RICA SALOMON

HW - Carbohydrate Metabolism II & Lipid Metabolism

1. Why is it essential that the mechanisms that activate glycogen synthesis also deactivate glycogen
phosphorylase?
Both mechanisms occur in the similar cellular compartment, using both mechanisms to switch it
off and on is essential. Because if both occur or are turned on the same time, a futile ATP
hydrolysis cycle may take place.
2. Name the two control mechanisms that play a role in glycogen biosynthesis. Give an example of
each.
They are controlled by both allosteric and hormonal regulation. In allosteric regulation, as a
molecule bind to its receptor site, the enzyme’s behavior alters along with its confirmation and
function. The enzyme phosphorylase B is activated when muscular activity occurs. As for
hormonal regulation, it maintains homeostasis. When blood glucose levels arise, insulin is
secreted, and when blood glucose levels decrease, glucagon is secreted. This is to ensure the
normal balance or rate of blood sugar levels in the body.

3. You are planning to go on a hiking and are advised to eat plenty of high-carbohydrate foods, such
as bread and pasta, for several days beforehand. Suggest a reason for the advice.
Foods like bread and pasta are a rich source for carbohydrates. When we consume
carbohydrates, it is broken down by the body into simple sugars that goes straight to the
bloodstream. When sugar levels rise, insulin is secreted. Insulin moves sugar from the blood into
the cells where it is used as energy for the body to perform such physical activities namely,
hiking or marathon.

4. How does the role of glucose-6-phosphate in gluconeogenesis differ from that in glycolysis?
The difference of glucose-6-phosphate in gluconeogenesis from glucose-6-phosphate in glycolysis
is that it dephosphorylates to glucose. Whereas in glycolysis, glucose-6-phosphate isomerases to
fructose-6-phosphate.

5. How do glucagon and epinephrine differ in chemical structure? What roles do glucagon and
epinephrine play in glycogen breakdown?
Glucagon is a polypeptide molecule that consists of 29 amino acids. As for epinephrine, it is a
catecholamine, which is derived from the amino acid tyrosine and phenylalanine. The chemical
formula for epinephrine is C9H13NO3. Glucagon uses fat as an energy source. The role of glucagon
is to release glucose in the bloodstream to prevent hypoglycemia. On the other hand, the role of
epinephrine stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver, which raises the level of blood sugar in the
body.

6. What are the differences in structure or function between NADH and NADPH?
In terms of structure, NADH has two phosphate groups joined together by an oxygen molecule.
And in each phosphate group there is a five-carbon ribose sugar linked to it. It is similar to
NADPH, however, the only difference between the two is that the five-carbon ribose sugar
carries a second phosphate group for a total of three phosphate groups present in NADPH. In
terms of function, NADH is an electron carrier, it participates in the metabolism by accepting and
donating electrons occurring in the mitochondria of cell membranes at the electron transport
chain. As for NADPH, its function is to take part in the synthesis of carbohydrates and the
formation of antioxidants. NADPH is involved with glutathione reductase, an enzyme which
regulates and maintain high levels of glutathione in the body.

7. What is a major difference between transketolase and transaldolase?

Transketolase and Transaldolase link both the phosphate pathway and glycolysis. The difference
between the two enzymes is that transketolase transfers a 2-carbon unit while transaldolase would
transfer a 3-carbon unit. The site of addition in the transketolase is the thiazole ring via thiamine
pyrophosphate enzyme. In transketolase mechanism, TPP or the carbanion of pyrophosphate would
attack the ketose substrate. The result releases aldose to yield an activated glycoaldehyde unit. This
attacks the aldose substrate to yield a new carbon-carbon bond. Ketose product is then released
which frees the TPP for the upcoming reaction cycle. In transaldolase mechanism, transaldolase
would transfer a three-carbon dihydroxyacetone unit from a ketose to an aldose. Transaldolase has a
Schiff bond which forms between a lysine residue in the transaldolase and ketose substrate. An
aldose product is released when Schiff bond is protonated which leaves a 3-carbon fragment left
 attached to the lysine residue. This intermediate reacts with an aldose to form a new carbon-carbon
bond. The reaction cycle becomes complete when ketose product is released from the lysine side
chain.

8. What is the difference between the type of oxidation catalyzed by acyl-CoA dehydrogenase and
that catalyzed by beta-hydroxyCoA dehydrogenase?
- Acyl-CoA dehydrogenase is the enzyme involved in β-oxidation of fatty acids. It reduces FAD to
FADH. SCHAD or short chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase is a mitochondrial fatty acid
oxidation enzyme that catalyzes straight-chain 3-hydroxyacyl-CoAs oxidation, which forms
NADH + H+ via NAD+.

9. Compare the energy yields from the oxidative metabolism of glucose and of stearic acid. Calculate
it on the basis of ATP equivalents per carbon.
The oxidation of glucose is linked with the synthesis of many molecules of ATP. Glucose metabolism
occurs in the cytosol, producing small amounts of ATP. As for stearic acid, it is obtained from fatty
acids of animals and vegetable fats. Therefore, stearic acid produces larger amounts of energy than
glucose. One stearic acid has 6.7 of ATP per carbon.

10. Under what conditions are ketone bodies produced? Briefly outline the reactions involved in
ketone bodies production
Ketone bodies are produced when glucose is not properly utilized in the body. Acetoacetate and D-3-
hydroxybutyrate which are ketone bodies acts as alternative supply of energy for the brain when it is
under starvation condition or when the body has diabetes mellitus. Three steps or reactions are
involved in the production of ketone bodies. First, 2 acetyl-SCoA condenses which is then catalyzed by
beta-ketothiolase. Second, Acetyl-SCoA is combined to acetoacetyl-SCoA which forms HMG SCoA. This
catalyzed by HMG SCoA synthase. Lastly, HMGCoA lyase catalyzes the formation of acetoacetate from
HMG SCoA.

11. What is the metabolic importance of malonyl-CoA?

Malonyl-CoA plays a crucial role in metabolism of energy. Malonyl-CoA is the substrate for the
enzyme fatty acid synthase, its cytosolic concentration determines the de novo fatty acid synthesis.
Malonyl-CoA facilitates the entry of fatty acids in the mitochondria. Therefore, it also plays a part in
determining the oxidation rate of fatty acid. Malonyl-CoA regulates oxidation of fatty acid in the
heart and skeletal muscle. In the CNS, the hypothalamus detects fluctuations in circulation of
glucose and lipids, it responds by altering malonyl-CoA concentration which modifies food intake
and energy balance.
12. How is ACP similar to CoA? How is it different?
Both ACP and CoA are used in Lipid biosynthesis.

References

Berg, J. (1970, January 01). 20.3 the Pentose Phosphate Pathway Generates NADPH and Synthesizes Five-
Carbon Sugars. Retrieved October 05, 2020, from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22416/

Malonyl-CoA. (n.d.). Retrieved October 05, 2020, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-

and-dentistry/malonyl-coa

Michelle, M. (2019, March 02). What Are the Functions of Coenzymes? Retrieved October 05, 2020, from
https://sciencing.com/functions-coenzymes-5070676.html