See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/313523896

Geological applications of wireline logs: A synopsis of developments and

trends

Article  in  Log Analyst · January 1992

CITATIONS READS

48 2,105

2 authors, including:

Stephen Prensky

22 PUBLICATIONS   218 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Stephen Prensky on 23 February 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs -
A Synopsis of Developments and Trends
John H. Doveton: Kansas Geological Survey
Stephen E. Prensky: U.S. Geological Survey
INTRODUCTION
Geological log analysis has emerged as a distinctive
sub-discipline of log analysis. It is built on and is an
extension of the traditional treatment of logging data in
terms of reservoir engineering and geophysics. This paper
uses summaries of published case studies to review re-
cently introduced techniques and the major develop-
ments in geological applications. Although presented as
separate sections, many of the topics discussed are inter-
related. The nature of these interconnections and the di-
versity of topics reflects the significant growth in geologic
log analysis.
For many years, the practical business of petrophysics
appeared to be the domain of the engineer, with a tight
focus on the economic implications associated with the
properties of porosity and water saturation. Even the pre-
sentation of log-analysis theory seemed an alien departure
from the traditional training of many geologists. This
perception contributed to the huge publishing success of
the textbook by Asquith and Gibson (1982) in which basic
log analysis concepts were presented by geologists for a
geological audience. In the same vein, Asquith (1985)
went on to publish techniques applicable specifically to
carbonates and a practical summary of all the models that
have been applied to shaly sandstone evaluations (As-
quith, 1990). During the same period, Darwin Ellis ac-
cepted a challenge by Stanford to teach a course on logging
that would realistically address the needs of earth sci-
entists. The experience led to the textbook by Ellis (1987),
which is marked by a particularly readable and authori-
tative treatment of the physics of the latest generation of
tools and how they relate to rock properties. Systematic
methods using well logging to measure the physical prop-
erties of rocks is also the focus of the text by Hearst and
Nelson (1985) who emphasize fundamental concepts of
tool theory and rock physics.
Books that elaborate on the broader geological (rather
than the narrower reservoir engineering) aspects had a
slower start for a variety of reasons. However, their ar-
rival was inevitable, as increasing numbers of geologists
worked routinely with logs, and the SPWLA moved in-
exorably away from a membership dominated by engi-
neers to a majority of geologists. The classic book, Geo-
286 The Log Analyst
logic well log analysis by Pirson (1970) had no rival for
many years, although its authorship by an engineer is
reflected in both its style and topic selection. The prolific
and creative work of Oberto Serra and his coworkers
finally led to a monumental two-volume treatise (Serra,
1984, 1986). The concept of “electrofacies” was a par-
ticularly useful contribution by Serra and Abbott (1980)
and has been widely adopted as a bridge to connect log-
ging measurements with the classical facies approach of
sedimentary geology. In addition, Serra made extensive
use of dipmeter analyses, closely integrated with other
logs and profiles of bedding and textural properties. Col-
lectively, these provide a valuable atlas in the interpre-
tation of sedimentary environments from logs (Serra,
1985).
Rider (1986, revised 1991) published a readable and
popular book on the geological interpretation of logs,
drawn partly from his work with Serra’s group, although
he pointedly declined to write on dipmeter interpretation.
In his book, Doveton (1986) emphasized the role of com-
puter methods in the transformation of logs to profiles of
lithology and mineralogy within individual wells and as
maps of variation across regional areas. The appearance
of the “Bibliography of Well-Log Applications” in The
LogAnalyst (Prensky, 1987), followed by annual updates,
provided a valuable reference source for geological ap-
plications. Even a cursory glance through these references
(or those listed in this article) shows the relatively limited
penetration of mainstream geological journals, at the
present time.
The conventions of the SPWLA and its sister societies
have always provided forums for geological studies drawn
from logs. However, in 1988, a two-day meeting with the
theme “Geological Applications of Wireline Logs,” was
convened in London by the Geological Society. In the
proceedings volume of this meeting, Hurst et al. (1990)
boldly asserted in the introduction that they believed this
meeting to be the first of its kind. The enthusiastic re-
sponse to this meeting and the published proceedings
demonstrated the wide interest in the subject and a second
meeting on this theme was held in 1991 (GAWL 11), also
in London. Maybe it was worth the wait, because the
developments of the last 10 years have been truly inno-
vative and have the potential to make a major impact on
mainstream geology.
May-June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs

7 9 10 dle simple relative vertical displacement, but often had

-0 0 limited success in accommodating missing sections and
differential stretch of correlative intervals between wells.
These features result from a normal geological history
that includes multiple episodes of erosion and nonde-
position, which punctuate periods of continuously vary-
ing rates of sedimentation. The occurrence of “gaps” and
“stretching” are common to sequence matching problems
in other scientific areas, such as linguistic analysis and
genetic-string comparison. Dynamic programming meth-
ods developed in these fields have been adapted to cor-
relation of wireline logs to select the optimum correlative
match from all possibilities. Both missing sections and
differential stretch are accommodated automatically. The
methodology has proved widely successful, and appli-
cations are described by a number of authors, including
Wu and Nyland (1986), Lineman et al. (1987), and Grif-
fiths and Bakke (1988).
The lack of digital data, where and when you need it,
remains a major obstacle to the routine application of
computer methods for regional or even fieldwide corre-
lation. This situation continues to slowly improve with
the growth of digitized log databases and archives of dig-
ital well-log tapes. Recent changes in technology have
c
radically accelerated the costly and time-consuming mass
Figure 1: Automated log correlation of Tertiary sections be-
transfer of log curves into digits. Logs are now routinely
tween wells in the Lake des Allemands Field, Louisiana The
scanned by devices such as facsimile machines to yield
lines that link the log traces show computed depths of common
correlation (from Olea and Davis, 1986). raster (bitmap) images, which can then be stored effi-
ciently on optical discs. Software is available to screen
out background grids automatically and to follow log
AUTOMATED LOG CORRELATION curves for a raster-to-vector (digital) conversion with min-
The principal geological application of logs has always imal user intervention. These recent developments, sum-
been subsurface stratigraphic correlation. Manual corre- marized by Leonard (1990), hold great potential for trans-
lations are highly labor-intensive tasks whose end results forming the vast amount of logging data now frozen in
are subjective and often hotly debated. The potential ad- paper records into digits for use in correlation as well as
vantages of automated correlation have been the stimulus for computer-processed subsurface geologic studies.
for the design of many different computer methods since
the pioneering study by Moran et al. (1962). Real progress ELECTRICAL IMAGING METHODS
has been made in the last few years toward the solution Since their introduction in 1986, electrical borehole-
of significant problems that have often stymied earlier imaging tools have made a great impact in a variety of
attempts. Although computer programs can correlate commercial and academic geological applications. Gray-
trivial examples, they often fail in more complex situa- level processing of multiple microresistivity curves can
tions. Solutions may be either geologically or geometri- result in images of the borehole wall with impressive
cally absurd or the program method may be unable to resolution (Figure 2). The technology of these tools is
distinguish between several reasonable alternatives. The described elsewhere in this issue in a companion review
application of artificial-intelligence (AI) methods and the paper by Maute (1992) and marks a logical step in the
development of expert systems has now provided a means evolution of the dipmeter.
to codify both geometrical constraints and human ex- The images often mimic conventional pictures in a
perience within sets of rules. An expert-system compo- striking fashion and so can be compared readily with core.
nent can guide the data-handling and numerical process- This property has been found particularly useful forbore-
ing of correlation algorithms, and one has been successfully holes drilled for scientific research, e.g., the Ocean Drill-
field-tested on realistic correlation problems (see, for ex- ing Program (ODP), where extensive intervals are cored
ample, Olea and Davis, 1986; Kuo and Startzman, 1987; or the borehole is continuously cored. For intervals where
and Figure 1). core recovery is poor, the images can be used to inter-
Previous methods of automated correlation could han- polate missing information, and for intervals where core

May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst 287

 Doveton and Prensky

Figure 2: Example of high-resolution electrical borehole images, which show eolian cross-bedding features in the Permian
Rotliegende Sandstone of the North Sea as compared with core (adapted from Luthi and Banavar, 1988, figure 4).

is recovered, images and core can be matched to establish
core orientation.
The images represent conductivity measurements of
the borehole wall and register fractures (both open and
healed), thin beds, sedimentary structures and other fea-
tures. The techniques of interpretation are described by
Harker et al. (1990); useful reference material for images
of clastic rocks is provided by Luthi (1990) and of car-
bonate rocks by Nurmi et al. (1990). Image processing is
now performed routinely on workstations, either as an
unaided interactive task or with assistance from an A1
procedure (Startzman and Kuo, 1989).
A major application of electrical imaging is in the de-
tection and evaluation of fractures (Casarta et al., 1989;
Standen, 199l), a goal that has always been elusive using
traditional logs. The recent boom in horizontal drilling,
with its primary targets of fractured formations, has stim-
ulated additional interest in this area. Laubach et al. (I 988)
compared fractures detected by electrical imaging with
those obtained from the acoustic borehole televiewer, and
their validation by core. Hornby et al. (1 990) related frac-
ture aperture widths computed from both electrical scans
and reflected Stoneley waves. A number of useful articles
are also reprinted in the SPWLA Borehole Imaging vol-
ume (Paillet et al., 1990).
RESERVOIR MINERALOGY AND
LITHOFACIES ANALYSIS
Multiple “porosity” logs (density, neutron, and sonic)
have been used for several decades to arrive at true ef-
fective porosities independent of matrix mineralogy. Al-
though manual crossplots are still used for this purpose,

288 The Log Analyst May-June, 1992

 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
computer solutions to this problem are increasingly com-
mon and generate a compositional profile of minerals as
a byproduct. The power of these tools to discriminate
mineralogy has also been significantly enhanced through
the addition of the photoelectric-absorption curve from
the spectral density log. The mathematical process in-
volved is essentially the solution of simultaneous equa-
tions that link the unknown volumes of selected minerals
and their hypothetical log responses with log records of
sedimentary sections. The result is displayed typically as
a graphic profile such as shown in Figure 3, and represents
the inversion of the original log curves to compositional
traces. Consequently, their vertical resolution is con-
trolled by that of the tools (about 0.5 m) and thus rep-
resents a moving average of actual variation.
The computer program for solving a determined system
(when the number of logs is sufficient for a unique com-
ponent solution) is simple and can be run quickly on even
the smallest computers. The ready availability of fast
computers makes them a practical medium for interactive
geological processing of wireline logs. Some degree of
interaction is necessary for thoughtful analysis due to
limiting assumptions concerning linearity, idealized log
responses, correct identification of mineral components,
borehole environment, and tool errors. By involving the
user as a participant, changes in mineral suites at various
depths can be recognized and an appropriate selection
made from alternatives at all levels. The strategy of run-
ning multiple models in parallel is described by Quirein
et al. (1986), with the final choice dictated either by prob-
ability concepts or user intervention.
In reality, the link between rock compositions and log
responses is both underdetermined and nonlinear. Be-
cause lithologies are typically dominated by a few com-
ponents and linearity is generally a reasonable approxi-
mation, an experienced analyst can usually generate a
satisfactory solution. More expansive approaches to the
problem incorporate constraints, accommodate nonlin-
earities, and take account of tool errors in an iterative
process that locates an optimal result with minimal in-
coherence between the solution and the logs. However,
the relative slowness of these more complex prograr-
makes interaction impractical. Furthermore, the difficul-
ties in specifying many of the input parameters means
that mathematical optimality does not necessarily mean
geological reality. Consequently, interaction with simpler
models on workstations is still usually favored by most
analysts for routine applications, as discussed by Marett
and Kimminau (1990).
Statistical Methods for Lithofacies Analysis
The inversion methods described in the previous sec-
tion are rooted in a deductive or a “top-down” approach,
where solutions of mineral composition are the conse-
quences of models set by the user. The alternative strategy
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst
shale dolomite quartz calcite porosity
Figure 3: Graphic profile of mineral and porosity composition
within the Permian Chase Group, based on inversion ofgamma-
ray, photoelectric-absorption, density, and neutron log re-
sponses.
is inductive or “bottom-up,” where inferences on litho-
facies are drawn directly from patterns observed in log-
response associations. Distinctions between characteris-
tic response groupings are then used for classification and
subdivision of log sequences. The basic concept was set
out by Serra and Abbott (1980), who coined the term
“electrofacies” and described a manual procedure based
on simple graphical motifs. The pattern-recognition tasks
involved were later adapted as a semiautomated proce-
dure in which the complementary skills and limitations
of machine and human are put into play. The use of
principal-component analysis reduces the dimensionality
of the problem from a potentially bewildering multiple-
log representation to a lower order space. The axes of this
space are composite logs that systematically absorb the
information content while screening out statistical noise
from various sources. Using cluster analysis, electrofacies
are then identified by localized clouds of points. However,
the intel€igentanalyst intervenes at this stage to ensure
that the final clusters have interpretable geological mean-
i r g based on core observations or geological insight. This
automated electrofacies method was originally intro-
duced by Wolff and Pelissier-Combescure (1982), and a
useful multiwell case study is described by Widdicombe
et al. (1984).
The mathematical methods used in this approach are
taken from the standard multivariate-analysis toolbox
and so are readily available for any log analyst who works
with logs on a computer. In recent years, practical appli-
cations appear to be increasing in number, probably due
in large part to the increasing use of microcomputers and
workstations by many analysts. Clear signs of this grass-
roots change are indicated by the wide readership of the
popular “petrophysics” section published in Geobyte,un-
289
 Doveton and Prensky
der the direction of Robert Elphick, and the burgeoning
membership of the computer-oriented geological societ-
ies.
Explanations of multivariate statistical techniques and
their application to well logs for pattern recognition and
classification tasks can be found in a number of dispersed
sources. Doveton (1986) devoted a chapter of his book
to mathematical analysis of log trends and patterns,
whereas Hayes (1989) provided a useful overview of sta-
tistical well-log pattern-recognition methods in his Ph.D.
dissertation. Elek (1988) showed how principal-compo-
nent analysis could be applied to zonation and well-log
correlation. Both Busch et al. (1985) and Anderson et al.
(1988) described the application of discriminant function
analysis to lithological classification from well logs. Other
techniques and case studies included cluster analysis
(Robinson and Reeves, 1989), fuzzy-set theory (Griffiths,
1989), and Kruskal multidimensional scaling (Matyas,
1990).
Statistical Prediction of Physical Properties
The primary mission of the statistical methods de-
scribed in the previous section is to serve as automated
pattern-recognition devices that link log responses with
associations of rock properties. In more traditional ap-
plications, statistical line- and curve-fit methods have
been used for many years for both calibration and pre-
diction. Because core analysis data are commonly ac-
cepted as the reference standard for reservoir evaluation,
porosity logs are generally calibrated against core data.
The differing vertical resolution of the two measurements
requires smoothing of the core data to give common ver-
tical resolution.
The choice of line-fit and estimation procedure by one
of several statistical models is still debatable. Only a few
papers have been written in this area, but they are gen-
erally thoughtful studies that provide useful insights into
systematic data analysis for the working log analyst . Et-
nyre (1982, 1990) wrote a two-part series on weighted
least-squares methods applied to formation evaluation,
followed by an explanation of the petrophysical uses of
the robust-Marquardt statistical procedure (Etnyre, 1990).
Rodriguez et al. (1989) described the determination of
confidence intervals for petrophysical parameters.
Many log analysts are unfamiliar with the finepoints
underlying the concepts and interpretation of statistical
methods as applied to petrophysical data. However, the
increasing role of digital databases as a component in
routine log analysis is a major stimulus for their increased
understanding of statistical processing. Basic statistical
procedures have been great sources of argument and dis-
cussion during the major field-unit operating disputes of
the 1980s. It is interesting to speculate that the amount
of money that hung on the choice of regression method
in these equity battles is the greatest in the history of
290 The Log Analyst
statistics! Basic explanations of statistical methods in a
logging context such as the paper by Mitchell and Nelson
(1988) are useful for a wide readership. However, a certain
degree of caution is appropriate, because of the potential
snares of misinterpretation and blind faith in “numbers.”
The problems caused by differing sampling volumes
associated with core and various logging devices have
been recognized for many years. The most common and
practical means to bring the measurements to a common
vertical resolution is through the statistical smoothing of
core data to the coarser scale of the wireline logs. This
loss of detail has prompted efforts over the years to reverse
the process, by enhancement of the vertical resolution of
logging measurements.
Research in this area has been further stimulated by
the great interest in thinly bedded reservoirs in recent
years (see e.g., Gundeso and Gronvold, 1990; Chaudhary
and Vashist, 1991). Applications of log-analysis tech-
niques to thin beds were described by Ruhovets (1989),
their integration with core data by Sinha et al. (1989),
and potential pitfalls in thin-bed enhancement resolution
by Minette (1990).
Some progress in finer vertical resolution has been made
through the introduction of improved tool designs (Titt-
man, 199l), particularly with respect to induction logging
(Silva and Spooner, 1991) and electrical borehole imaging
(discussed earlier). The alternative approach is to create
a more finely resolved log through computer processing
of data recorded by logging tools with coarser resolution.
The actual vertical variation of the logged property can
be considered to be averaged or “convolved” by a filter,
which is determined by the tool’s measurement charac-
teristics. The goal of “deconvolution” is equated with the
design of an inverse filter or procedure that essentially
reverses the averaging process.
The desirability of this is easy to understand, but dif-
ficult to implement in a practical and convincing manner.
The nonlinear responses of the resistivity tools are math-
ematically difficult to deconvolve, even for the service
companies who are privy to their design characteristics.
The measurements of the nuclear tools are stochastic (sta-
tistical, rather than deterministic) and so are confounded
with counting error. Attempts to amplify the signal in
these statistical data must therefore not allow the “noise”
to be amplified beyond tolerable limits. Looyestijn (1982)
provided a useful and sobering review article that explains
these problems. Nevertheless, the great value of even
modest improvements continues to stimulate research in
this area, such as that reported by Galford et al. (1986),
Elkington et al. (1990), and Nelson and Mitchell (1990).
Some limited progress continues to be made on the
prediction of permeability from logs by the use of mul-
tiple-regression methods. Log predictions of permeability
are still most commonly based on porosity estimatesalone.
These predictions are often very poor, unless the rock
May-June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
shows little change in pore-size characteristics, because
of the failureto take into account the variationsin internal
surface area. Internal surface area is often related to rock
framework textural, mineralogical, and geochemical
properties that influence many logs. Although no log mea-
sures internal surface area directly, some logs can function
as surrogate variables for surface area and be incorporated
with porosity in multiple-regression models for perme-
ability prediction and error analysis. A very useful review
paper of these methods is given by Wendt et al. (1986),
who also describe in detail, and critically, the successes
and limitations of their own experiences with Prudhoe
Bay data.
In studies that draw on older logs, the choices of ad-
ditional variables are generally restricted to gamma-ray
transforms and multiple porosity log indicators of shale
content and changes in matrix minerals. However, the
geochemical logs (reviewed in detail later) have a great
potential for this type of application, as they record a
suite of elemental measures. These elements reflect tex-
tural properties through their sensitivity to matrix min-
eralogy, which is, in turn, the product of depositional and
diagenetic processes. Herron (1987) introduced this con-
cept of using geochemical logs as surrogate variables for
the internal surface area in a multiple regression model
based on the classic Kozeny-Carman relationship.
Both simple and multiple regression models have also
been applied to the prediction of organic content in the
evaluation of source-rock potentials. Logging tools are
now available to estimate organic carbon directly from
the carbon/oxygen ratio (Herron, S.L., 1986). However,
organic content has a distinctive effect on gamma-ray,
sonic, resistivity, neutron, and density logs (e.g., Schmok-
er, 1981; Mendelson and Toksoz, 1986), and these rela-
tionships can be used as the basis for statistical prediction
(Krystinik and Charpentier, 1987) when calibrated with
core data.
ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS
A few years ago, the field of artificial intelligence (AI)
was dominated by “expert ~ y s t e r n s but
, ~ ~ “neural net-
works” have recently emerged as a serious competitor.
The two approacheshave radically different philosophies,
but both have found legitimate and interesting applica-
tions in log analysis.
Expert Systems
Expert systems attempt to emulate simple reasoning,
drawing inferences from data as dictated by a knowledge-
base of rules. The rules are a codified mix of objective
constraints and more subjective material, which distill
the experience and judgment of acknowledged experts in
the problem area. Log analysis is widely recognized as a
blend of art and science, so that expert systems provide
a useful methodology to attempt to capture a lifetime’s
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyet
experience from older log analysts. Recent examples of
some expert-system prototypes for general log analysis
are described by Peveraro and Lee (1988) and Einstein
and Sutherland (1989). Einstein and Edwards (1988) also
discuss a comparison between the performance of human
experts and expert systems in log analysis and interpre-
tation.
By far the most well-known log analysis expert system
has been the Dipmeter Advisor, developed by Schlum-
berger (see Smith and Baker, 1983). Dipmeter interpre-
tation is an obvious application because it has always
been a particularly tricky mixture of systematic analysis,
pattern recognition, and experienced judgments. A gen-
eral theory of the rule-based approach to dipmeter pro-
cessing is also described by Kerzner (1988). The Dipmeter
Advisor is probably more famous in the A1 research com-
munity than among log analysts because it is considered
one of the few expert systems that is used on a routine,
daily basis for real-world applications rather than as an
interesting curiosity.
Automated log correlation is also an appropriate task
for a rule-based approach, because certain solutions can
usually be discarded as geometrically impossible or geo-
logically improbable (see Olea and Davis, 1986; Lineman
et al., 1987). It is now widely recognized that expert sys-
tems generally perform well in applications where the
problem has clearly defined constraints and goals, but can
“fail” in more complex and subtle situations, most par-
ticularly where the human “experts” disagree among
themselves!
Neural Networks
Neural networks are drawn from models of the brain
that see the processing of information as the result of
excitation of simple neurons, which are richly intercon-
nected on a massive scale. Although today’s neural net-
works cannot attempt to approach the complexity of the
human brain, some powerful applications can be devel-
oped using the basic design features of simple “neuronyy
units interconnected as a network in a parallel-processing
operation. The easiest task for a neural network to attempt
is a supervised problem, where the network “learns” the
pattern of input responses (log readings) that correspond
with a desired output (matrix or fluid characteristics). The
current procedures are often timeconsuming since the
learning is an iterative process. However, there are several
advantages over the classical statistical pattern-recogni-
tion methods, including a focus on all sample patterns,
rather than just summary parameters, and a lack of as-
sumptionsconcerninglinearity or normality. On the debit
side, it is often difficult to establish how a successful so-
lution was arrived at based on input patterns. This con-
trasts with expert systems, where an “audit trail” can
quickly establish which rules were invoked in any system
decision.
291
 Doveton and Prensky
Self-organizing
Hypercube
(After Auto-Association)
Log Data
input
Lithofacies
-a Inhibitory Synapse
-a Excitory Synapse
Figure 4: Schematic diagram of a simulated neural network
trained for lithofacies pattern identification and recognition based
on wireline logs, using inputs of an autoassociated SOA (Self-
Organizing-Activation) hypercube (from Baldwin et al., 1989a).
Simple explanatory examples in the determination of
lithology from a neural network are outlined by Rogers
et al. (1992), using a back-propagation learning algorithm.
This material provides an introduction to the neural-net-
work applications to log analysis given by Baldwin et al.
(1989a, 1989b), who also describe an “unsupervised” ap-
plication for lithofacies recognition (see Figure 4). Un-
supervised pattern recognition is a more difficult problem
because it requires the network to teach itself from log
data presented to it. Furthermore, these self-taught pat-
terns should have some utility and meaning to the human
network handler. Derek et al. (1990) compare the per-
formance of neural networks and statistical pattern-rec-
ognition methods in sandstone lithofacies identification.
There are great potential rewards in using this approach
as an aid in interpretation of complex lithologies utilizing
all measurements made on current and future logging
programs. For example, current statistical methods for
predicting permeability from logs are limited by their
linear structure and estimation of parameters. By con-
trast, neural networks can handle non-linearities and are
nonparametric so that they may be more effective for
permeability prediction (Rui-Lin and Chen-Dang, 1991).
Runge and Runge (1991) also show how the simulated
annealing property of neural-network operation can be
applied to obtaining blocked logs from curves.
292 The Log Analyst
The application of A1 to log analysis is still in its infancy
and results are often documented in poorly accessible
journals. However, progress in the field can now be mon-
itored by attending or reading the proceedings of the an-
nual conference on “Artificial Intelligence in Petroleum
Exploration and Production,” held at Texas A&M Uni-
versity.
APPLICATIONS OF TOTAL GAMMA-RAY AND
SPECTRAL GAMMA-RAY LOGGING
The gamma-ray log has been widely used in geological
interpretation for many years as a means to assess both
shale content and implied grain-size variation. So, for
example, Selley (1974) described the application of gam-
ma-ray profiles in conjunction with glauconite and car-
bonaceous material as a “cowboy geology” method to aid
in recognition of ancient sedimentary environments.
However, because of the different sources of radiation,
interpretations of this type are often ambiguous and Rider
(1990) points out that care must be taken, especially in
systematic work.
The introduction of the spectral gamma-ray tool in the
1970s marked a major advance in our ability to determine
the specific contributions of the potassium, uranium, and
thorium isotope series. Early applications focused on the
resolution of reservoir evaluation problems such as the
distinction of micas from clays in Jurassic sandstones of
the North Sea (see Hodson et al., 1976), and the recog-
nition of fracture systems with uranium mineralization
in the Austin Chalk (see Fertl et al., 1980).
Hassan et al. (1976) explored the differentiation of clay
minerals and other radioactive species using the ratio of
thorium concentration to potassium concentration. Both
thorium (by adsorption) and potassium (chemical com-
position) are associated with clay minerals, so that the
ratio expresses relative potassium richness as one indi-
cator of clay-mineral species, as well as being diagnostic
of other radioactive minerals. A widely used thorium-
potassium crossplot based on broad expectations of ratio
fields that are associated with single minerals was pub-
lished by Quirein et al. (1982). Hurst (1990) cautioned
against the “bland generalizations” that underlie such a
crossplot, because the chemistry of thorium and potas-
sium associated with clay minerals are determined both
by source and diagenetic history. Also, as a nuclear log,
the measurement is a stochastic property, where consid-
erations of precision and accuracy are important, partic-
ularly at low counts, such as within sandstones.
Because most shales are composed of a mixture of clay
minerals, the use of the photoelectric cross section (P,)
in conjunction with the Th/K ratio is an additional help
to interpretation. The photoelectric cross section is a di-
rect function of the aggregate atomic number. Ellis (1987)
points out that differences in atomic number between
quartz and clay minerals can be attributed mostly to iron
May-June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
content. As a result, values in photoelectric absorption
are ordered from a low in kaolinite to successively higher
values, through smectite, illite, to chlorite, basically as a
function of increasing iron content. However, in the final
analysis, systematic volumetric estimates are made dif-
ficult by the presence of other accessory minerals, as well
as the variation in composition of clay minerals, so that
these wireline measures provide generalized indications
of the compositional aspects of shales.
Based on their analyses of numerous rock samples,
Adams and Weaver (1958), in a classic paper, demon-
strated the utility of the thorium-to-uranium ratio as an
indication of relatively oxidizing or reducing conditions.
The two elements are normally associated geochemically.
Whereas thorium has only one valency state, which is
insoluble, uranium has two valency states, of which the
lower is also insoluble, but the higher is soluble and can
be removed in solution. The ratio therefore provides a
useful indication of relative reduction or oxidation, but
whether this can be attributed to depositional or diage-
netic mechanisms requires additional information. Ad-
ams and Weaver (1958) further suggested that ratios of
<2 were highly suggestiveof relative uranium enrichment
and, by implication reducing conditions, as contrasted
with ratios >7, which indicated preferential removal of
uranium, possibly by leaching.
Doveton (1991), using ratios from logs run in a Cre-
taceous/Permian sequence in central Kansas, offers an
example of geological interpretation from spectral gam-
ma-ray logs using these concepts. Figure 5 shows striking,
and readily interpretable patterns: an abrupt shift in the
Th/K ratio that occurs at the Cretaceous-Permian contact
and highlights clearly the major basal Cretaceous uncon-
formity. At this depth, the potassium-rich illite-feldspar
signature of the Cedar Hills Sandstonechanges to a Lower
Cretaceous trace, which oscillates between illitic and ka-
olinitic clay minerals facies, possibly linked with marine
and deltaic freshwater environments, respectively. The
high-amplitude variations of the Th/K ratio log in the
Graneros Shale and Greenhorn Limestone may reflect
the occurrence of volcanic ash (bentonites) observed in
the drill cuttings, interbedded with normal illitic marine
shales.
Based on Th/U ratios and the diagnostic values sug-
gested by Adams and Weaver (1958), an oxidizing en-
vironment is indicated for much of the Cedar Hills Sand-
stone, which would be consistent with its postulated origin
as eolian sands. Stacked repetitions of high and medium
Th/U ratios characterize the Dakota Formation. These
probably reflect high lateral variability in clastic facies
and interplay between mostly brackish and freshwater
regimes of distributary channels, bays and marginal ma-
rine deposits, which would be expected to typify a delta
complex. The relatively smooth, long-term cyclic pattern
of the Th/U ratio in the marine sequence of the Upper
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst
I , . /
ThRT ratio
K FixaQU -Leached4
KEY
Lithology
limestone
shale
silly shale
siltstone
silly sandstone
Q mom
Accessory
v bentonite
6 glauconite
+ CarbOnaCaOus
material
fossils
ThiK facies
F feldspar
M mica
I = illite
S s smeclile
K E kaolinite
Figure 5: Standard gamma-ray (SGR), computed gamma-ray
(CGR), thorium/potassium, thorium/uranium ratio and drill-
cuttings lithology logs of a Permian-Cretaceoussequence in cen-
tral Kansas. The CGR log represents the summed contribution
of potassium and thorium sources, while the differencesbetween
the SGR and CGR curves reflects uranium content (from Dov-
eton, 1991).
Cretaceous is an excellent indicator of a broad transgres-
siordregressioncouplet on an open marine shelf. The broad
sine-wave feature conforms precisely with the outcrop
interpretationofthe Greenhorn Cycle as a classic example
of a symmetric, third-order tectono-eustatic cycle (Glen-
ister and Kauffman, 1985). The transgressive phase of the
cycle started in the uppermost part of the Dakota For-
mation, continued through the Graneros Shale, and
reached maximum development in the Greenhorn Lime-
stone. The regressive hemicyclothem was initiated at the
top of the Greenhorn and continued through the Fairport
Chalk and Blue Hills Shale, to terminate in the Codell
Sandstone. The overlying Fort Hays marks the renewal
of a major marine transgression, that is marked by a
distinctive drop in the Th/U ratio log value.
The development of portable spectrometersnow makes
it possible to verify the Th/U log ratios with the actual
geology at the outcrop. So, for example, Zelt (1 985) con-
cluded that spectral data recorded at outcropping Cre-
293
 Doveton and Prensky

o no, 5 o F ~ O ao o s supplement the older electric logs. Geological conclusions

L basins where these are the majority of logs available.
Benthic Lrams,
gautmpods,
bryowans,
molluscs.
Bolitary and
colonial corals
High TWe
plagioclase
basalt
: Calcarenite (beach
VOLCANIC
ISLAND
8”baErial
vesicular olivine
basalt lava flows
(1. 6 m thick)
with lateritic
weathering
Figure 6: Geochemical logs of a Lower Eocene section from
the Maldives Ridge of the Indian Ocean, ODP Leg 115, Site
7 15, drilled by the ODP drillship “Resolution” (from Borehole
Research Group, 1990).
taceous marine shales and chalks in Colorado, New Mex-
ico, and Utah could be used to deduce the proximity of
paleoshorelines and directions of sediment transport.
Based on field measurements of the Lower Jurassic Cleve-
land ironstone in England, Myers (1989) showed rela-
tively high Th/K ratios in the oolitic ironstones, and at-
tributed the thorium-rich character to a lateritic weathering
origin. Myers (1990) has also reported the integration of
spectral measurements made from outcrop, core, and
boreholes as important measures of clastic reservoir prop-
erties, with refinement of mineral and grain-size inter-
pretations and recognition of shale permeability barriers
and intervals of enhanced permeability. Slatt et al. ( 1 99 1)
provide insights on the reliability of interwell correlations
in the subsurface based on experiences with detailed out-
crop logging of lenticular and continuous turbidite sand-
stones by both standard logging truck and handheld de-
vices.
APPLICATIONS OF
GEOCHEMICAL LOGGING
The major change in geological applications of logs
occurred with the introduction of nuclear logging tools to
based exclusively on the spontaneous potential and re-
sistivity logs are restricted to simple characterizations of
shale and pore volume and ambiguous assertions con-
cerning grain-size variations or lithofacies types. Sadly,
this approach will continue to be used in the more mature
Because the stratigraphic framework is so well known in
these same basins, they are the natural locations to re-
search evolving models of sequence stratigraphy. As a
result, antique techniques of log-shape interpretation are
mingled with modern sedimentological concepts drawn
from computer modeling and seismic stratigraphy.
By contrast, nuclear measurements are rich in infor-
mation concerning mineralogy and geochemistry. How-
ever, they also require more systematic analytic strategies
than the often intuitive interpretation style used with old-
er electric logs. Ellis (1990) gives an excellent review of
the developments in nuclear logging that led up to the
introduction of the geochemical (elemental analysis) log-
ging (Chapman et al., 1987).
The Schlumberger Geochemical Logging Tool (GLT)
incorporates measurements from three nuclear logging
devices, combined on a single tool string, to estimate
concentrations of 10 elements: potassium, thorium, ura-
nium (from the natural gamma-ray spectrum); aluminum
(by delayed neutron-activation analysis); and silicon, cal-
cium, iron, sulfur, titanium and gadolinium (from the
prompt-capture gamma-ray spectrum measured after a
14-Mev neutron burst). More extensive technical details
are provided by Hertzog et al. (1987). The GLT string
has been used both by industry and in scientific research
logging (ODP, Cajon Pass well, the German KTB project).
Commercial (and onshore) applications have focused on
sedimentary sections (e.g., Wendlandt and Bhuyan, 1990),
while much of the scientific research work, summarized
by Anderson et al. (1 990), has been directed to the anal-
ysis of igneous and metamorphic sections.
Figure 6 (also cover illustration) presents a spectacular
example of a geochemical logging run during ODP Leg
1 15, in the Indian Ocean, and shown in the ODP Wireline
Logging Manual (Borehole Research Group, 1990). This
log provides a clear example of the geological evolution
of a volcanic island that subsided and the subsequent
development of a reef in Lower Eocene times. Cores from
the volcanic sequence are mostly vesicular olivine-basalt
flows with weathered zones, succeeded by plagioclase ba-
salt. The basaltic composition is shown by the relatively
high amounts of iron, aluminum, and silicon contents.
The high aluminum spikes are coincident with weathered
“soil” horizons between the flows. A thin calcarenite zone
(interpreted from core as beach deposit) is succeeded by
a distinctive titanium-rich basalt which marks the ter-
mination of volcanic activity. Core recovery in the over-
lying reef was only 5%, but this was sufficient to show an

294 The Log Analyst May-June, 1992

 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
upward transition from grainstones to packstones and
faunal changes that collectively mark a progressive deep-
ening of water. The reef limestone is contrasted starkly
with the volcanic basalt, by low iron, aluminum, and
silicon contents, but high calcium content. The sulfur
curve is of particular interest as it shows zones, possibly
cyclic, of high sulfur concentration within the reef. The
sulfur has been interpreted to reflect sulfate content as-
sociated with evaporite zones. Although no evaporites
have been observed in the limited core available (5%
recovery), the log may be a depth record of eustatic changes
in sea level, with low stands marked by sulfur anomalies.
Amplitude spectra from the sulfur trace show distinctive
peaks at wavelengths of 25 and 50 ft, suggesting a cyclic
pattern that may be related to the Eocene low stands of
36, 40, 42, 49, and 54 Ma of the Vail eustatic curve. As
this example shows, great insights can be made into the
geological history of a sequence from the raw elements
recorded by the geochemical logs.
The major thrust of research connected with these logs
has been aimed at the production of realistic mineral
transforms. “Normative” minerals calculated from oxide
analyses have been widely used in igneous petrology since
the CIPW (Cross Iddings Pirsson Washington) norm was
introduced by Cross et al. (1 902). These normative min-
erals are contrasted with modal compositions, which are
those mineral phases actually observed in the rock. The
normative concept can be extended to sedimentary se-
quences in attempts to compute mineral assemblages,
based on the 10 elements currently measured on the geo-
chemical logging tool string (Herron, M.M., 1986). In
calculating classical igneous norms, oxides are assigned
to minerals in an allocation scheme that attempts to con-
form with their crystallization history. By contrast, ele-
ments from geochemical logs are transformed to nor-
mative or “chem” minerals by the inversion procedures
discussed earlier. Herron (1 988) studied terrigenous sands
and shales in terms both of core and geochemical-logdata
and suggests that new methods of classification may be
necessary. Strictly speaking, there will almost always be
more minerals than elements to solve for them, so that
the problem is always underdetermined. However, as
Herron et al. (in press) notes, the overwhelming majority
of sedimentary minerals can be numbered as 10: quartz,
4 clays, 3 feldspars, and 2 carbonates. In practice, rea-
sonable compositional solutions can be generated using
relatively small mineral subsets, provided that they have
been identified correctly and that the compositions used
are both fairly accurate and constant. In common with
all new technologies, the approach is both exciting and
controversial, but even modest successes should be of
enormous benefit to a variety of geological studies.
Mineral solutions may be calculated by two alternative
strategies. In the first, the average chemical compositions
of minerals drawn from a large database are used as end-
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst
member responses and resolved by standard matrix-in-
version procedures. This result is normative and generic
in the sense that it is based on a sample drawn from a
universal mineral reference set and applied to a specific
sequence where local mineral compositions may deviate
from the global average. The result is hypothetical but
has the particular advantage that comparisons can be
made among a variety of locations and do not require
expensive ancillary core measurements. In a second ap-
proach, the solution is calibrated to core data, where lab-
oratory determinations of mineralogy and elemental geo-
chemistry are analyzed by multiple regression techniques
to determine local mineral compositions. This result is
linked to petrography and so is philosophically closer to
an estimated modal solution, rather than the more hy-
pothetical normative model.
Several detailed studies have been made to assess the
strengths and limitations of geochemical logging through
exhaustive comparisons of borehole data and core ele-
mental and mineralogical analyses. Examples include
comparisons in the Conoco Research well, Ponca City,
Oklahoma (Hertzog et al., 1987); discussion of the results
from an Exxon research well that penetrated Upper Cre-
taceous siliciclastic rocks in Utah (Wendlandt and Bhuy-
an, 1990); and an assessment of data from three Shell
wells in the Netherlands, Oman, and the U.S. (van den
Oord, 1990). Figure 7 shows a typical comparative ex-
ample of mineralogy for core and geochemical-log esti-
mates (from van den Oord, 1990).
In general, the prognosis for this infant technology is
quite good, particularly with regard to the relatively good
match between in-situ borehole measurements and lab-
oratory measurements from core. Teething problems are
related primarily to the determination of the appropriate
mineral-transform strategies to obtain useful results. Most
authors working on the problem agree that local core
calibration is a necessary step, rather than resorting to a
generic normative solution. At the same time, it is rec-
ognized that the precise resolution of sedimentarymineral
assemblages is inherently a complex problem and that in
some respects, the technology is ahead of-ourunderstand-
ing of the distribution of elements in sedimentary se-
quences. So, for example, Wendlandt and Bhuyan (1 990)
point out that some knowledge concerning the controls
on distribution patterns of gadolinium and titanium would
prove to be a very useful aid in future work.
In addition to the immediate display of lithofaciestypes,
there are numerous potential applications of successful
mineral transforms of geochemical logging data including:
quantitative estimates of grain-size, cation-exchange ca-
pacity, and permeability, and using the minerals as sur-
rogates for other petrophysical properties (Chapman et
al., 1987). Although there may be some differences of
opinion on how far these goals have been met, they cer-
tainly set forth a worthwhile agenda of research targets.
295

CORE
0
T
v cessions are composed of cyclic repetitions of simple lith-
F ological sequences. Duff et al. (1967) summarized the
a
W
n extensive literature on stratigraphic cycles, most of which
, , , ,
W
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60
%w (matrix) zw (matrix)
Figure 7: Comparison of mineralogy computed from geo-
chemical logs with core analysis estimation (from van den Oord,
1990).
Accurate clay-mineral typing and geochemical clues to
diagenesis have immediate applications to improve res-
ervoir engineering practice. Selley (1 99 1) considers that
the “third age of log analysis” has arrived with the advent
of geochemical logging and that they are useful discrim-
inators of a variety of diagenetic effects of cementation
and solution, especially when used in conjunction with
other logs. Cheshire (1991) advocated the use of com-
puter-based diagenetic modeling as the appropriate meth-
odology to deduce diagenesis from wireline logs, as the
overall effects of diagenetic features are fairly subtle. Den-
ham and Tieh (1989) suggest that measurements of tho-
rium and uranium have potential in exploration studies
as a means to delineate migration paths for fluids asso-
ciated with the generation of hydrocarbons.
As mentioned earlier, an important application of the
ODP geochemical logging work has been in igneous and
metamorphic rocks. The models represent a significant
advance on the interpretations associated with older logs
run in geothermal wells where most techniques repre-
sented simple pattern recognitions based on older wireline
logs (e.g., Keys, 1979). Normative solutions of mineral
compositions have been computed in a variety of lithol-
ogies, using the inversion methods discussed earlier.
Modal analyses from representative thin sections, cou-
296
Doveton amd Prensky
pled with the use of best-fit and self-consistency criteria
I
KAOLlNlTE within the computer algorithm, provide important con-
E
ILL + SUE
straints to guide the solution to a feasible result, as de-
scribed by Anderson et al. (1988). The strengths and
ml
FELDSPAR
drawbacks of a variety of mineral transform models for
this purpose are discussed by Harvey et al. (1 990).
E%%l STRATIGRAPHIC CYCLES AND
MODELS OF CLIMATE CHANGE
n
OUARTZ
Over the years, a considerable amount of research has
CALCITE been applied to the concept that many stratigraphic suc-
was based on outcrop studies. Controversy centered on
.....
..... whether cyclic characteristics were real or illusory, and,
if real, whether the cycles were caused by tectonic or
climatic changes.
In the last decade, mounting evidence suggests that
oscillations in global climate are responses to orbital per-
turbations of the earth. These are cyclic in time, and
distinctive periods can be assigned to the orbital param-
eters of eccentricity (95,000 years), obliquity (4 1,000
I years), and precession (19,000-23,000 years). The peri-
80 100
ods are collectively known as “Milankovitch cycles” and
provide a key to the recognition of climate events in the
remote geological past, such as glaciation and sea-level
changes and their effects on the stratigraphic record. The
model can also be linked with the Vail coastal-onlap curves
developed from seismic stratigraphy and offers an excit-
ing potential to assign specific dates to stratigraphic units.
The recent sedimentary successions of the deep-sea floor
have proved to be a useful testing ground for verification
of whether these cyclic climatic changes can be detected
by changes in lithological properties. These effects should
be shown by changes in clay mineralogy and clay content,
grain-size, types and abundances of planktonic fossils,
caused by cycles of temperature and aridity/humidity
driven by changes in solar energy.
Wireline logs have proved to be excellent records of
many of these phenomena. They have the advantage over
core of being both continuous and complete. A major
disadvantage (at this time) is that they are primarily depth
rather than time records of petrophysical changes. Con-
sequently, conversionsto a chronology scale must be made
using fossil-dating from cores. Also, the vertical resolu-
tion of some logging tools may be too coarse to detect
higher-frequency cycles, particularly at sites of slow sed-
imentation rates. Worthington (1 990) examined this
problem in detail by modeling cyclic sequences with dif-
fering sedimentation rates and convolving these with the
response functions of common tools. In some cases, the
poor vertical resolution of tools, such as the induction
resistivity, may cause them to be ineffective in resolving
the cycles attributed to precession and obliquity. How-
The Log Analyst May-June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs

ever, the trend to running tools with higher resolutions

has improved this situation. Maltezou and Anderson
(1 99 1) described an example of the recognition of Mil-
ankovitch cycles from resistivity logs.
Detection of potential cycles is made by Fourier trans-
formation of the logs to amplitude spectra and conversion
of depth to time scales deduced from fossil evidence.
Cyclic characters in logs appear to be strongly linked with
changes in clay content and porosity. These were regis-
tered on resistivity- and sonic-logging tools in deep-sea
sediments of Baffin Bay and the Labrador Sea on ODP
Leg 105 as described by Jarrard and Arthur (1989). The
fluctuations in clay and porosity appear to reflect changes
in strength of ocean bottom currents, At times of weaker
currents, high-porosity clay-rich sediments accumulated;
stronger currents may have resulted in transport and de-
position of greater volumes of quartz and other coarse-
grained minerals. Ultimately, the waxing and waning of
the bottom currents is controlled by warming and cooling
cycles at the ocean surface, which in turn reflect migration
of upwelling zones.
The use of the geochemical-loggingtool string has re-
sulted both in an improvement of vertical resolution and
the recording of elements that can be related more directly
to geological properties, particularly mineralogy. The
power spectrum of the calcium/silicon ratio at the Lab-
rador Sea site (see Figure 8) shows peak developments
that can be attributed to all three Milankovitch-cycletypes
(Jarrard and Arthur, 1989). In the south Atlantic (ODP
Leg 1 14), Mwenifumbo and Blangy (1991) derive am-
plitude spectra of geochemical logs using a moving depth
window. They were able to identify cycles in the calcium
log that were clearly out of phase with silicon and hy-
drogen variation. These characteristics are easily attrib-
uted to fluctuations of diatom-rich porous sediments as
changes in climatic temperature-moved upwelling zones
north and south.
Estimates of sedimentation rate are currently keyed to
biostratigraphiccontrol and these will obviously vary with
time. Molinie and Ogg (1990) considered that the time
periods of the Milankovitch cycles is sufficiently well es-
tablished that they could be used to deduce Sedimentation
rates as a continuous function fi-om sliding-window spec-
tral analysis. They applied this technique to a gamma-
ray log of Jurassic-Cretaceous radiolarian mudstones from
the equatorial Pacific and were able to derive reasonable
sedimentation rates and detect a major discontinuity.
The emergence of the concepts of Milankovitch cycles
and sequence stratigraphy has also encouraged spectral
analysesand cyclic interpretationsof logs at sites onshore.
Examples of recent studies along these lines include the
analysis of North Carolinian Upper Triassic lacustrine
beds using gamma-ray logs (Hu et al., 1990), Argentinian
Lower Cretaceous highstand deposits using a combina-
tion of resistivity, sonic and gamma-ray logs (Spalletti et
0 Frequency (cycled 78 m) 50
Figure 8: Power spectrum of calcium/silicon elemental abun-
dance ratios from geochemical logs in Pliocene-Paleocene sed-
iments of the Labrador Sea (ODP Leg 105, Site 646). Abundance
peaks can be matched with 95,000-, 4 1,000-,23,000- and 19,000-
year Milankovitch cycles (from Jarrard and Arthur, 1989).
al., 1990), English Upper Jurassic sequencesusing filtered
sonic and gamma-ray logs (Melnyk, 1990), and the Texas
Permian, using gamma-ray logs (Borer and Harris, 1991).
The sequence stratigraphic link between well logs, out-
crops and cores is also described in the popular and pro-
fusely illustrated book by Wagoner et al. (1990). Vail and
Wornardt (199 1) discussed the integration of well logs
with seismic stratigraphy in exploration and develop-
ment.
Much fine-tuning remains to be done both in tracking
the changes in periodicities back in geologic time, and the
choice of appropriate spectral techniques and logging
measurements. However, links with the Vail coastal-on-
lap curve offer great potential for studies of basin history
and a more refined chronology of stratigraphic events. In
a parallel development, it appears that practical magne-
tostratigraphy logs may soon be available even from sed-
imentary sequences with low magnetization. Experimen-
tal logging on Leg 102 of the ODP demonstrated that
both the intensity and direction of paleomagnetic polar-
ization could be measured reliably by downhole tools in
strongly magnetized volcanic rocks (Leg 102 Scientific
Party, 1985). Further work by Tabbagh et al. (1990) in
the Couy (France) boreholes produced magnetic-logging
results from a sedimentary sequence that showed a good
match with core measurements. If natural remnant-mag-
netization polarity can be logged in a practical and reliable

May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst 297

, :I/
 Doveton and Prensky
manner, there will be important and exciting applications.
A fundamental limitation of correlations based on con-
ventional wireline logs is that they are lithostratigraphic
whereas magnetostratigraphy logs would be keyed di-
rectly to time. Where most correlation ties cross time-
lines, because sedimentary layers are diachronous prod-
ucts of transgression and regression, absolute time se-
quences established from logs of magnetostratigraphy
could give revolutionary insights into development of
sedimentary basins and characterizations of reservoir
structure.
SUMMARY
We have attempted to summarize the recent major
trends and developments in the field of geological appli-
cations of wireline logs. The field is expanding rapidly
and comprehensive coverage is difficult to achieve. This
growth is an excellent sign that exciting future develop-
ments can be expected and that wireline-log analysis will
make increasingly significant contributions to a wide va-
riety of geological studies.
REFERENCES
Adams, J.A.S., and Weaver, C.E., 1958, Thorium to uranium
ratios as indications of sedimentary processes-example of
concept of geochemical facies: AAPG Bulletin, v. 42, p. 387-
430.
Anderson, R.N., Broglia, C., Pezard, A., and Williams, C.F.,
1988, Lithostratigraphy determined from discriminant anal-
ysis of geochemical well logs from the Cajon Pass scientific
drillhole, California: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 15, no.
9 supplement, p. 957-960.
Anderson, R.N., Dove, R.E., and Pratson, E., 1990, Geochem-
ical well logs; calibration and lithostratigraphy in basaltic,
granitic, and metamorphic rocks, in Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A.,
and Morton, A.C., eds., Geological applications of wireline
logs: Geological Society of London Special Publication No.
48, p. 177-194.
Asquith, G.B., 1985, Handbook of log evaluation techniquesfor
carbonate reservoirs:AAPG, Methods in Exploration No. 5,
47 p.
Asquith, G.B., 1990, Log evaluation of shaly sandstones-a
practical guide: AAPG, Continuing Education Course Note
Series No. 31, 59 p.
Asquith, G.B., and Gibson, C.R., 1982, Basic well log analysis
for geologists: AAPG, Methods in Exploration Series No. 3,
216 p.
Baldwin, J.L., Bateman, R.M., and Wheatley, C.L., 1989a, Ap-
plication of a neural network to the problem of mineral iden-
tification from well logs, paper U, in 3rd International Sym-
posium on Borehole Geophysics for Minerals, Geotechnical,
and Groundwater Applications, proceedings: Society of Pro-
fessional Well Log Analysts, Minerals and Geotechnical Log-
ging Society, Chapter-at-Large, p. 337-347. Later published
in 1990, The Log Analyst, v. 3 1, no. 5, September-October,
p. 279-293.
Baldwin, J.L., Otte, D.N., and Bateman, R.M., 1989b, Com-
298 The Log Analyst
puter emulation of human mental processes; application of
neural network simulators to problems in well log interpre-
tation, in Artificial Intelligence in Petroleum Exploration and
Production, proceedings: Texas A&M University, College
Station, p. 145-175. Also published in 1989 as SPE-19619,
in SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition Pro-
ceedings, v. omega, Formation Evaluation and Reservoir Ge-
ology: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 48 1-493.
Borehole Research Group, 1990, Wirelinelogging manual, Ocean
Drilling Program: Columbia University, Lamont-Doherty
Geological Observatory, 417 p.
Borer, J.M., and Harris, P.M., 1991, Lithofacies and cyclicity
of the Yates Formation, Permian Basin; implications for res-
ervoir heterogeneity: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, no. 24, p. 726-
779.
Busch, J.M., Fortney, W.G., and Berry, L.N., 1985, Determi-
nation of lithology from well logs by statistical analysis, SPE-
14301: Society of Petroleum Engineers, presented at 60th
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, preprint, 11 p.
Later published in 1987, SPE Formation Evaluation, v. 2,
no. 4, p. 412-418.
Casarta, L.J., McNaughton, D.A., Bornemann, E., and Bettis,
F.E., 1989, Fracture identification and matrix characteriza-
tion using a new borehole imaging device in the Lisburne
carbonate, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, paper XX, in 30th Annual
Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, 10 p.
Chapman, S., Colson, J.L., Flaum, C., et al., 1987, The emer-
gence of geochemical well logging: The Technical Review, v.
35, no. 2, p. 27-35.
Chaudhary, S., and Vashist, N., 1991, Formation evaluation of
a finely laminated reservoir, paper VV, in 32nd Annual Log-
ging Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, 24 p.
Cheshire, M.J., 1991, Diagenetic modelling-an integrated ap-
proach using wireline logs and geological data [abs.]: The Log
Analyst, v. 32, no. 4, p. 381.
Cross, W., Iddings, J.P., Pirsson, L.V., and Washington, H.S.,
1902, A quantitative chemico-mineralogical classification and
nomenclature of igneous rocks: Journal of Geology, v. 10, p.
555-690.
Denham, M.E., and Tieh, T.T., 1989, Geochemistry ofthorium
and uranium during late-stage diagenesis-potential new
method for exploration [abs.]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 60, no. 2,
p. 349.
Derek, H., Johns, R., and Pasternack, E., 1990, Comparative
study of backpropagation neural network and statistical pat-
tern recognition techniques in identifying sandstone lithofa-
cies, in 1990 Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Petro-
leum Exploration and Production, proceedings: Texas A&M
University, College Station, p. 4 1-49.
Doveton, J.H., 1986, Log analysis of subsurface geology-con-
cepts and computer methods:John Wiley & Sons, New York,
273 p.
Doveton, J.H., 1991, Lithofacies and geochemical-facies pro-
files from nuclear wireline logs, in Franseen, E.K., Watney,
W. L., Kendall, C. J., and Ross, W., eds., Sedimentary Mod-
eling- Computer Simulations and Methods for Improved Pa-
rameter Definition: Kansas Geological Survey Bulletin 233,
p. 101-110.
May- June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
DUE, P. McL.D., Hallam, A., and Walton, E.K., 1967, Cyclic
sedimentation: Elsevier, Amsterdam, 280 p.
Einstein, E.E., and Edwards, K.W., 1988, Comparison of an
expert system to human experts in well log analysis and in-
terpretation, SPE-18 129, in Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition Proceedings, v. omega, Formation Evaluation and
Reservoir Geology: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 253-
262. Later published in 1990, SPE Formation Evaluation, v.
5, no. 1, March, p. 39-45.
Einstein, E.E., and Sutherland, L., 1989, An expert system for
assistance in well log analysis; an overview: SPE Computer
Applications, July-August, p. 20.
Elek, I., 1988, Some applications of principal component anal-
ysis; well-to-well correlation, zonation: Geobyte, v. 3, no. 20,
p. 46-55.
Elkington, P.A.S., Samworth, J.R., and Enstone, M.C., 1990,
Vertical enhancement by combination and transformation of
associated responses, paper HH, in 3 1st Annual Logging Sym-
posium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log An-
alysts, 20 p.
Ellis, D.V., 1987, Well loggingfor earth scientists:Elsevier, New
York, 532 p.
Ellis, D.V., 1990, Neutron and gamma-ray scattering measure-
ments for subsurface geochemistry: Science, v. 250, October
5, p. 82-87.
Etnyre, L.M., 1982, Statistical detection of hydrocarbons from
well logs, paper Z, in 23rd annual logging symposiums trans-
actions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 29 p. Later
published in 1984 as, Practical application of weighted least
squares method to formation evaluation, part I-The loga-
rithmic transformation of non-linear data and selection of
dependent variable: The Log Analyst, v. 25, no. 1, January-
February, p. 11-21. Part 11-Evaluating the uncertainty in
least squares results: The LogAnalyst, v. 25, no. 3, May-June,
p. 11-20.
Etnyre, L.M., 1990, Estimation of petrophysical parameters us-
ing a robust-Marquardt procedure, paper Q, in 13th European
formation evaluation symposium transactions: Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts, Budapest Chapter, 20 p.
Fertl, W.H., Stapp, W.L., Vaello, D.B., and Vercellino, W.C.,
1980, Spectral gamma-ray logging in the Texas Austin Chalk
Trend Journal of Petroleum Technology, v.32, p.48 1-488.
Galford, J.E., Flaum, C., Gilchrist, W.A., Jr., and Duckett, S.W.,
1986, Enhanced resolution processing of Compensated Neu-
tron Logs, SPE-15541: Society of Petroleum Engineers, pre-
sented at 6 1st Annual Technical conference and Exhibition,
preprint, 13 p. Later published in 1989, SPE Formation Eval-
uation, v. 4, no. 2, p. 131-137.
Glenister, L.M., and Kauffman, E.G., 1985, High resolution
stratigraphy and depositional history of the Greenhorn re-
gressive hemicyclothem, Rock Canyon Anticline, Pueblo,
Colorado, in Pratt, L., Kaufmann, E.G., Zelt, F.B., eds., Fine-
grained deposits and biofacies of the Cretaceous Western In-
terior Seaway-evidence of cyclic sedimentary processes: So-
ciety of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM
Field Trip Guidebook No. 4, 1985 Midyear Meeting, Golden,
Colorado, p. 170-183.
Griffiths, C.M., and Bakke, S., 1988, Semi-automated well
matching using gene-typing algorithms and a numerical li-
thology derived from wire-line logs, paper GG, in 29th An-
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst
nual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts, 24 p.
Griffiths, C.M., 1989, An example of the use of a fuzzy-set based
pattern recognition approach to the problem of strata rec-
ognition from drilling response, in Oleynikov, A., and Rubel,
M., eds., Quantitative stratigraphy- restrospective evaluation
andfuture development [IGCP Project No. 1481: Academy of
Sciences, Estonian Socialist Republic, Tallinn, p. 83-1 00.
Gundeso, R., and Gronvold, T., 1990, The impact of thin beds
in reservoir characterization from a geological viewpoint, pa-
per M, in 13th European Formation Evaluation Symposium
Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, Bu-
dapest Chapter, 18 p.
Harker, S.D., McGann, G.J., Bourke, L.T., and Adams, J.T.,
1990, Methodology of Formation Microscanner image in-
terpretation in Claymore an Scapa fields (North Sea), in Hurst,
A., Lovell, M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., Geological appli-
cations of wireline logs: Geological Society of London Special
Publication No. 48, p. 11-25.
Harvey, P.K., Bristow, J.F., and Lovell, M.A., 1990, Mineral
transforms and downhole geochemical measurements: Sci-
entific Drilling, v. 1, no. 4, p. 163-176.
Hassan, M., Hossin, A., and Combaz, A., 1976, Fundamentals
of the differential gamma-ray log, paper H, in 17th Annual
Logging Symposium Transactions:Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, 18 p.
Hayes, R.G., 1989, An application of pattern recognition prin-
ciples to the analysis of wireline logs: Oklahoma State Uni-
versity, Stillwater, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, 173 p.
Hearst, J.R., and Nelson, P.H., 1985, Well loggingfor physical
properties: McGraw-Hill, New York, 57 1 p.
Herron, M.M., 1986, Mineralogy from geochemical well log-
ging: Clays and Clay Minerals, v. 34, no. 2, p. 204-213.
Herron, M.M., 1987, Estimating the intrinsic permeability of
clastic sediments from geochemical data, paper HH, in 28th
Annual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts, 22 p.
Herron, M.M., 1988, Geochemical classification of terrigenous
sands and shales from core or log data: Journal ofsedimentary
Petrology, v. 58, no. 5, p. 820-829.
Herron, S.L., 1986, A total organic carbon log for source rock
evaluation, paper HH, in 27th Annual Logging Symposium
Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 11
p. Reprinted in 1990, in Foster, N.H., and Beaumont, E.A.,
eds., Formation evaluation 11-log interpretation: AAPG
Treatise of Petroleum Geology Reprint Series No. 17, p. 578-
585.
Herron, S.L., Herron, M.M., Grau, J.A., Ellis, D.V., in press,
Interpretation ofchemical concentration logs and applications
in the petroleum industry, in Pieters, C., and Englert, eds.,
Remote geochemical analysis-elemental and mineralogical
composition: Lunar and Planetary Institute and Cambridge
University Press.
Hertzog, R., Colson, L., Seeman, B., O'Brien, M., Scott, H.,
McKeon, D., Grau, J., Ellis, D., Schweitzer, J., and Herron,
M., 1987, Geochemical logging with spectrometry tools, SPE-
16792, in Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition Pro-
ceedings, v. omega, Formation Evaluation and Reservoir Ge-
ology: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 447-460. Later pub-
299
1, 1
 Doveton and Prensky
lished in 1989, SPE Formation Evaluation, v. 4, no. 2, p.
153-162.
Hodson, G., Fertl, W.H., and Hammack, G.W., 1976, For-
mation evaluation in Jurassic sandstones in the northern North
Sea area: The Log Analyst, v. 17, no. 1, January-February, p.
22-32.
Hornby, B.E., Luthi, S.M., and Plumb, R.A., 1990, Comparison
of fracture apertures computed from electrical borehole scans
and reflected Stoneley waves-an automated interpretation,
paper L, in 3 1st Annual Logging Symposium Transactions:
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 25 p.
Hu, L.N., Textoris, D.A., and Filer, J.K., 1990, Cyclostratig-
raphy from gamma-ray logs, Upper Triassic lake beds (Middle
Carnian), North Carolina, USA [abs.], in 13th International
Sedimentological Congress Proceedings: International Asso-
ciation of Sedimentologists, p. 549.
Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., 1990, Geolog-
ical applications of wireline logs: Geological Society of London
Special Publication No. 48, 357 p.
Hurst, A., 1990, Natural gamma-ray spectrometry in hydro-
carbon-bearing sandstones from the Norwegian continental
shelf, in Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds.,
Geological applications of wireline logs: Geological Society of
London Special Publication No. 48, p. 21 1-222.
Jarrard, R.D., and Arthur, M.A., 1989, Milankovich paleo-
ceanographic cycles in geophysical logs, Leg 105, Labrador
Sea and Baffin Bay, section 38, in Stewart, S.K., editor, Pro-
ceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, v. 105, scientific
results: Texas A & M University, Ocean Drilling Program, p.
757-772.
Kerzner, M.G., 1988, A rule-based approach to dipmeter pro-
cessing, SPE-18 128, in Annual Technical Conference Pro-
ceedings, v., omega, Formation Evaluation and Reservoir Ge-
ology: Society of Petroleum Engineers, p. 239-25 l.
Keys, W.S., 1979, Borehole geophysics in igneous and meta-
morphic rocks, paper 00, in 20th Annual Logging Sympo-
sium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts,
26p.
Krystinik, K.B., and Charpentier, R.R., 1987, Statistical model
for source rock maturity and organic richness using well-log
data, Bakken Formation, Williston Basin, United States:AAPG
Bulletin, v. 71, no. 1, p. 95-102.
Kuo, T-B., and Startzman, R.A., 1987, Field-scale stratigraphic
correlation using artificial intelligence: Geobyte, v. 2, no. 2,
p. 30-35.
Laubach, S.E., Baumgardner, R.W., Jr., Monson, E.R., Hunt,
E., and Meador, K.J., 1988, Fracture detection in low-per-
meability reservoir sandstone- a comparison of BHTV and
FMS logs to core, SPErl8 1 19, in SPE Annual Technical Con-
ference and Exhibition Proceedings, v. omega, Formation
Evaluation and Reservoir Geology: Society of Petroleum En-
gineers, p. 129-1 39. Later reprinted in 1990, in Borehole im-
aging reprint volume: Society of Professional Well Log An-
alysts, p. 265-275.
Leg 102 Scientific Party, 1985, Old hole yields new information:
Geotimes, v.30, no. 12, p. 13-15.
Leonard, J.E., 1990, Vector to raster and back again: Geobyte,
v.5, no. 2, p. 79-80.
Lineman, D.J., Mendelson, J.D., andToksoz, M.N., 1987, Well
to well log correlation using knowledge-based systems and
300 The Log Analyst
dynamic depth warping, paper UU, in 28th Annual Logging
Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts, 25 p.
Looyestijn, W.J., 1982, Deconvolution of petrophysical logs:
applications and limitations, paper W, in 23rti Annual Log-
ging Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, 20 p.
Luthi, S.M., 1990, Sedimentary structures of clastic rocks iden-
tified from electrical borehole images, in Hurst, A., Lovell,
M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., Geologicalapplications of wire-
line logs: Geological Society of London Special Publication
NO. 48, p. 3-10.
Luthi, S.M., and Banavar, J.R., 1988, Application of borehole
images to three-dimensional geometric modeling of eolian
sandstone reservoirs, Permian Rotliegende, North Sea: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 72, no. 9, p. 1074-1089.
Maltezou, F., and Anderson, R.N., 1991, Milankovitch cycles
in electrical resistivity logs from the Toa Baja scientific drill-
hole, Puerto Rico: Geophysical Research Letters, v. 18, no.
3, p. 5 17-520.
Marett, G., and Kimminau, S., 1990, Logs, charts, and com-
puters-the history of log interpretation modeling: The Log
Analyst, v. 3 1, no. 6, November- December, p. 335-354.
Matyas, V., 1990, Kruskal technique of formation identification
from well logs, paper T, in 13th European Formation Eval-
uation Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, Budapest Chapter, 13 p.
Maute, R.E., 1992, Electrical logging-state-of-the-art: The Log
Analyst, v. 33, no. 3, p. 000-000.
Melnyk, D.H., 1990, Cyclicity in filtered wireline logs, Kim-
meridgian through Portlandian stages, Wessex Basin, UK
[abs.], in 13th International Sedimentological Congress pro-
ceedings: International Association of Sedimentologists, p.
354.
Mendelson, J.D., and Toksoz, M.N., 1986, In-situ determina-
tion of organic richness in sediments by geophysical logging,
in Biogeochemistry of Black Shales [international workshop,
Hamburg, West Germany, May 28-3 1, 19851: Mitteilungen
aus dem Geologisch-Palaontologischen Institut der Univer-
sitat Hamburg, No. 60, p. 23-36. Reprinted in 1990, in Foster,
N.H., and Beaumont, E.A., eds., Formation evaluation ZZ-
log interpretation: AAPG Treatise of Petroleum Geology Re-
print Series No. 17, p. 587-600.
Minette, D.C., 1990, Thin-bed resolution enhancement-po-
tential and pitfalls, paper GG, in 3 1st Annual Logging Sym-
posium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log An-
alysts, 25 p.
Mitchell, W.K., and Nelson, R.J., 1988, A practical approach
to statistical log analysis, paper S, in 29th Annual Symposium
Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 20
p. Later published in 1991 as, Statistical log analysis made
practical: World Oil, v. 2 12, no. 6, p. 1 15-1 19.
Molinie, A.J., and Ogg, J.G., 1990, Sedimentation-rate curves
and discontinuities from sliding-window spectral analysis of
logs: The Log Analyst, v. 3 1, no. 6, November-December, p.
370-374.
Moran, J.H., Coureau, M.A., Miller, G.K., and Timmions, J.P.,
1962, Automatic computation of dipmeter logs digitally re-
corded on magnetic tapes: Journal of Petroleum Technology,
V. 14, p. 771-782.
May-June, 1992
 Geological Applications of Wireline Logs
Mwenifumbo, C.J., and Blangy, J.P., 1991, Short-term spectral
analysis of downhole logging measurements from site 704,
chapter 30, in Ciesielski, P.F., Kristoffersen, Y., et al., eds.,
Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, scientific results,
v. 114: Texas A&M University, Ocean Drilling Program, Col-
lege Station, Texas, p. 577-585.
Myers, K.J., 1989. The origin of the Lower Jurassic Cleveland
Ironstone Formation of north-east England evidence from
portable gamma-ray spectrometry, in Young, T.P., and Taylor
W.E.G., eds., Phanerozoic ironstones: Geological Society of
London, Special Publication No. 46, p, 221-228.
Myers, K., 1990, Applications of spectral gamma-ray logs in
reservoir modelling [abs.], in 13th International Sedimento-
logical Congress Proceedings: International Association of
Sedimentologists, p.376.
Nelson, R.J., and Mitchell, W.K., 1990, Improved vertical res-
olution of well logs by resolution matching, paper JJ, in 3 1st
Annual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts, 25 p. Later published in 1991, The
Log Analyst, v. 32, no. 4, p. 339-349.
Nurmi, R., Charara, M., Waterhouse, M., and Park, R., 1990,
Heterogeneities in carbonate reservoirs; detection and anal-
ysis using borehole electrical imagery, in Hurst, A., Lovell,
M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., Geological applications of wire-
line logs: Geological Society of London Special Publication
NO. 48, p. 95-1 11.
Olea, R.A., and Davis, J.C., 1986, An artificial intelligence ap-
proach to lithostratigraphic correlation using geophysical well
logs, SPE-15603: Society of Petroleum Engineers, presented
at 6 1st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition [New
Orleans], preprint, 12 p.
Paillet, F.L., Barton, C., Luthi, S., Rambow, F., and Zemanek,
J., 1990, Borehole imaging and its application in well log-
ging-an overview, chapter 1, in Borehole imaging reprint
volume: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, p. 1-23.
Peveraro, R.C.A., and Lee, J.A., 1988, HESPER-An expert
system for petrophysical formation evaluation, paper R, in
11th European Formation Evaluation Symposium Transac-
tions: Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, Norwegian
Chapter, 22 p. Also published in 1988, SPE-18375, in SPE
European Petroleum Conference Proceedings: Society of Pe-
troleum Engineers, p. 361-370.
Pirson, S.E., 1970, Geologic well log analysis: Gulf Publishing,
Houston, 370 p.
Prensky, S.E., 1987, Geological applications of well logs; a se-
lected bibliography and survey of the well logging literature,
Parts A and B: The LogAnalyst, v. 28, no. 1, p. 71-107. Part
C, v. 28, no. 2, p. 219-248.
Quirein, J.A, Gardner, J.S., and Watson, J.T., 1982, Combined
natural gamma ray spectral litho-density measurements ap-
plied to complex lithologies, SPE-11143: Society of Petro-
leum Engineers, presented at 57th Annual Technical Confer-
ence and Exhibition, preprint, 14 p.
Quirein, J.A, Kimminau, S., Lavigne, J., Singer, J., and Wendel,
F., 1986, A coherent framework for developing and applying
multiple formation evaluation models, paper DD, in 27th
Annual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts, 16 p.
Rider, M.H., 1986, The geological interpretation of well logs:
May-June, 1992 The Log Analyst
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 175 p. Revised edition,
1991: Whittles Publishing, Caithness, Scotland, 175 p.
Rider, M.H., 1990, Gamma-ray log shape used as a facies in-
dicator-critical analysis of an oversimplified methodology,
in Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., Geological
applications of wireline logs: Geological Society of London
Special Publication No. 48, p. 27-37.
Robinson, M.C., and Reeves, J.J., 1989, Cluster analysis of
geophysical well-log data in the North Riley unit, Gaines
County, Texas, paper BG 2.7, in Expanded Abstracts with
Biographies 59th annual meeting: Society of Exploration Ge-
ophysicists, v. l , p. 5 1-54.
Rodriguez, E., Messatesta, A., and Tetzlaff, D., 1989, Deter-
mination of statistical confidence intervals for petrophysical
formation properties, paper 23, in Log Analysis Software
Evaluation and Review (LASER) Symposium Transactions:
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, London Chapter,
16 p.
Rogers, S.J., Fang, J.H., Karr, C.L., and Stanley, D.A., 1992,
Determination of lithology from well logs using a neural net-
work AAPG Bulletin, v. 76, no. 5, p. 731-739..
Ruhovets, N., 1989, A log analysis technique for evaluating
laminated reservoirs in the Gulf Coast area, paper C, in 12th
Formation Evaluation Symposium Transactions: Canadian
Well Logging Society, 23 p. Later published in 1990, The Log
Analyst, v. 31, no. 5, September-October, p. 294303.
Rui-Lin, L., and Chen-Dang, Z., 1991, A neural-network ap-
proach to the computation of permeability from well logs
[abs.]: The Log Analyst, v. 32, no. 4, p. 407.
Runge, R.J., and Runge, K.J., 1991, Obtaininglumped (blocked)
well logs by simulated annealing: The Log Analyst, v. 32, no.
4, p. 371-378.
Schmoker, J.W., 1981, Determination of organic-matter content
of Appalachian Devonian shales from gamma-ray logs: AAPG
Bulletin, v. 65, no. 7, p. 1285-1298.
Selley, R.C., 1974, Environmental analysis of subsurface sedi-
ments, paper J, in 3rd European Formation Evaluation Sym-
posium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log An-
alysts, London Chapter, 15 p. Later published in 1976 as,
Subsurface environmental analysis of North Sea sediments:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 60, no. 2, p. 184195. Also published in
1976, The Log Analyst, v. 17, no. 1, January-February, p. 3-
11.
Selley, R.C., 1991, The third age of log analysis-application
to reservoir diagenetic studies [abs.]: The Log Analyst, v. 32,
no. 4, p. 381-82.
Serra, O., 1984, Fundamentals of well-log interpretation v. I -
the acquisition of data: Elsevier, New York, Developments
in Petroleum Science No. 15A, 423 p.
Serra, O., 1985, Sedimentary environments from wireline logs:
Schlumberger Technical Services, Paris, Document No. M-
08 1030/SMP-7008, 2 11 p. [Extracted from Serra, O., 1986,
Fundamentals of well-log interpretation v. 2-the interpreta-
tion of logging data, chapters 4 6 : Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, Developments in Petroleum Science No. 15B,
684 p.]
Serra, O., 1986, Fundamentals of well-log interpretation v. 2-
the interpretation of logging data: Elsevier Science Publishers,
Amsterdam, Developments in Petroleum Science No. I5B,
684 p.
301
 Doveton and Prensky
Serra, O., and Abbott, H.T., 1980, The contribution of logging
data to sedimentary sedimentology and stratigraphy, SPE-
9270: Society of Petroleum Engineers, presented at 55th An-
nual Technical Conference and Exhibition [Dallas], preprint,
19 p. Later published in 1982, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Journal, v. 22, no. 1, p. 117-13 1.
Silva, C., and Spooner, D., 1991, High resolution induction
logging-a comparison with conventional induction as used
in thin sands in the Texas Gulf Coast region, paper WW, in
32nd Annual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts, 22 p.
Sinha, A., Lawrence, T., and Simmons, B., 1989, An advanced
interpretation technique integrates well log and core data for
thin-bed reservoir evaluation: Transactions Gulf Coast As-
sociation of Geological Societies, v. 39, p. 267-274.
Slatt, R.M. et al., 199 I , Outcrop gamma-ray logging to improve
understanding of subsurface interwell log correlations [abs.]:
The Log Analyst, v.32, no. 4, p. 378.
Smith, R.G., and Baker, J.D., 1983, The Dipmeter Advisor
system, a case study in commercial expert system develop-
ment, in 8th International Joint Conference on Artificial In-
telligence, proceedings: International Joint Conference on Ar-
tificial Intelligence, p. 122-1 29.
Spalletti, I., Del Valle, A., and Kielbowicz, A., 1990, An orbital
induced cyclic succession in the early Cretaceous of western
Argentina [abs.], in 13th International Sedimentological Con-
gress Proceedings: International Association of Sedimentol-
ogists, p.5 19.
Standen, E., 1991, Tips for analyzing fractures on electrical
wellbore images: World Oil, v. 212, no. 4, April, p. 99-1 17.
Startzman, R.A., and Kuo, T.B., 1989, A knowledge-based ap-
proach to the interpretation of well-bore images, in Artificial
Intelligence in Petroleum Exploration and Production Pro-
ceedings: Texas A&M University, College Station, p. 35-42.
Tabbagh, A., Pozzi, J.P., Alvarez, F., Pocachard, J., Martin,
J.P., Pages, G., Gable, R., Lebert, F., and Hutin, R., 1990,
Magnetic field and susceptibility logging in GPF3 borehole at
Couy (France) between 0 and 3500 m: Geophysical Journal
International, v. 101, p. 81-88.
Tittman, J., 1991, Vertical resolution of well logs; recent de-
velopments: Schlumberger Oilfield Review, v. 3, no. 3, July,
p. 24-28
Vail, P.R., and Wornardt, W.W., Jr., 1991, Well log-seismic
sequence stratigraphy analysis-an integrated approach to ex-
302 The Log Analyst
View publication stats
ploration and development [abs.]: AAPG Bulletin, v. 75, no.
8, p. 1423.
van den Oord, R.J., 1990, Experience with geochemical logging,
paper T, in 3 1st Annual Logging Symposium Transactions:
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts, 25 p.
Wagoner, J.C., Mitchum, R.M., Campion, K.M., and Rhaman-
ian, V. D., 1990, Siliciclasticsequence stratigraphy in well logs,
cores, and outcrops-concepts for high-resolution correlation
of time and facies: AAPG Methods in Exploration Series, NO.
7, 55 p.
Wendlandt, R.F., and Bhuyan, K., 1990, Estimation of min-
eralogy and lithology from geochemical log measurements:
AAPG Bulletin, v. 74, no. 6, p. 837-856.
Wendt, W.A., Sakurai, S., and Nelson, P.H., 1986, Permeability
prediction from well logs using multiple regression, in Lake
and Carroll, eds., Reservoir Characterization:Academic Press,
San Diego, p. 181-221.
Widdicombe, R.E., Noon, P., and Best, D.L., 1984, Multiwell
FACIOLOG evaluation, Hartzog Draw Field, Powder River
Basin, Wyoming, paper BBB, in 25th Annual Logging Sym-
posium Transactions: Society of Professional Well Log An-
alysts, 19 p.
Wolff, M., and Pelissier-Combescure, J., 1982, FACIOLOG-
Automatic electrofacies determination, paper FF, in 23rd An-
nual Logging Symposium Transactions: Society of Profes-
sional Well Log Analysts, 22 p.
Worthington, P.F., 1990, Sediment cyclicity from well logs, in
Hurst, A., Lovell, M.A., and Morton, A.C., eds., Geological
applications of wireline logs: Geological Society of London
Special Publication No. 48, p. 123-1 32.
Wu, X., and Nyland, E., 1986, Well log data interpretation using
artificial intelligence technique, paper M, in 27th Annual Log-
ging Symposium Transactions: Society of Professional Well
Log Analysts, 16 p.
Zelt, F.B., 1985, Paleoceanographic events and lithologic/geo-
chemical facies of the Greenhorn marine cycle (Upper Cre-
taceous) examined using natural gamma-ray spectrometry, in
Pratt, L., Kaufmann, E.G., Zelt, F.B., eds., Fine-grained de-
posits and biofacies of the Cretaceous Western Interior Sea-
way- evidence of cyclic sedimentary processes:Society of Eco-
nomic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, SEPM Field Trip
Guidebook No. 4, 1985 Midyear Meeting, Golden, Colorado,
p. 49-59.
May-June, 1992