SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating ,

photovoltaics , solar thermal energy , solar architecture, molten salt power plants and

artificial photosynthesis .

It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as
either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute solar energy
or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems ,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal
mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air .

The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity.
The United Nations Development Programmed in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that
the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger
than the total world energy consumption , which was 559.8 EJ in 2012

In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable,
inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will
increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly
import-independent resource, enhance sustainability , reduce pollution, lower the costs of
mitigating global warming , and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages
are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be
considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".
 TYPES OF SOLAR ENERGY HARNESSING SYSTEMS

 Photovoltaic systems

One of the most common ways to use solar power is to use photovoltaic systems or as they are
also known solar cell systems, which produce electricity directly from sunlight.

The basic principle behind this technology is similar to what we see in clock or calculators that
are powered by the sun!

The semiconductor materials used in these solar energy systems absorb sunlight which creates
a reaction that generates electricity – to be exact, the solar energy knocks the electrons loose
from their atoms which makes them flow through the semiconductor material and produce
energy.

Today, solar panel technology can absorb and convert into energy most of the visible light
spectrum and about half of the ultraviolet and infrared light spectrum Solar cells are typically
combined into modules that hold about 40 cells and as a whole can measure up to several
meters on the side. Because of their adjustable size and share, these flat-plate photovoltaic
arrays can be mounted at a fixed angle facing south, or they can be mounted on a tracking
device that follows the sun, allowing them to capture the most sunlight over the course of a
day.

 THIN FILM SOLAR CELL

What is more, this type of technology can also be run with thin film solar cells which use layers
of semiconductor materials only a few micrometers thick. This has made it possible for solar
cells to double as rooftop shingles, roof tiles, building facades, or the glazing for skylights or
atria maximizing use of the available space from where sunlight would be captured.

 SOLAR WATER HEATING SYSTEM

A second type of solar energy is solar hot water which as the name suggests involves the
heating up of water using the sun’s heat. The idea behind this comes straight from nature: the
shallow water of a lake or the water on the shallow end of a beach is usually warmer compared
to deeper water. This is because the sunlight can heat the bottom of the lake or seashore in the
shallow areas, which in turn, heats the water.So, a system has been developed to imitate this:
solar water heating systems for buildings are made up of two parts, the solar collector and a
storage tank.

The most common collector is called a flat-plate collector which is mounted on the roof and
faces the sun. Small tubes run through the box and carry the fluid – either water or other fluid,
such as an antifreeze solution – to be heated. As heat builds up in the collector, it heats the
fluid passing through the tubes. The storage tank then holds the hot liquid.Similar technology is
often used to heat swimming pools

 SOLAR POWER PLANT

A third way we can harness the sun’s power for energy is solar electricity ; this is usually used in
industrial applications. As most of us know, most power plants use non-renewable fossil fuels
to boil water.

The steam from the boiling water makes a large turbine rotate which in turn activates the
generator to produce electricity. This way of generating electricity is bad for both the
environment and our health given the emission of greenhouse gases and air pollutants from the
burning of fossil fuels. However, the good news is that a new generation of power plants is
being introduced which rely on solar power.

 PASSIVE SOLAR HEATING

A further way that solar power can be harnessed is through the method of passive solar
heating and daylighting. This is not a new concept – indeed, ancient civilizations such as the
Anasazi Indians in Colorado had developed passive solar design in their dwelling.The impact
of the sun is easy to understand: step outside on a warm sunny day and you can feel the
sun. With proper design, buildings can also “feel” the sun’s energy.For example, south-
facing windows will receive more sunlight while buildings can also incorporate materials
such as sunlit floors and walls that absorb and store the sun’s heat.

These materials heat up during the day and slowly release the heat at night when heat is
most needed. Other design features such as a sunspace, which resemble greenhouses,
concentrate a lot of warmth which with the right ventilation can be used to heat an entire
building . Such features maximize the direct gains from the sun’s heat but also sunlight
itself. The even better news is that on particularly hot days, there are ways to ensure these
features do not overheat buildings.

 ADVANTAGE OF SOLAR ENERGY

1. Renewable Energy Source

Among all the benefits of solar panels, the most important thing is that solar energy is a
truly renewable energy source. It can be harnessed in all areas of the world and is
available every day. We cannot run out of solar energy, unlike some of the other sources
of energy.
2. Clean and green energy Source
The generation of electricity from solar energy doesn't produce any type of harm to
environment and also it doesn't produce any type of pollution. Solar energy is free and
clean source of energy. It reduces reliance on oil, coal and natural gas for electricity
production. These fossil fuels produce harmful emissions that affect the quality of air,
water and soil, and are responsible for global warming.
3. Diverse Applications
Solar energy can be used for diverse purposes. You can generate electricity
( photovoltaics ) or heat ( solar thermal ). Solar energy can be used to produce electricity
in areas without access to the energy grid, to distill water in regions with limited clean
water supplies and to power satellites in space. Solar energy can also be integrated into
the materials used for buildings. Not long ago Sharp introduced transparent solar energy
windows.
 4. Low Running Costs
Solar energy systems generally don’t require a lot of maintenance. You only need to
keep them relatively clean, so cleaning them a couple of times per year will do the job.
Thus, it is only one time investment and required negligible running costs.

 SOLAR PANEL

The term Solar Panel is used colloquially for a photo-voltaic (PV) module .A PV module is an
assembly of photo-voltaic cells mounted in a frame work for installation. Photo-voltaic cells
use sunlight as a source of energy and generate direct current electricity. A collection of PV
modules is called a PV Panel, and a system of Panels is an Array. Arrays of a photovoltaic
system supply solar electricity to electrical equipment. The most common application of
solar energy collection outside agriculture is solar water heating systems.

 THEORY AND CONSTRUCTION

Photovoltaic modules use light energy ( photons) from the Sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect . Most modules use wafer -based crystalline silicon cells or
thin-film cells . The structural ( load carrying ) member of a module can be either the top
layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture.
Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available.
The cells are connected electrically in series, one to another to a desired voltage, and then
in parallel to increase amperage. The wattage of the module is the mathematical product of
the voltage and the amperage of the module.

A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output
interface. External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to
facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface
can also be used.

Module electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability (amperes) of the solar panel or the PV
system. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules are sized according to
the ampacity and may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition
metals. Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module
shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

 EFFICIENCIES

Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC). Power
typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W) . The efficiency of a module determines the area
of a module given the same rated output – an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice
the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some commercially available solar modules
exceed 24% efficiency. Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce
electricity from a range of frequencies of light , but usually cannot cover the entire solar
range (specifically, ultraviolet ,infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the
incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies
if illuminated with monochromatic light.

MAINTENANCE

Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by dust, grime,
pollen, and other particulates that accumulate on the solar panel. "A dirty solar panel can
reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas.Overall, for a
typical residential solar system of 5 kW, washing panels halfway through the summer would
translate into a mere $20 gain in electricity production until the summer drought ends—in
about 2 ½ months. For larger commercial rooftop systems, the financial losses are bigger
but still rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels lost a
little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day.

 SOLAR CONTROLLER
A solar controller is an electronic device that controls the circulating pump in a solar hot
water system to harvest as much heat as possible from the solar panels and protect the
system from overheating. The basic job of the controller is to turn the circulating pump on
when there is heat available in the panels, moving the working fluid through the panels to
the heat exchanger at the thermal store. But, here we are using solar controllers to protect
the battery from reversal polarity energy loss during night times and also preventing it from
overcharge.

 Working

The simplest solar controller circuit uses a comparator with two temperature inputs, one at
the solar panel and one at the thermal store's heat exchanger, and an output to control the
battery. Commercial controllers use a microprocessor usually with a LCD display and simple
user interface with a few pushbuttons. Power for the controller and the battery can come
from a mains electric supply or from a photovoltaic (PV) module.
 BATTERY

LEAD ACID BATTERY:

DEFINITION: The battery which uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of
the chemical energy into electrical power, such type of battery is called a lead acid battery.
The lead acid battery is most commonly used in the power stations and substations because
it has higher cell voltage and lower cost.

CONSTRUCTION

The various parts of the lead acid battery are shown below. The container and the plates
are the main part of the lead acid battery. The container stores chemical energy which is
converted into electrical energy by the help of the plates.

1. Container – The container of the lead acid battery is made of glass, lead lined wood,
ebonite, the hard rubber of bituminous compound, ceramic materials or moulded plastics
and are seated at the top to avoid the discharge of electrolyte. At the bottom of the
container, there are four ribs, on two of them rest the positive plate and the others support
the negative plates.

The prism serves as the support for the plates and at the same time protect them from a
short-circuit. The material of which the battery containers are made should be resistant to
sulfuric acid, should not deform or porous, or contain impurities which damage the
electrolyte.

2. Plate – The plate of the lead-acid cell is of diverse design and they all consist some form
of a grid which is made up of lead and the active material. The grid is essential for
conducting the electric current and for distributing the current equally on the active
material. If the current is not uniformly distributed, then the active material will loosen and
fall out. The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. These are usually made
with the transverse rib that crosses the places at a right angle or diagonally. The grid for the
positive and negative plates are of the same design, but the grids for the negative plates are
made lighter because they are not as essential for the uniform conduction of the current.
 3. Active Material – The material in a cell which takes active participation in a tuchemical
reaction (absorption or evolution of electrical energy) during charging or discharging is
called the active material of the cell. The active elements of the lead acid are

The lead peroxide and sponge lead, which form the negative and positive active materials
have the little mechanical strength and therefore can be used alone.

4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material made up of

chemically treated Leadwood, porous rubbers, or mats of glass fibre and are placed
between the positive and negative to insulate them from each other. Separators are
grooved vertically on one side and are smooth on the other side.

5. Battery Terminals – A battery has two terminals the positive and the negative. The
positive terminal with a diameter of 17.5 mm at the top is slightly larger than the negative
terminal which is 16 mm in diameter.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LEAD ACID BATTERY

When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into positive hydrogen
ions (2H ) and sulphates negative ions (SO ) and move freely. If the two electrodes are
immersed in solutions and connected to DC supply then the hydrogen ions being positively
charged and moved towards the electrodes and connected to the negative terminal of the
supply. The SO ions being negatively charged moved towards the electrodes connected to
the positive terminal of the supply main (i.e., anode).

Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each sulphates ions takes the
two negative ions from the anodes and react with water and form sulfuric and hydrogen
acid.

The oxygen, which produced from the above equation react with lead oxide and form lead
peroxide (PbO .) Thus, during charging the lead cathode remain as lead, but lead anode gets
converted into lead peroxide, chocolate in colour.

If the DC source of supply is disconnected and if the voltmeter connects between the
electrodes, it will show the potential difference between them. If wire connects the
electrodes, then current will flow from the positive plate to the negative plate through
external circuit i.e. the cell is capable of supplying electrical energy.

Chemical Action During Discharging

When the cell is full discharge, then the anode is of lead peroxide (PbO ) and a cathode is of
metallic sponge lead (Pb). When the electrodes are connected through a resistance, the cell
discharge and electrons flow in a direction opposite to that during charging.The hydrogen
ions move to the anode and reaching the anodes receive one electron from the anode and
become hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom comes in contacts with a PbO , so it attacks
and forms lead sulphates (PbSO ), whitish in colour and water according to the chemical
equation.The each sulphates ion (SO ) moves towards the cathode and reaching there gives
up two electrons becomes radical SO , attack the metallic lead cathode and form lead
sulphates whitish in colour according to the chemical equation.

Chemical Action During Recharging

For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and the negative
terminal of the DC supply mains. The molecules of the sulfuric acid break up into ions of 2H
and SO . The hydrogen ions being positively charged moved towards the cathodes and
receive two electrons from there and form a hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom reacts
with lead sulphates cathode forming lead and sulfuric acid according to the chemical
equation. SO ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes radical
SO , react with the lead sulphate anode and form leads peroxide and lead sulphuric acid
according to the chemical equation. The charging and discharging are represented by a
single reversible equation given below. The equation should read downward for discharge
and upward for recharge.