
y 
C
or
y
D
o
ct
or
o
w
 N
e
u
r
o
m
a
n
c
e
r 
b
y 
W
illi
a
m
G
ib
s
o
n
 S
n
o
w
C
r
a
s
h 
b
 y 
N
e
al
S
te
p
h
e
n
s
o
n
Films

 A
n
tit
r
u
st
 B
la
c
k
h
a
t
 C
y
p
h
e
r
 E
a
gl
e
E
y
e
 E
n
e
m
y
 o
f
t
h
e
S
t
a
t
e
 F
ir
e
w
al
l
 G
irl
W
it
h
T
h
e
D
r
a
g
o
n
T
a
tt
o
o
 H
a
c
k
e
r
s
 Li
v
e
F
 r
e
e
o
r
D
ie
H
a
r
d
 T
h
e
M
a
tr
ix 
s
er
ie
s
 T
h
e
N
e
t
 T
h
e
N
e
t
2
.
0
 P
ir
a
t
e
s
o
f
S
 ili
c
o
n
V
al
le
y
 S
k
yf
al
l
 S
n
e
a
k
e
r
s
 S
w
o
r
d
fi
s
h
 T
e
r
m
in
a
t
o
r
2
:
J
u
d
g
m
e
 n
t
D
a
y
 T
e
r
m
in
a
t
o
r
S
al
v
a
ti
o
n
 T
a
k
e
D
o
w
n
 T
r
o
n
 T
r
o
n
:
L
e
g
a
c
y
 U
n
 tr
a
c
e
a
bl
e
 W
a
r
G
a
m
e
s
 W
ei
r
d
S
ci
e
n
c
e
 T
h
e
F
ift
h
E
st
a
t
e
 W
h
o
A
m
I
–
N
o
S
 y
st
e
m

Is
S
a
f
e
(f
il
m
)
Non
-
ficti
on
boo
ks

 T
h
e
A
rt
o
f
D
e
c
e
p
ti
o
n 
b
y 
K
e
vi
n
M
it
ni
 c
k
 T
h
e
A
rt
o
f
I
n
tr
u
si
o
n 
b
y
K
e
vi
n
M
it
ni
c
k
 T
h
e
C
u
c
k
o
o'
s
E
g
g 
b
y 
C
lif
fo
rd
 S
to
ll
 G
h
o
st
in
t
h
e
W
ir
e
s:
M
y
A
d
v
e
n
t
u
r
e
s
a
s
t
h
e
W
o
rl
d'
s
M
o
st
W
a
n
t
e
d
 H
a
c
k
e
r 
b
y
K
e
vi
n
M
it
ni
c
k
 T
h
e
H
a
c
k
e
r
C
r
a
c
k
d
o
w
n 
b
y 
B
ru
c
e
S
te
rli
n
g
 T
h
e
H
a
c
k
e
r'
s
H
a
n
d
b
o
o
k 
b
y
H
u
g
o
C
or
n
w
al
l
(
P
et
er
S
o
m
m
er
)
 H
a
c
ki
n
g
 :
T
h
e
A
rt
o
f
E
x
pl
oi
t
a
ti
o
n
S
e
c
o
n
d
E
di
ti
o
n 
b
y
J
o
n
E
ri
c
k
s
o
n
 O
u
t
o
f
t
 h
e
I
n
n
e
r
C
ir
cl
e 
b
y 
Bi
ll
L
a
n
dr
et
h 
a
n
d 
H
o
w
ar
d
R
h
ei
n
g
ol
d
 U
n
d
e
r
g
r
o
u
n
 d 
b
y 
S
u
el
et
te
D
re
yf
u
s

See
als
o
 C
ra
c
ki
n
g
of
w
ir
el
e
s
s
n
et
w
or
k
s
 C
y
b
er
s
p
yi
 n
g
 C
y
b
er
S
to
r
m
E
x
er
ci
s
e
 C
y
b
er
cr
i
m
e
 H
a
c
k
er
c
ul
tu
re
 H
a
c
k
er
(e
x
p
er
t)
 H
a
c
 k
er
M
a
ni
fe
st
o
 IT
ri
s
k
 M
at
h
e
m
at
ic
al
b
e
a
ut
y
 M
et
a
s
pl
oi
t
P
ro
je
ct
 P
e
n
et
ra
ti
o
n
te
st
  T
e
c
h
n
ol
o
g
y
a
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
nt
 V
ul
n
er
a
bi
lit
y
(c
o
m
p
ut
in
g)

Ref
ere
nce
s
1. ^ 
G
ao
,
Xi
ng
(2
01
5)
.
"I
nf
or
m
ati
on
se
cu
rit
y
in
ve
st
m
en
t
fo
r
co
m
pe
titi
ve
fir
m
s
wi
th
ha
ck
er
be
ha
vi
or
an
d
se
cu
rit
y
re
qu
ire
m
en
ts"
. 
A
nn
al
s
of
O
pe
ra
 tio
ns
R
es
ea
rc
h. 
23
5:
27
7–
30
0. 
do
i:1
0.
10
07
/s
10
47
9-
01
5-
19
25
-
2. 
S
2
CI
D 
20
70
85
41
6.
2. ^ 
Wi
nk
ler
,
Ira
. 
S
pi
es
A
m
on
g
U
s:
H
o
w
to
St
op
th
e
S
pi
es
,
T
er
ro
ris
ts,
H
ac
ke
rs,
an
d
Cr
im
in
al
s
Y
ou
D
on
't
E
ve
n
K
no
w
Y
ou
E
nc
ou
nt
er
E
ve
ry
D
ay
. J
oh
n
Wi
le
y
&
So
ns
.
20
05
.
pg
 .
92
. I
S
B
N 
97
80
76
45
89
90
4.
3. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
St
erl
in
g,
Br
uc
e 
(1
99
3)
.
"P
ar
t
2(
d)
". 
T
he
H
ac
ke
r
Cr
ac
kd
o
w
n.
M
cL
ea
n,
Vi
rgi
ni
a:
In
dy
P
 ub
lis
h.
co
m.
p. 
61
.  I
S
B
N 
1-
40
43
-
06
41
-
2.
4. ^ 
Bl
o
m
qu
ist
,
Br
ia
n
(
M
ay
29
,
19
99
). 
"F
BI'
s
W
eb
Si
te
S
oc
ke
d
as
H
ac
ke
rs
T
ar
ge
t
F
ed
 s". 
N
e
w
Y
or
k
P
os
t.
[perm
anent
dead
link]

5. ^ 
"T
he
H
ac
ke
r's
Di
cti
on
ar
y".
R
et
rie
ve
d 
M
ay
23
, 
20
13
.
6. ^ 
Po
liti
ca
l
no
te
s
fro
m
20
12
:
Se
pt
e
m
be
r–
D
ec
 e
m
be
r.
st
all
m
an
.or
g
7. ^ 
R
ay
m
on
d,
Er
ic
S. 
"J
ar
go
n
Fil
e:
Cr
ac
ke
r". 
C
oi
ne
d
ca
.
19
85
by
ha
ck
er
s
in
de
fe
ns
e
ag
ai
ns
t
jo
ur
na
lis
tic
mi
su
se
 of
ha
ck
er
8. ^ 
Y
ag
od
a,
B
en
(
M
ar
ch
6,
20
14
). 
"A
S
ho
rt
Hi
st
or
y
of
"H
ac
k"
". 
T
he
N
e
w
Y
or
ke
r.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
Ju
ne
21
, 
20
19
. 
Al
th
ou
gh
Lif
eh
ac
ke
r
an
d
ot
he
r
ne
ut
ral
or
po
sit
iv
e
ap
pli
ca
tio
ns
of
th
e
w
or
d
[h
ac
k]
ar
e
in
cr
ea
si
ng
ly
pr
o
mi
ne
nt,
th
e
bl
ac
k-
ha
t
m
ea
ni
ng
sti
ll
pr
ev
ail
 s
a
m
on
g
th
e
ge
ne
ral
pu
bli
c.
9. ^ 
C
al
d
w
ell
,
Tr
ac
ey
(J
ul
y
22
,
20
11
).
"E
thi
ca
l
ha
ck
er
s:
pu
tti
ng
on
th
e
w
hit
e
ha
t". 
N
et
w
or
k
S
ec
uri
ty. 
 20
11 
(7
):
10
–
13
. 
do
i:1
0.
10
16
/s
13
53
-
48
58
(1
1)
70
07
5-
7.
10. ^ 
Se
e
th
e 
19
81
ve
rsi
on
of
th
e 
Ja
rg
on
Fil
e,
en
try
"h
ac
ke
r",
la
st
m
ea
ni
ng
.
11. ^ 
"C
 o
m
pu
te
r
ha
ck
in
g:
W
he
re
di
d
it
be
gi
n
an
d
ho
w
di
d
it
gr
o
w
?"
.
W
in
do
w
S
ec
uri
ty.
co
m.
O
ct
ob
er
16
,
20
02
.
12. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
El
m
er
-
D
e
W
itt,
P
hil
ip
(A
ug
us
t
29
,
19
83
). 
"T
he
41
4
G
an
g
St
rik
es
A
ga
in"
. 
Ti
m
e.
p. 
75
.
Ar
ch
iv
ed
fr
o
m 
th
e
ori
gi
na
l o
n
D
ec
e
m
be
r
2,
20
 07
.
13. ^ 
D
et
roi
t
Fr
ee
Pr
es
s.
S
ep
te
m
be
r
27
,
19
83
. 
Mi
ssi
ng
or
e
m
pt
y 
|
t
i
t
l
e
= (
he
lp)
14. ^ 
"B
e
w
ar
e:
H
ac
ke
rs
at
pl
ay
". 
N
e
w
s
 w
ee
k.
S
ep
te
m
be
r
5,
19
83
.
pp
. 
42
–
46
,
48
.
15. ^ 
"T
im
eli
ne
:
T
he
U.
S.
G
ov
er
n
m
en
t
an
d
C
yb
er
se
cu
rit
y". 
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
P
os
t.
M
ay
16
 ,
20
03
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
A
pri
l
14
, 
20
06
.
16. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
B
ail
ey
,
D
av
id
(A
pri
l
19
84
). 
"A
tta
ck
s
on
C
o
m
pu
te
rs:
C
on
gr
es
si
on
al
H
ea
rin
gs
an
d
P
en
di
ng
Le
gi
sl
ati
on
". 
19
84
IE
E
E
S
y
m
po
si
u
m
on
S
ec
uri
ty
an
d
Pr
iv
ac
y.
O
ak
la
nd
,
C
A,
U
S
A:
IE
E
E:
18
0–
18
6. 
do
i:1
0.
11
09
/S
P.
19
 84
.1
00
12
.  I
S
B
N 
97
8-
0-
81
86
-
05
32
-
1. 
S
2
CI
D 
15
18
73
75
.
17. ^ 
Cl
iff
or
d,
D.
(2
01
1)
. 
C
yb
er
cri
m
e:
T
he
In
ve
sti
ga
tio
n,
Pr
os
ec
uti
on
an
d
D
 ef
en
se
of
a
C
o
m
pu
te
r-
R
el
at
ed
Cr
im
e.
D
ur
ha
m,
N
or
th
C
ar
oli
na
:
C
ar
oli
na
A
ca
de
mi
c
Pr
es
s. 
IS
B
N 
97
8-
15
94
60
85
37
.
18. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
 W
ilh
el
m,
D
ou
gl
as
(2
01
0)
.
"2
". 
Pr
of
es
si
on
al
P
en
et
ra
tio
n
T
es
tin
g.
S
yn
gr
es
s
Pr
es
s.
p. 
50
3. 
IS
B
N 
97
8-
1-
59
74
9-
42
5-
0.
19. ^ 
E
C-
C
ou
nc
 il.
ec
co
un
cil.
or
g
20. ^ 
M
oo
re
,
R
ob
er
t
(2
00
5)
. 
C
yb
er
cri
m
e:
In
ve
sti
ga
tin
g
Hi
gh
T
ec
hn
ol
og
y
C
o
m
pu
te
r
Cr
im
e.
M
att
he
w
B
en
de
r
&
C
 o
m
pa
ny
.
p. 
25
8. 
IS
B
N 
1-
59
34
5-
30
3-
5.
R
ob
ert
M
oo
re
21. ^ 
O'
Br
ie
n,
M
ar
ak
as
,
Ja
m
es
,
G
eo
rg
e
(2
01
1)
. 
M
an
ag
e
m
en
t
Inf
or
m
ati
on
S
 ys
te
m
s.
N
e
w
Y
or
k,
N
Y:
M
c
Gr
a
w-
Hi
ll/
Ir
wi
n.
pp
. 
53
6–
53
7. 
IS
B
N 
97
8-
0-
07
-
75
22
17
-
9.
22. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
  
b c

M
oo
re
,
R
ob
er
t
(2
00
6)
. 
C
yb
er
cri
m
e:
In
ve
sti
ga
tin
g
Hi
gh
-
T
ec
hn
ol
og
y
C
o
m
pu
te
r
Cr
im
e 
(1
st 
ed
.).
Ci
nc
in
na
ti,
O
hi
o:
A
nd
er
so
n
P
ub
lis
hi
ng
.  I
S
B
N 
97
8-
1-
 59
34
5-
30
3-
9.
23. ^ 
T
ho
m
as
,
D
ou
gl
as
(2
00
2)
. 
H
ac
ke
r
C
ult
ur
e.
U
ni
ve
rsi
ty
of
Mi
nn
es
ot
a
Pr
es
s. 
IS
B
N 
97
8-
0-
81
66
-
33
46
-
3.
24. ^ 
A
nd
re
ss
,
M
an
dy
;
C
ox
,
P
hil
;
Tit
tel
,
E
d
–
(2
00
1)
. 
CI
W
S
ec
uri
ty
Pr
of
es
si
on
al.
N
e
w
Y
or
k,
N
Y:
W
ile
y.
p. 
63
8. 
IS
B
N 
0-
76
45
-
48
22
 -
0.
25. ^ 
"B
lu
e
ha
t
ha
ck
er
D
efi
nit
io
n"
. 
P
C
M
ag
az
in
e
E
nc
yc
lo
pe
di
a.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
M
ay
31
,2
01
0. 
A
se
cu
rit
y
pr
of
es
si
on
al
in
vit
ed
by
Mi
cr
 os
oft
to
fin
d
vu
ln
er
ab
ilit
ie
s
in
W
in
do
w
s.
26. ^ 
Fr
ie
d,
In
a 
(J
un
e
15
,
20
05
). 
"B
lu
e
H
at
su
m
mi
t
m
ea
nt
to
re
ve
al
w
ay
s
of
th
e
ot
he
r
si
de
 ". 
Mi
cr
os
oft
m
ee
ts
th
e
ha
ck
er
s.
C
N
E
T
N
e
w
s.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
M
ay
31
, 
20
10
.
27. ^ 
M
ar
ko
ff,
Jo
hn 
(O
ct
ob
er
17
,
20
05
). 
"A
t
Mi
cr
os
oft
,
Int
erl
 op
er
s
S
ou
nd
Of
f
on
S
ec
uri
ty"
. 
T
he
N
e
w
Y
or
k
Ti
m
es
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
M
ay
31
, 
20
10
.
28. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
C
ha
br
o
w,
Er
ic
(F
eb
ru
ar
y
25
,
20
12
). 
"7
Le
ve
ls
of
H
ac
ke
rs:
A
pp
lyi
ng
A
n
A
nc
ie
nt
C
hi
ne
se
Le
ss
on
:
K
no
w
Y
ou
r
E
ne
mi
es
".
G
ov
Inf
o
S
ec
uri
ty.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
F
eb
ru
ar
y
27
 ,2
01
2.
29. ^ 
Eg
lof
f,
Fl
ori
an
. 
Cy
be
rs
ec
uri
ty
an
d
th
e
Ag
e
of
Pri
va
te
eri
ng
. I
n: 
U
nd
er
st
an
di
ng
C
yb
er
C
on
fli
ct:
F
ou
rt
ee
n
A
na
lo
gi
es
,
C
ha
pt
 er
14
,
G
eo
rg
e
Pe
rk
ov
ic
h
an
d
Ari
el
E.
Le
vit
e,
Ed
s.,
G
eo
rg
et
o
w
n
U
ni
ve
rsi
ty
Pr
es
s,
20
17
.
30. ^ 
Ti
dy
,
Jo
e. 
R
an
so
m
w
ar
e:
Sh
ou
ld
pa
yi
ng
 ha
ck
er
ra
ns
o
m
s
be
ille
ga
l? 
B
B
C
20
M
ay
20
21
.
31. ^ 
M
orr
is
on
,
Sa
ra. 
W
ha
t
yo
u
ne
ed
to
kn
o
w
ab
ou
t
ra
ns
o
m
w
ar
e
an
d
th
e
fut
ur
e
of
cy
 be
rat
ta
ck
s.
Vo
x,
Ju
n
16
,
20
21
.
32. ^ 
Ab
ig
ail
Su
m
m
er
vill
e, 
Pr
ot
ec
t
ag
ai
ns
t
th
e
Fa
st
es
t-
Gr
o
wi
ng
Cr
im
e:
Cy
be
r
Att
ac
ks
,
C
N
B
C
(J
ul
y
 25
,
20
17
).
33. ^ 
M
yr
e,
Gr
eg
. 
H
o
w
Bit
co
in
H
as
Fu
el
ed
R
an
so
m
w
ar
e
Att
ac
ks
. 
N
P
R,
Ju
ne
10
,
20
21
.
34. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
D
ey
,
D
eb
ab
ra
ta;
La
hir
i,
At
an
u;
Z
ha
ng
,
G
uo
yi
ng
(2
01
1)
.  "
H
ac
ke
r
B
eh
av
ior
,
N
et
w
or
k
Ef
fe
ct
s,
an
d
th
e
S
ec
uri
ty
S
oft
w
ar
e
M
ar
ke
t". 
S
S
R
N
El
ec
 tr
on
ic
Jo
ur
na
l. 
do
i:1
0.
21
39
/s
sr
n.
18
38
65
6. 
IS
S
N 
15
56
-
50
68
.
35. ^ 
G
up
ta,
Aj
ay
;
Kl
av
in
sk
y,
Th
o
m
as
an
d
La
lib
ert
e,
Sc
ott
(M
ar
ch
15
,
20
02
 ) 
Se
cu
rit
y
Th
ro
ug
h
Pe
ne
tra
tio
n
Te
sti
ng
:
Int
er
ne
t
Pe
ne
tra
tio
n.
inf
or
mi
t.c
o
m
36. ^ 
R
od
rig
ue
z,
C
hri
s;
M
ar
tin
ez
,
Ri
ch
ar
d. 
"T
he
Gr
o
wi
ng
H
ac
ki
ng
T
hr
ea
t
to
W
eb
sit
es
:
A
n
O
ng
oi
ng
C
o
m
mi
tm
en
t
to
W
eb
A
pp
lic
ati
on
S
ec
uri
ty" 
(P
D
F)
.
Fr
os
t
&
S
ull
iv
an
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
A
ug
us
t
 13
, 
20
13
.
37. ^ 
Ke
rn
er,
Se
an
Mi
ch
ae
l.
"S
en
try
M
B
A
Us
es
Cr
ed
en
tia
l
St
uff
in
g
To
H
ac
k
Sit
es
." 
E
w
ee
k (
20
16
):
8. 
A
ca
de
mi
c
S
ea
rc
h
C
o
m
 pl
et
e.
W
eb
.7
Fe
b.
20
17
.
38. ^ 
W
eir
,
M
att
,
Su
dh
ir
Ag
ga
rw
al,
Br
en
o
de
M
ed
eir
os
,
Bil
l
Gl
od
ek
.
20
09
.
"P
as
sw
or
d
Cr
ac
ki
ng
Us
in
g
Pr
ob
ab
ilis
 tic
C
on
te
xt-
Fr
ee
Gr
a
m
m
ar
s". 
20
09
30
th
IE
E
E
S
y
m
po
si
u
m
on
S
ec
uri
ty
an
d
Pr
iv
ac
y: 
39
1-
40
5.
39. ^ 
Th
o
m
ps
on
,
Sa
m
ue
l
T.
C.
"H
el
pi
ng
Th
e
H
ac
ke
r?
Li
br
ar
y
Inf
or
m
ati
on
,
Se
cu
rit
y,
An
d
So
ci
al
En
gi
ne
eri
ng
." 
Inf
or
m
ati
on
T
ec
hn
ol
og
y
&
Li
br
ari
es 
25
.4
(2
00
6):
22
2-
22
5. 
A
ca
de
 mi
c
S
ea
rc
h
C
o
m
pl
et
e.
W
eb
.7
Fe
b.
20
17
.
40. ^ 
Pr
es
s,
E
C-
C
ou
nc
il
(2
01
1)
. 
P
en
et
ra
tio
n
T
es
tin
g:
Pr
oc
ed
ur
es
&
M
et
ho
do
lo
gi
es
.
Cl
 ift
on
,
N
Y:
C
E
N
G
A
G
E
Le
ar
ni
ng
.  I
S
B
N 
97
8-
14
35
48
36
75
.
41. ^ 
"D
E
F
C
O
N
III
Ar
ch
iv
es
-
S
us
an
T
hu
nd
er
K
ey
no
te
". 
D
E
F
C
O
N.
 R
et
rie
ve
d 
A
ug
us
t
12
, 
20
17
.
42. ^ 
H
af
ne
r,
K
ati
e
(A
ug
us
t
19
95
). 
"K
ev
in
Mi
tni
ck
,
un
pl
ug
ge
d"
. 
E
sq
uir
e. 
12
4 
(2
):
80
.
43. ^ 
"G
ar
y
M
c
 Ki
nn
on
ex
tr
ad
iti
on
rul
in
g
du
e
by
16
O
ct
ob
er
". 
B
B
C
N
e
w
s.
S
ep
te
m
be
r
6,
20
12
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
S
ep
te
m
be
r
25
, 
20
12
.
44. ^ 
"C
o
m
m
un
 ity
M
e
m
or
y:
Pr
ec
ed
en
ts
in
S
oc
ial
M
ed
ia
an
d
M
ov
e
m
en
ts"
. 
C
o
m
pu
te
r
Hi
st
or
y
M
us
eu
m.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
A
ug
us
t
13
, 
20
17
.
45. ^ 
"K
ev
in
Mi
tni
ck
se
nt
en
ce
d
to
ne
arl
y
fo
ur
ye
ar
s
in
pri
so
n;
co
m
pu
te
r
ha
ck
er
or
de
re
d
to
pa
y
re
sti
tut
io
n.
.." 
(P
re
ss
rel
ea
se
). 
U
nit
ed
St
at
es
At
to
rn
ey
's
Of
fic
e,
C
en
tr
al
Di
str
ict
of
C
ali
fo
rni
a.
A
ug
us
t
9,
19
99
.
Ar
ch
iv
ed
fr
o
m 
th
e
ori
gi
na
l o
n
S
ep
te
m
be
r
26
,
20
09
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
A
pri
l
10
 , 
20
10
.
46. ^ 
H
olt
,
T
ho
m
as
J.;
S
ch
el,
B
er
na
de
tte
Hl
ub
ik
(2
01
0)
. 
C
or
po
ra
te
H
ac
ki
ng
an
d
T
ec
hn
ol
og
y-
Dr
iv
en
Cr
im
e:
S
oc
ial
D
yn
a
mi
cs
 an
d
Im
pli
ca
tio
ns
.
IG
I
Gl
ob
al.
p. 
14
6. 
IS
B
N 
97
81
61
69
28
05
6.
47. ^ "
Bri
tis
h
te
en
ag
er
w
ho
'cy
be
r-
ter
ror
is
ed
'
U
S
int
elli
ge
nc
e
off
ici
al
s
ge
ts
tw
o
 ye
ar
s
de
te
nti
on
". 
T
he
In
de
pe
nd
en
t. 
21
Ap
ril
20
18
.
48. ^ "
Bri
tis
h
te
en
Ka
ne
G
a
m
bl
e
ac
ce
ss
ed
ac
co
un
ts
of
to
p
U
S
int
elli
ge
nc
e
an
d
se
cu
rit
y
 off
ici
al
s". 
D
eu
ts
ch
e
W
ell
e.
21
Ja
nu
ar
y
20
18
.
49. ^ "
Ka
ne
G
a
m
bl
e:
Te
en
ag
er
wit
h
au
tis
m
on
Le
ic
es
ter
sh
ire
ho
us
in
g
es
tat
e
to
ok
cl
as
sifi
ed
inf
or
 m
ati
on
by
fo
oli
ng
pe
op
le
int
o
thi
nk
in
g
he
w
as
F
BI
bo
ss
". 
T
he
In
de
pe
nd
en
t. 
21
Ja
nu
ar
y
20
18
.
50. ^ 
Jo
rd
an
,
Ti
m;
T
ay
lor
,
P
au
l
A.
(2
00
4)
. 
H
ac
kti
vi
s
m
an
d
C
yb
er
w
ar
s.
R
ou
tle
dg
e.
pp
. 
13
3–
13
4. 
IS
B
N 
97
8-
0-
41
5-
26
00
3-
9. 
W
ild
W
es
t
im
ag
er
y
ha
s
pe
r
m
ea
te
d
di
sc
us
si
on
 s
of
cy
be
rc
ult
ur
es
.
51. ^ J
um
p
up
to:a
 
b
 
T
ho
m
as
,
D
ou
gl
as
(2
00
3)
. 
H
ac
ke
r
C
ult
ur
e.
U
ni
ve
rsi
ty
of
Mi
nn
es
ot
a
Pr
es
s.
p. 
90
.  I
S
B
N 
97
8-
0-
 81
66
-
33
46
-
3.
52. ^ 
Ar
tik
el
13
8a
b.
W
et
bo
ek
va
n
St
raf
re
ch
t,
D
ec
e
m
be
r
27
,
20
12
53. ^ 
N
ak
as
hi
m
a,
Ell
en
. F
ed
s
re
co
ve
r
m
or
e
th
an
$2
mi
 llio
n
in
ra
ns
o
m
w
ar
e
pa
y
m
en
ts
fro
m
C
ol
on
ial
Pi
pe
lin
e
ha
ck
er
s. 
W
as
hi
ng
to
n
Po
st,
Ju
ne
7,
20
21
.
54. ^ 
S
w
ab
ey
,
P
et
e
(F
eb
ru
ar
y
27
,
20
13
). 
"D
at
a
le
ak
ed
by
A
no
ny
m
ou
s
ap
pe
ar
s
to
re
ve
al
B
an
k
of
A
m
eri
ca
's
ha
ck
er
pr
ofi
lin
g
op
er
ati
on
". 
Inf
or
m
ati
on
A
ge
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
F
 eb
ru
ar
y
21
, 
20
14
.
55. ^ 
"H
ac
ke
rs
an
d
Vi
ru
se
s:
Q
ue
sti
on
s
an
d
A
ns
w
er
s". 
S
ci
en
za
gi
ov
an
e. 
U
ni
ve
rsi
ty
of
B
ol
og
na
.
N
ov
e
m
be
r
12
,
 20
12
.
R
et
rie
ve
d 
F
eb
ru
ar
y
21
, 
20
14
.
56. ^ 
St
ap
le
s,
Br
en
t
(
M
ay
11
,
20
03
). 
"A
Pr
in
ce
of
C
yb
er
pu
nk
Fi
cti
on
M
ov
es
Int
o
th
e
M
ai
ns
tr
ea
 m
". 
T
he
N
e
w
Y
or
k
Ti
m
es
. 
M
r.
Gi
bs
on
's
no
ve
ls
an
d
sh
or
t
st
ori
es
ar
e
w
or
sh
ip
ed
by
ha
ck
er
s

Fur
the
r
rea
din
g
 A
p
r
o
,
B
ill
;
H
a
m
m
o
n
d
,
G
r
a
e
m
e
(
2
0
0
5
). 
H
a
c
k
e
r
s:
T
h
e
H
u
n
t
f
o
r
A
u
st
r
al
ia
's
M
o
st
I
n
f
a
m
o
u
s
C
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
C
r
a
c
k
e
r.
R
o
w
vi
ll
e
,
V
ic
:
F
iv
e
M
il
e
 P
r
e
s
s. 
I
S
B
N 
1
-
7
4
1
2
4
-
7
2
2
-
5
.
 B
e
a
v
e
r,
K
e
vi
n
(
2
0
1
0
). 
H
a
c
ki
n
g
f
o
r
D
u
m
m
ie
s.
H
o
b
o
k
e
n
,
N
J:
W
il
e
y
P
u
b
. 
I
S
B
N 
9
7
8
-
0
-
7
6
4
5
-
5
7
8
4
-
 2
.
 C
o
n
w
a
y,
R
ic
h
a
r
d
;
C
o
r
di
n
gl
e
y,
J
ul
ia
n
(
2
0
0
4
). 
C
o
d
e
H
a
c
ki
n
g
:
A
D
e
v
el
o
p
e
r'
s
G
ui
d
e
t
o
N
e
t
w
o
r
k
S
e
c
u
ri
ty
.
H
in
g
h
a
m
,
M
a
s
s:
C
h
a
rl
e
s
R
 iv
e
r
M
e
di
a
. 
I
S
B
N 
9
7
8
-
1
-
5
8
4
5
0
-
3
1
4
-
9
.
 F
r
e
e
m
a
n
,
D
a
vi
d
H
.;
M
a
n
n
,
C
h
a
rl
e
s
C
.
(
1
9
9
7
). 
A
t
L
a
r
g
e
:
T
h
e
S
tr
a
n
g
e
C
a
s
e
o
f
t
h
e
W
o
rl
d'
s
B
ig
g
e
st
I
n
t
e
r
n
e
t
I
n
v
a
si
o
n
.
N
e
w
Y
o
r
k:
S
i
m
o
n
&
S
c
h
u
st
e
r. 
I
S
B
 N 
0
-
6
8
4
-
8
2
4
6
4
-
7
.
 G
r
a
n
vi
ll
e
,
J
o
h
a
n
n
a
(
W
in
t
e
r
2
0
0
3
). 
"
D
o
t.
C
o
n
:
T
h
e
D
a
n
g
e
r
s
o
f
C
y
b
e
r
C
ri
m
e
a
n
d
a
C
al
l
f
o
r
P
r
o
a
ct
iv
e
S
ol
u
ti
o
n
s
". 
A
u
st
r
al
ia
n
J
o
u
r
n
al
o
f
P
ol
iti
c
s
a
n
d
H
is
t
o
r
y. 
4
9 
(
1
):
1
0
2
–
1
0
9
. 
d
oi
:
1
0
.
1
1
1
1
/
1
4
6
7
-
8
4
9
7
.
0
0
2
8
4
.
R
e
tr
ie
v
e
d 
F
e
b
r
u
a
r
y
2
0
, 
2
0
 1
4
.
 G
r
e
g
g
,
M
ic
h
a
el
(
2
0
0
6
). 
C
e
rt
ifi
e
d
E
t
hi
c
al
H
a
c
k
e
r.
I
n
di
a
n
a
p
ol
is
 ,
I
n
d
:
Q
u
e
C
e
rt
ifi
c
a
ti
o
n
. 
I
S
B
N 
9
7
8
-
0
-
7
8
9
7
-
3
5
3
1
-
7
.
 H
a
f
n
e
r,
K
a
ti
e
;
M
a
r
k
o
ff
,
J
o
h
n
(
1
9
9
1
). 
C
y
b
e
r
p
u
n
k:
O
u
tl
a
w
s
a
n
d
H
a
c
k
e
r
s
o
n
t
h
e
C
o
m
p
u
t
e
r
F
r
o
n
ti
e
r.
N
e
w
Y
o
r
k:
S
i
m
o
n
&
S
c
h
u
st
e
r. 
I
S
B
N 
0
 -
6
7
1
-
6
8
3
2
2
-
5
.
 H
a
r
p
e
r,
A
ll
e
n
;
H
a
rr
is
,
S
h
o
n
;
N
e
s
s,
J
o
n
a
t
h
a
n
(
2
0
1
1
). 
G
r
a
y
H
a
t
H
a
c
ki
n
g
:
T
h
e
E
t
hi
c
al
H
a
c
k
e
r'
s
H
a
n
d
b
o
o
k 
(
3
r
 d 
e
d
.)
.
N
e
w
Y
o
r
k:
M
c
G
r
a
w
-
H
ill
. 
I
S
B
N 
9
7
8
-
0
-
0
7
-
1
7
4
2
5
5
-
9
.
 M
c
C
lu
r
e
,
S
t
u
a
rt
;
S
c
a
m
b
r
a
y,
J
o
el
;
K
u
rt
z,
G
e
o
r
g
e
(
1
9
9
9
). 
H
a
c
ki
n
g
E
x
p
o
s
e
d
:
N
e
t
w
o
r
k
S
e
c
u
ri
ty
S
e
c
r
e
ts
a
n
d
S
ol
u
ti
o
n
s.
B
e
r
k
el
e
y,
C
al
if:
 M
c
g
r
a
w
-
H
ill
. 
I
S
B
N 
0
-
0
7
-
2
1
2
1
2
7
-
0
.
 R
u
s
s
el
l,
R
y
a
n
(
2
0
0
4
). 
S
t
e
al
in
g
t
h
e
N
e
t
w
o
r
k:
H
o
w
t
o
O
w
n
a
C
o
n
ti
n
e
n
t.
R
o
c
kl
a
n
d
,
M
a
s
s:
S
y
n
 g
r
e
s
s
M
e
di
a
. 
I
S
B
N 
9
7
8
-
1
-
9
3
1
8
3
6
-
0
5
-
0
.
 T
a
yl
o
r,
P
a
ul
A
.
(
1
9
9
9
). 
H
a
c
k
e
r
s:
C
ri
m
e
in
t
h
e
D
ig
it
al
S
u
bl
i
m
e
.
L
o
n
d
o
n
:
R
o
u
tl
e
d
g
e
. 
I
S
 B
N 
9
7
8
-
0
-
4
1
5
-
1
8
0
7
2
-
6
.

Ext
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