PRESBYTERIAN UNIVERSITY OF EAST AFRICA

NAME:BETHWEL KIBOR KUSELEL

REG No ' B32/GV/27985/2019

UNIT TITLE: BIOCHEMISTRY II

UNIT CODE: NBC 133

LECTURE: DR NICHOLAS

ASSIGNMENT: What are the roles of lipids and Carbohydrates as metabolic fuels

DATE:7th Dec,2020

LIPIDS AS METABOLIC FUELS

Fats or triglycerides within the body are ingested as food or synthesized by the adipocytes from
carbohydrates precursors .Lipid metabolism entails oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or
synthesise new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is also associated with
carbohydrate metabolism since products of glucose metabolism can be converted into lipids. Fats
ingested are digested in the small intestine, the triglycerides are broken down into monoglycerides and
free fatty acids then imported across the intestinal mucosa, once across the triglycerides are synthesized
and transported to the liver or adipose tissue.
LIPOLYSIS

To obtain energy from fat triglycerides are broken down by hydrolysis into two principal components
fatty acids and glycerol .This takes place in the cytoplasm ,the resulting fatty acids are oxidized by the
krebs cycle beta oxidation into acetyl-COA then used in the krebs cycle. The glycerol released from
triglycerides after lipolysis directly enters glycolysis pathway as DHAP Breakdown of fatty acids called
fatty acid oxidation or beta oxidation begins in the cytoplasm where fatty acids are converted into fatty
acyl COA molecules, fatty acyl COA combines with carnitine to create a fatty acyl carnitine molecule
which helps transport fatty acids across mitochondrial membrane. Across it is converted back into fatty
acyl COA then into acyl-COA which enters krebs cycle to form ATP.Because one triglyceride releases or
yields three fatty acid molecules with as much as sixteen or more carbon in each one ,fat molecules yield
more energy than Carbohydrates and are thus important energy source in the body.Triglycerides yield
more than twice the energy per unit mass when compared to Carbohydrates and proteins.

KETOGENESIS

If excess acetyl-COA is created from fatty acid oxidation and krebs cycle is overloaded it cannot handle
it. Acetyl COA is diverted to create ketone bodies which serve as fuel sources if glucose levels are too
low in the body in times of prolonged starvation or when patients suffer from uncontrolled diabetes
and cannot utilise the circulating glucose in the bodyThe brain can

also use ketones as an alternative energy source keeping the brain functioning when glucose supply is
limited.

LIPOGENESIS

when glucose levels are plenty excess acetyl-COA generated by glycolysis can be converted into fatty
acids, triglyceride, cholesterol ,steroids and bile salts which holds vital biosynthetic and regulatory
functions in the body .The creation of triglycerides and lipids from carbohydrates is an efficient way of
storing energy available in carbohydrates and also avoiding glucose buildup which might pose a threat
to the cells and to the kidney while anticipating future energy necessities.

CARBOHYDRATES AS METABOLIC FUELS

Carbohydrates play several crucial roles in the metabolic processes of living organisms.They serve as
energy sources as well as structural elements in cells.The metabolism of carbohydrates is dominated by
glucose because this sugar is an important fuel molecule in most organisms. If cellular energy reserves
are low, glucose is degraded by the glycolytic pathway. Glucose molecules that are not required for
immediate energy production are stored either as glycogen (in animals) or starch (in plants).

GLYCOLYSIS
 glycolysis, glucose is phosphorylated and cleaved to form two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate. Each glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is then converted to a molecule of pyruvate. A small
amount of energy is captured in two molecules each of ATP and NADH. In anaerobic organisms,
pyruvate is converted to waste products. During this process, NAD is regenerated so that glycolysis can
continue. In the presence of O2, aerobic organisms convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA and then to CO2 and
H2O. Glycolysis is controlled primarily by allosteric regulation of three enzymes—hexokinase, PFK-1, and
pyruvate kinase—and by the hormones glucagon and insulin..

GLUCONEOGENESIS

gluconeogenesis, molecules of glucose are synthesized from noncarbohydrate precursors (lactate,

pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids). The reaction sequence in gluconeogenesis is largely the
reverse of glycolysis. The three irreversible glycolytic reactions;the synthesis of pyruvate, the conversion
of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, and the formation of glucose from glucose-6-
phosphate) are bypassed by alternate energetically favorable reactions. The brain and the erythrocytes
are dependant on gluconeogenesis when deprived of glucose.

PENTOSE PHOSPHATE PATHWAY

pentose phosphate pathway, it's an alternative metabolic pathway to glucose metabolism where no
ATP is generated in which glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized, occurs in two phases. In the oxidative phase,
two molecules of NADPH are produced as glucose-6- phosphate is converted to ribulose-5-phosphate.Its
principal product NADPH is a reducing agent and is requiy in several anabolic processes. In the
nonoxidative phase, ribose-5-phosphate and other sugars are synthesized. If cells need more NADPH
than ribose-5- phosphate, a component of nucleotides and the nucleic acids, then metabolites of the
nonoxidative phase are converted into glycolytic intermediates.

GLYCOGENESIS AND GLYCOGENOLYSIS

Glycogen synthesis occurs after a meal rich in Carbohydrates when blood glucose is very high.synthsis of
glycogen from glucose-2-phosphate involves synthesis of glucose-1-phosphate followed by synthesis of
UDP-glucose,glycogen is then synthesized from UDP-glucose.During it's degradation,glucose-1-
phosphate,the major product of glycogenolysis is diverted into glycolysis in muscle cells to generate
energy for muscle contraction.In hepatocytes,glucose-1-phosphate is converted to glucose and released
into the blood.

OTHER IMPORTANT SUGARS

sugars other than glucose are important in vertebrate carbohydrate metabolism. These include
fructose, galactose,and mannose .Besides glucose these molecules are the most common sugars found
in olygosaccharides and polysaccharide.They also are energy sources and converted into glycolytic
intermediates.
REFERENCES

1)Fothergill-Gilmore, L. A., and Michels, P. A., Evolution of Glycolysis, Prog. Biophys. Mol. Biol. 59:105–
135, 1993

2)Miles JM. Lipid fuel metabolism in health and disease. Curr Opin Gen Surg. 1993:78-84. PMID:
7584017.

3)Brosnan JT. Comments on metabolic needs for glucose and the role of gluconeogenesis. Eur J Clin
Nutr. 1999 Apr;53 Suppl 1:S107-11. doi: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600748. PMID: 10365987.