CHAPTER 1

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.1 Introduction

Fluids mechanics deals with study of fluids-liquid and gases. The study can be
behavior of liquid fluids at rest (static) and in motion (dynamic). The study of fluid
mechanics is important because our life depend on them. The air we breathe, flight of birds
in air, the motion of fish in water, circulation of blood in veins of human body, flow of oil
and gas in pipelines, transportation of water in pipe, all follow the principles of fluid
mechanics. Engineers have applied these principles in the design of dams, construction of
ships, airplanes, turbo-machinery etc. Fluids in motion are potential sources of energy and
can be converted into useful work to drive a water turbine or windmill. The principles of
fluid mechanics are also applied to fluid power system in which pressured fluid is used to
transmit power. Hydraulic drives and controls have become more and important due to
automation and mechanization. Today, a very large part or modern machinery is controlled
completely or partly by fluid power.

Fluid can be defined as substance that has ability to flow. Gases expand whereas
liquids do not. Liquid have no shape of it’s own but rather take the shape of the container in
which it is placed. That means if liquid volume less than volume of the container is poured
into container the fluids will occupy a volume of the container and will have a free surface.
Gases expand and occupy full volume of the container. Gases are compressible which
means their volume changes with pressure where as liquids are incompressible.
Compressible flows are again divided into subsonic and supersonic depending on gas
velocity less or greater than sound velocity. Their application is in jet propulsion system,
aircraft and rockets.
1.2 International System of Units (SI)

In the text we shall use SI units. The dimension in any system can be considered as
either primary or secondary dimensions. In the SI units there are 5 primary dimensions.
a) Primary Units

Dimension International Symbol Unit

Mass M Kilogram (kg)
Length L Meter (m)
Time T Second (s)
Temperature K Kelvin (K)
Electric Current A Ampere (A)

b) Secondary Units
Secondary units are a combination of primary units such as Newton (N or kgm/s2), Joule (J
or Nm), Watt (W or Nm/s) etc.

1.3 Specific weight and mass density

Two important parameters that tend to indicate heaviness of the substance are specific
weight and mass density. The specific weight in the weight of substance per unit volume
and is commonly designated by Greek letter ‘gamma’ ( γ ). In equation form,

Weig h t W
γ= =
Volume V

Mass density is the mass per unit volume of the substance. It commonly designated
by a Greek letter ‘rho’ ( ρ ). In the equation form,

mass m
ρ= =
Volume V

There exist an important relation between specific weight and mass density.

Weight of the substance w = mg

Weight of the substance/unit volume,

 mg
γ= =ρg
V

For ideal gases, the density of gas is depended on the pressure and temperature of the gas.
The density can be obtained by the gas equation;

PV =mRT
or
P= ρRT
Universal ¿ R
where R= =
molar gas M
R= 8.31432×103 N⋅m⋅kmol−1⋅K−1.
M = depend on the molecule
For air, R = 287 J/kg.K

Example
Calculate gas constant for carbon monoxide CO
Molecular weight for CO = 12 + 16 (from table of elements) = 28
Universal gas constant = 8314.3
Gas constant = 8314.3 / 14 = 297 J/kg.K

Thus, the specific weight is the product of mass density and acceleration due to gravity.
In the SI units,  will be expressed in N/m3 and ρ in kg/m3. The values of specific weight
and mass density of water at different temperature are given in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 gives

Table 1.1 Physical Properties of Water

Temperature Specific Mass Dynamic Kinematic Surface

Weight Density Viscosity Viscosity tension
T γ ρ μ ν σ
(°C) (kN/m³) (Kg/m³) N-s/m² m/s² N/m
0 9.81 1000 −3 −6 0.0756
1.75 x 10 1.75 x 10
30 9.77 996 −4 −7 0.0712
8.00 x 10 1.02 x 10
60 9.65 984 −4 −7 0.0662
4.60 x 10 4.67 x 10
 90 9.47 956 −4 −7 0.0608
3.11 x 10 3.22 x 10

the mass density for common fluids. From this table, other fluids can be compared with
water in terms of density and specific of weight.

Table 1.2 Physical Properties of Common fluids at Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Fluids Specific Specific Mass Dynamic Kinematic

Gravity Weight Density Viscosity Viscosity
s γ ρ μ ν
- (kN/m³) (kg/m³) N-s/m² 2
m /s
Air 0.0012 11.8 1.20 1.81 x 10 −5
1.51 x 10
−5

Ammonia 0.830 8.31 829 4 −7

2.20 x 10 2.65 x 10
Glycerine 1.263 12.34 1258 −3 −4
950 x 10 7.55 x 10
Kerosene 0.823 8.03 819 1.92 x 10 −6
2.34 x 10
−3

Mercury 13.60 133.1 13570 1.56 x 10 −7

1.14 x 10
−3

Methanol 0.79 7.73 788 4 −7

5.98 x 10 5.58 x 10
SAE 10 Oil 0.87 8.71 869 8.14 x 10 −5
9.36 x 10
−2

SAE 30 Oil 0.89 8.71 888 4.40 x 10 −4

4.95 x 10
−1

Turpentine 0.87 8.51 868 1.38 x 10 −6

1.58 x 10
−3

Water 1.00 9.79 998 1.02 x 10 −6

1.02 x 10
−3

Sea Water 1.03 10.08 1028 1.07 x 10 −6

1.04 x 10
−3

1.4 Specific gravity

It is the ratio of specific weight of the substance to the specific weight of water at
4°C (1000kg/m3) . A convenient method to measure specific gravity (s.g.) is by means of a
hydrometer. It is dipped into the liquid and a calibrated scale gives the specific gravity. It
should be noted that specific gravity is a dimensionless number and its value for a particular
substance is the same regardless of the system of units. It is abbreviated as (s).

specific weig h t ρf
Specifi c gravity = o f fluid
= =¿
specifi cweig h t o f wate r
ρw
at
o
4 C

s.g. = ρf / 1000
The specific gravity can also be expressed as ratio of mass density of the substance to
mass density of water at 4°C.

Example 1.1

A tank of glycerol has a mass of 1200kg and volume of 0.95m3. Determine:

(a) Weight of glycerol

(b) Density
(c) Specific weight
(d) Specific gravity

Solution:

(a) From Newton’s Law;

W= mg

Thus, W= 1200 x 9.81 = 11.76kN

(b) From equation (1.2)

m 1200
ρ= = =1265 kg/m 3
V 0 .95

(c) From equation (1.3)

 3
γ=ρg=1263×9 . 81=12. 38 kN /m

(d) From equation (1.4)

ρ s 1265
s= = =1 .26
ρW 1000

1.5 Viscosity

Fluids offer resistance to shearing force. Viscosity is the property of the fluid that
determine amount of this resistance.

Consider a fluid in between two parallel plates Figure 1.1 where the upper plate is
moving with velocity V and lower plate is stationery (velocity = 0m/s). The distance between
the plates is y. The layer in contact with the upper plate is moving with velocity V where as
the layer is contact with lower plate which is fixed will have zero velocity. The deformation
of the fluid under the action of shear stress is assumed proportional to the rate of change of
velocity, may be expressed in the equation form,

Upper plate (moving)

Velocity = V

v + dv
dy
y v The rate of change of velocity
= [(v+dv)-v] / dy = dv/dy

Lower plate (fixed)

Velocity = 0

Figure 1.1
The displaced fluid due to shear stress acted and the shear stress is assumed proportional with
the velocity gradient. It can be illustrated in the equation;

∂v
τ =μ (1.5)
∂y

Where,
τ= shear stress
μ= proportional coefficient (dynamic viscosity)
∂v
∂ y = velocity gradient

The shear force, FD acting on the lower plate surface is given by;

F D =τ × A

Where A= surface area of the lower plate

Example

Calculate dynamic viscosity, take A = 2m2

FD
τ=
A
5
τ = =2.5 N /m2
2
 ∂v 1
= =333.33
∂ y 0.003
τ 2.5
μ= = =0.0075 Pa. s
∂ v 333.33
∂y

The unit of dynamic viscosity, µ is SI unit is (N-sm-2 or Pa.s). Kinematics viscosity which is
usually, denoted by the Greek letter ‘nu’ (v) is determined by dividing dynamic viscosity (µ)
by mass density of the fluid ( ρ ). In the equation form;

μ
ν= (1.6)
ρ

When the fluid is at rest the velocity gradient dv/dy is zero and therefore no shearing force
exists. The viscosity varies with temperature therefore values of µ for given fluid are usually
tabulated at various temperatures. There are experimental methods to calculate viscosity.
One such experimental method is Falling Sphere Viscometer
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YSHbxoCRPo). In this method a sphere of known
diameter is dropped into a liquid. By determining the time required for the sphere to fall
through a certain distance, its terminal velocity (v) can be calculated. The stokes equation
can be written as

2
gd σ
v=
18 ν ρ ( )
−1

Where d = diameter of sphere

σ = sphere density
ρ = fluid density
ν = kinematics density

A number of viscometers (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGtmrxz3Xko) are available

in the market. These viscometers are electronic devices with digital panel and measured
viscosity most of the liquids such paint, lubrication oil, polymer compound, chemical
compositions etc.
 Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity (equation 1.6) and for which µ has a
constant value are known as Newton’s fluids. Most common fluids such as air, water and
oil come under this category for which shear stress in proportional to velocity gradient. The
fluids that do not obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as non-Newtonian fluids such
as human blood, lubrication oils, molten rubber and sewage sludge etc.
A general relation between shear stress and velocity gradient for non-Newton’s fluids
may be written as;

n
dv
τ =A +B ( )
dy (1.7)

Where A and B are constants. Based on the value of power index ‘n’ non – Newtonian fluids
are classified as;

Pseudoplastic (such as milk, cement, clay) n<1

Bingham-plastic (such as sewage sludge, toothpaste) n=1
Dilatent (such as lubrication oil, butter, printing ink) n>1

A Newtonian fluid is a special case of non–Newtonian fluid for which A = 0 and power
index n = 1.

The dynamic viscosity of various fluids at various temperatures is shown in Figure 1.2.
 0.5
0.4
Castor Oil
0.3
0.2 SAE10 oil
Glyserin
0.1
SAE 30 oil
Absolute viscosity , N . s/m2 0.06
0.04 Crude oil (SG 0.86)
0.03
0.02

0.01
6 Kerosene
4
3 Aniline Mercury
2

1 x 10 -3 Carbon tetrachloride
6 Ethyl alcohol
4
3 Benzene Water
2 Gasoline (SG 0.68)
1 x 10-4
6
4
3 Helium
2

Carbon
1 x 10-5 Air Dioxide
Hydrogen

5
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature, oC

Figure 1.2 Dynamic viscosities versus Temperature

Example 1.2
The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 75cm long
concentric cylinders as shown in Figure E1.2. The outer radius of the inner cylinder is 15cm,
and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.12cm. The inner cylinder is rotated at 200rpm, and
the torque is measured to be 0.8Nm. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.

u=0
t

R w

Figure E1.2
Solution:

∂v
F D=τ× A=μ ×2 π RL
The shear force, ∂y

Where shear force can be calculated by

Torque 0 . 8
F D= = =5 .33 N
R 0 . 15

V= 2πRf = 2(3.142)(0.15)(200)/60 = 3.14 m/s

∂ v V −u 3 .14−0
= = =2616 . 67 m/s
∂y t 0 .0012

Thus, the dynamic viscosity:

5 .33
μ= =0 .0029 Ns/m2
2π ( 0. 15 )( 0. 75 )(2616 . 67 )

1.6 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

Consider a mass of fluid m whose initial pressure and volume is P and V respectively.
Let the fluid be compressed by application of force such that final pressure is P+dP and
volume reduced to V–dV. Hence, change in pressure is dp and change in volume is –dV.
Volumetric strain in defined as change in volume divided by original volume and is –dV/V.
The bulk modulus denoted by k and is defined as change in pressure to volumetric strain;
 k= Changes in pressure/Volume strain

or

dP
k =−V
dV (1.8)

bulk modulus (k) of a substance is a measure of how resistant to compression that

substance is.
Let mass of fluid is m:

m = ρV (1.9)

After differentiation of equation (1.9):

ρ dV +Vd ρ=0

V ρ
− =
dV dρ (1.10)

Substitute –V/dV into equation (1.8), thus;

dP
k =ρ
dρ (1.11)

From equation (1.11) the value of k is dependent on the relationship between pressure and
density. For liquids, changes of density with pressure are small and Bulk modulus k is
high. These liquids can be considered incompressible. However, for gases the
compressibility is so large that value of k is not a constant but proportional to pressure.
For gases relation between pressure and mass density in obtained from characteristic
equation of a gas and particular relation between pressure and density is established
depending on type of compression process.

(i) For an isothermal process where the temperature is maintained constant the
characteristic equation is written as

dP P P
= =const . =const .
dρ ρ ρ (1.12)

dP P
= =const .
dρ ρ (1.13)

Substitute dP/dρ into equation (1.6) gives

k= P (1.14)

(ii) For an adiabatic process where no heat is allowed to enter or leave during
compression the relation between pressure and density is given by
P
=const .
ργ (1.15)

After differentiation will give;

dP P
= γ
dρ ρ (1.16)

where γ= ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume or γ= CP/CV

Again substitute dP/dρ into equation (1.11) will give;

k= γP (1.17)
The ratio of adiabatic bulk modulus is equal to the ratio of specific heat of fluid as constant
pressure to that at constant volume. For liquids is almost equal to one, but for gases the
difference is large for example for air = 1.4.

1.7 Mach no. and Compressibility

Mach. No. is defined as ratio of velocity of flow (v) to local velocity of sound (a)
and is a measure of compressibility effects.
v
M=
a (1.18)

The velocity of propagation of sound waves in a fluid, flow is expressed as

dP dP
a=
√ dρ or
a2 =
dρ (1.19)

Substituting the value of dP/d in equation (1.11) we get

2
k =ρa (1.20)
a=√ γ R air T

Substituting value of a in equation (1.12) we get

v2 ρ
M=
√ k (1.21)

For liquids the bulk modulus k is large and velocities small and, hence, Mach. No. is
negligible or effect of compressibility is neglected. Gas velocities are high bulk modulus is
low, and hence, Mach. no. is high and compressibility cannot be neglected. Gases can only
be treated as incompressible if pressure changes are small and Mach. no. is less than 0.3.
Example
The air velocity is 150m/s, the ambient temperature = 20°C, calculate Mach number. Is flow
compressible or incompressible. Take R=287 J/kg.K, adiabatic index for air = 1.4
a=√ γRT

a=√ 1.4∗287∗(273+20)

a=343.1 m/s

v
M=
a

150
M=
343.1

M =0.437

Flow is compressible as the Mach number higher than 0.3

1.8 Surface tension

The molecules of the liquid are attracted by the molecules of the same liquid by a
force known as ‘Cohesion’. This force keeps the molecules bonded together.

The force of attraction between molecules of two different liquids that do not mix
each other or between liquids molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid or
between molecules or liquid on side and molecules of air (or gas) on the other side is known
as ‘adhesion’.
Vapor

Liquid
B

Figure 1.3
 Figure 1.3 is shown a molecule of liquid at the surface is acted on by imbalance
cohesion and adhesive forces giving rise to surface tension. It is commonly denoted by
Greek letter, ‘sigma’ () and is defined as force per unit length of the surface. In the
equation, it can be written as
F
σ=
L (1.22)

The units of σ in SI units will be N/m. In many engineering problems surface tension
forces are very small compared with other forces acting on the fluid and may therefore be
neglected. However, surface tension can cause serious errors in capillary effects particularly
in manometer.

For a droplet or a half bubble, the surface tension effect can be illustrated by analyzing a free-
body diagram as shown in Figure 1.4.

2πRσ

PπR 2

2πRσ

Figure 1.4

The pressure force exerted in the droplet is given by

F=PπR 2

The force due to surface tension is

F=2 πRσ

The pressure force and tension must be balance each other;

 PπR2=2 πRσ

2σ
P=
R (1.23)

1.9 Capillarity

If a small diameter glass tube is inserted into water through a free surface the water
will rise in the tube. This phenomenon is known as capillarity and is caused by cohesive
force of the liquid molecules and adhesion of liquid surface to solid glass surface.

The rise in level of the capillarity tube will depend on σ and angle of contact, θ as
shown in Figure 1.5.

Parallel Plates

θ
σ

A B
dL
A
B

h
F

Tube

Figure 1.5

Length of line of contact of the liquid with the tube = πd

Vertical component of the surface tension force = (πd).σ.cosθ

π 2
d hγ
Weight of column of liquid, W= 4

Thus, for the equilibrium of surfaces tension and gravity forces requires as
 π
πdσ cos θ= d 2 hγ
4

4 σ cosθ 4 σ cosθ
h= P=
γd or d (1.24)

Consequently, when one does not wish a meniscus to rise appreciably in a tube, a
large value of diameter is chosen. It is believed that trees, even very tall ones, send water to
their highest branches by means of capillarity effects. Hence, capillary passages must be
extremely fine. In water and certain other liquids that exhibit capillarity the meniscus is
‘concave’. These liquids wet the glass and angle of contact θ is less than 90°. In some other
liquids such as mercury the meniscus is convex. The liquids do not wet the solid surface
and angle of contact θ is more than 90°. Glass tubes are commonly used in manometer and
capillary action is a serious source of error in reading levels in such tubes. They should have
as large a diameter as is conveniently possible to minimize errors due to capillarity.

1.10 Vapor Pressure

Cavitation is given to the phenomenon that occurs at the solid boundaries of liquid
streams when the pressure of the liquid is reduced to vapor pressure of the liquid at the
prevailing temperature. Any attempt to reduce the pressure still further merely causes the
liquid to vaporize more quickly and clouds of vapor bubble form. The bubbles of vapor
formed in the region of cavitation move downstream to a region of higher pressure where
they collapse (see Figure 1.5). It is repeated formation and collapse of vapor bubbles which
can have damaging effects upon the walls of the solid surface. The actual time between
formation and collapse may not be more than 1/100 of a second, but dynamic force caused
by this phenomenon may be very severe. It is only a matter of having enough bubbles
formed over a sufficient period of time for the destruction of the metal begins. Cavitation
may occur in pumps, turbines, hydrofoils, propellers, and in venture-meters. In the case of
turbines, cavitation is most likely to occur on the blade surfaces near the tail race where as for
pumps it is most likely to occur at inlet to the impeller. Cavitation can also occur if a liquid
contains dissolved air or gases, since solubility of gases in liquid decreases as the pressure is
reduced. Gas and air bubbles will be released as vapor bubble with the same damaging
effects. Care should be taken to avoid cavitation as far as possible but if this proves
impracticable, than the parts likely to be affected by cavitations should be constructed of
especially resistant metals such as stainless steel.

Figure 1.5 Cavitation phenomena inside the nozzle

Problems

1. Determine the density of air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide at an absolute pressure of
300kN/m² and a temperature of 38.8ºC.
(3.35 kg/m3, 0.233 kg/m3, 5.088 kg/m3)
2. Calculate the specific weight and density of air at absolute pressure of 445 kPa and a
temperature of 38 ºC.
(4.986 kg/m3, 48.91 N/m3)
3. If the volume of liquid decreases by 0.2% for an increase of pressure from 6867 kN/m²
to 15696 kN/m², calculate the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid.
(4,414.5MPa)
4. A soap bubble 51 mm in diameter has an internal pressure in excess of outside pressure
of 2.06 x 10-2 kPa, calculate the tension in the soap film.
 (0.13133N/m)
5. If the pressure inside a water droplet is 0.2 kPa in excess of external pressure, and given
surface tension of water in contact with air at 20ºC is equal to 0.0736 N/m, determine
the diameter of the droplet.
(1.472mm)
6. Air is introduced a nozzle into a tank of water to from a stream of bubbles. If the
bubbles are intended to have diameter of 2 mm, determine the pressure of air at the
nozzle exceed that of surrounding water (given tension of water = 0.0736 N/m).
(147.2N/m2)
7. The air in an automobile tyre is at 2.943 MPa absolute at 26.6ºC. Assuming no change
in the volume of air if the temperature rises to rises to 62.2ºC, determine the air
pressure.
(3.489MPa)
8. A gas occupying a volume of 300 liters at a certain temperature and pressure of 0.34
N/mm² is compressed isothermally to 150 liters. Calculate the initial and final bulk
modulus of elasticity.
(0.34N/mm2, 0.68N/mm2)
9. From table of fluid properties, the viscosity of water is given as 0.01008poise. What is
this value in Ns/m2 and Pa.s units?
10. At a certain point in a fluid, the shear stress in 0.22 N/m² and the velocity gradient is
0.267 sec. If the mass density of the fluid is 1293 kg/m 3, determine the kinematic
viscosity.
(6.37 x 10-4m2/s)
11. A liquid flows between two fixed parallel boundaries. The velocity distribution near to
lower wall is given in the following table:

y (mm) v (m/s)
1.0 1.00
2.0 1.99
3.0 2.98
4.0 3.00
5.0 3.00

Determine the maximum and minimum shear stresses (The dynamic viscosity of fluid
is 0.05Pas).
(50N/m2, 0)
12. Two plates are arranged as in Figure Q12 in the liquid. The top plate is moving with the
velocity of 0.5m/s and the middle plate is moving with the velocity of 2m/s in opposite
direction. The area of both plates area 0.25m2. Plot the velocity profile on all surfaces
and determine the force acting on the middle plate (Take the viscosity of liquid is
0.01Pas).

0.5m/s
3mm
2m/s
3mm

Figure Q12
(3.75N)
13. Mercury does not adhere to a glass surface, so when a glass tube immersed in a pool of
mercury, the meniscus is depressed, as a shown in Figure Q13. The surface of mercury
is 0.514 N/m and the angle contact is 40ºC. Calculate the depression distance in a 1 mm
glass tube.

d
Mercury

40o

Figure Q13
(11.81mm)
14. The vapor pressure of water at 100ºC is 101 kN/m², because water boils under these
conditions. The vapor pressure of water decreases approximately linearly with
decreasing temperature at a rate of 3.1 kN/m²/ºC. Calculate the boiling temperature of
water at an altitude of 3000 m, where the atmospheric pressure is 69 kN/m² absolute.
(89.7oC)

15. The vapor pressure of water at 283K is 9.2mmHg, at what temperature is the vapor
pressure of water 546mmHg?
 (364K)

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