Mechanics

Physics 151

Lecture 5
Central Force Problem
(Chapter 3)
What We Did Last Time
„ Introduced Hamilton’s Principle
„ Action integral is stationary for the actual path
„ Derived Lagrange’s Equations
„ Used calculus of variation

„ Discussed conservation laws

„ Generalized (conjugate) momentum
„ Symmetry – Invariance – Momentum conservation
„ We are almost done with the basic concepts
„ One more thing to cover …
Goals for Today
„ Energy conservation
„ Define energy function
„ Subtle difference from the Newtonian version

„ Central force problem Å First application

„ Motion of a particle under a central force
„ Simplify the problem using angular momentum conservation
„ Discuss qualitative behavior of the solution
„ Use energy conservation
„ Distinguish bounded/unbounded orbits
„ Actual solution Æ Thursday
Energy Conservation
„ Consider time derivative of Lagrangian
dL(q, q , t ) ∂L dq j ∂L dq j ∂L
=∑ +∑ +
dt j ∂q j dt j ∂q
 j dt ∂t
∂L d ⎛ ∂L ⎞
„ Using Lagrange’s equation = ⎜ ⎟⎟
∂q dt ⎜ ∂q
one can derive j ⎝ j ⎠
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L
⎜⎜ ∑ q j − L⎟ +
⎟ ∂t
=0
dt ⎝ j ∂q j ⎠
Define this as energy function h(q, q , t )
„ Conserved if Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on t
“Energy” Function? h(q, q , t ) ≡ ∑ q j
∂L
−L
j ∂q j

„ Does energy function represent the total energy?

„ Let’s try an easy example first
„ Single particle moving along x axis
mx 2
L= − V ( x) h = mx 2 − L
2
mx 2 Total
= + V ( x) = T + V
2 energy
„ How general is this?
Energy Function h(q, q , t ) ≡ ∑ q j
∂L
−L
j ∂q j

„ Suppose L can be written as

L(q, q , t ) = L0 (q, t ) + L1 (q, q , t ) + L2 (q, q , t )
„ True in most cases 2nd order in q
of interest
1st order in q
„ Derivatives satisfy
∂L0 ∂L1 ∂L2
∂q j
=0 ∑j q j ∂q = L1 ∑j q j ∂q = 2 L2 Euler’s
theorem
j j

∂L
h(q, q , t ) ≡ ∑ q j − L = L2 − L0
j ∂q j
Energy Function
h(q, q , t ) = L2 − L0 L = T −V
„ Energy function equals to the total energy T + V if
T = L2 and V = − L0
„ 1st condition is satisfied if transformation from ri to qj is
time-independent
„ 2nd condition holds if the potential is velocity-independent
„ No frictions Æ Friction would dissipate energy

„ Let’s look into the 1st condition

Kinetic Energy
mi 2
T = ∑ ri
Time-independent
ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn )
i 2
dri ∂ri
„ Using the chain rule =∑ q j
dt j ∂q j

mi 2 mi ∂ri ∂ri mi ∂ri ∂ri

∑i 2 ri = ∑i 2
 ∑ ⋅
j , k ∂q j ∂qk
q j qk = ∑ q j qk ∑
 
j ,k
 
i
⋅
2 ∂q j ∂qk

2nd order homogeneous No q

„ This wouldn’t work if ri = ri (q1 ,..., qn , t ) because
dri ∂ri ∂ri
=∑ qj +

dt j ∂q j ∂t
 ∂L
Energy Conservation h(q, q , t ) ≡ ∑ q j
j ∂q j
−L

„ Energy function equals to the total energy if

„ Constraints are time-independent
Æ Kinetic energy T is 2nd order homogeneous function of
the velocities
„ Potential V is velocity-independent
„ Energy function is conserved if
„ Lagrangian does not depend explicitly on time
„ These are restatement of the energy conservation
theorem in a more general framework
„ Conditions are clearly defined
Central Force Problem
„ Consider a particle under a central force
F m
„ Force F parallel to r
„ Assume F is conservative F = −∇V (r ) r
O
„ V is function of |r| if F is central
„ Such systems are quite common
„ Planet around the Sun
„ Satellite around the Earth
„ Electron around a nucleus
„ These examples assume the body at the center is heavy
and does not move
 Two-Body Problem
„ Consider two particles without external force
„ r1 and r2 relative to center of mass m1
r1
„ Lagrangian is
CoM
 2 2 m r 2
(m1 + m2 )R
+ ∑ i i − V (r )
R
L= r m2
2 i =1 2 O 2

Motion of CoM Potential is function of

Motion of particles |r| = |r2 – r1|
around CoM Strong law of action and reaction
m2 m1 2
mi ri2 1 m1m2
r1 = −
(m1 + m2 )
r r2 =
(m1 + m2 )
r ∑
i =1 2
=
2 (m1 + m2 )

r 2
Two-Body Æ Central Force
2 1 mm
(m1 + m2 )R
L= + 1 2
r 2 − V (r ) m1
2 2 (m1 + m2 )
r
„ R is cyclic CoM
R m2
„ CoM moves at a constant velocity
O
„ Move O to CoM and forget about it
1 m1m2
L= r 2 − V (r )
2 (m1 + m2 )

Relative motion of two particles is identical to the motion of

one particle in a central-force potential
m1m2 1 1 1
„ Reduced mass µ = or = +
(m1 + m2 ) µ m1 m2
Hydrogen and Positronium
„ Positronium is a bound state of a positron
e−
and an electron
„ Similar to hydrogen except m(p) >> m(e+)
„ Potential V(r) is identical e+
„ Turn them into central force problem e−
me me me
µ positronium = = p
(me + me ) 2
m p me
µ hydrogen = ≈ me V (r ) = −
q2
( m p + me ) r

„ Spectrum of positronium identical to

hydrogen with me Æ me/2
Spherical Symmetry
„ Central-force system is spherically symmetric
„ It can be rotated around any axis through the origin
„ Lagrangian L = T (r 2 ) − V (r ) doesn’t depend on the
direction
„ Angular momentum is conserved L = r × p = const
„ Direction of L is fixed
„ r ⊥ L by definition Æ r is always in a plane

„ Choose polar coordinates

L
„ Polar axis = direction of L
r = r ( r ,θ ,ψ ) = r (r ,θ ) O
r

Azimuth Zenith = 1/2π

More Formally
„ Lagrangian in polar coordinates r = r (r ,θ ,ψ )
m 2 2 2 2 2 2
L = T − V = ( r + r sin ψθ + r ψ ) − V (r )
2
„ θ is cyclic, but ψ is not
d ⎛ ∂L ⎞ ∂L 2 ) = 0
⎜ ⎟ − = mr 2
(ψ − sin ψ cos ψθ
dt ⎝ ∂ψ ⎠ ∂ψ
„ We can choose the polar axis so that the initial condition is
ψ = π 2 , ψ = 0 2nd term vanishes ψ = 0

„ Now ψ is constant. We can forget about it

Angular Momentum
m 2 2 2
L = T − V = (r + r θ ) − V (r )
2
„ θ is cyclic. Conjugate momentum pθ conserves
∂L
pθ =  = mr 2θ = const ≡ l Magnitude of
∂θ angular momentum

„ Alternatively
dA 1 2  dr
Areal velocity = r θ = const
dt 2
„ Kepler’s 2nd law dA
„ True for any central force
Radial Motion
m 2 2 2
L = T − V = (r + r θ ) − V (r )
2
d  ∂V ( r )
„ Lagrange’s equation for r Æ (mr ) − mrθ +
 2
=0
dt ∂r
„ Derivative of V is the force

mr = mrθ 2 + f (r ) ∂V ( r )
f (r ) = −
∂r
Centrifugal force Central force
„ Using the angular momentum l l = mr 2θ
l2
mr = 3
+ f (r ) We know how to integrate this.
mr But we also know what we’ll
get by integrating this
Energy Conservation
m 2 2 2 m 2 1 l2
E = T + V = (r + r θ ) + V (r ) = r + 2
+ V (r ) = const
2 2 2 mr

2⎛ l2 ⎞
r = ⎜ E − V (r ) − ⎟
1st order differential
m⎝ 2mr 2 ⎠ equation of r

„ One can solve this (in principle) by

NB: This never
t r dr
t = ∫ dt = ∫ = t (r ) goes negative
2⎛ l2 ⎞
0 r0

⎜ E − V (r ) − ⎟
m⎝ 2mr 2 ⎠
„ Then invert t(r) Æ r(t)
 l
„ Then calculate θ(t) by integrating θ = Done! (?)
mr 2
Degrees of Freedom
„ A particle has 3 degrees of freedom
„ Eqn of motion is 2nd order differential Æ 6 constants
„ Each conservation law reduces one differentiation
„ By saying “time-derivative equals zero”
„ We used L and E Æ 4 conserved quantities
„ Left with 2 constants of integration = r0 and θ0

„ We don’t have to use conservation laws

„ It’s just easier than solving all of Lagrange’s equations
Qualitative Behavior
„ Integrating the radial motion 2⎛ l2 ⎞
r = ⎜ E − V (r ) − ⎟
isn’t always easy m⎝ 2mr 2 ⎠
„ More often impossible…
„ You can still tell general behavior by looking at
l2
V ′(r ) ≡ V ( r ) + Quasi potential including
2mr 2 the centrifugal force
„ Energy E is conserved, and E – V’ must be positive

mr 2 mr 2
E= + V ′(r ) = E − V ′(r ) > 0 E > V ′(r )
2 2
„ Plot V’(r) and see how it intersects with E
Inverse-Square Force
„ Consider an attractive 1/r2 force
k k
f (r ) = − 2 V (r ) = −
r r l2
„ Gravity or electrostatic force 2mr 2
k l2
V ′(r ) = − + r
r 2mr 2
V ′(r )
„ 1/r2 force dominates at large r
„ Centrifugal force dominates at
k
small r −
„ A dip forms in the middle r
Unbounded Motion
„ Take V’ similar to 1/r2 case V ′(r )
„ Only general features are relevant
„ E = E1 Æ r > rmin E1 = V ′(rmin ) E1
1 2
„ Particle can go infinitely far mr
2
E2
Arrive from r = ∞ r

E3
Turning point
E =V′ r = 0
A 1/r2 force would
Go toward r = ∞ make a hyperbola
Bounded Motion
„ E = E2 Æ rmin < r < rmax V ′(r )
„ Particle is confined between two
circles E1
1 2
mr
Goes back and 2
forth between E2
two radii r

E3

Orbit may or may not be A 1/r2 force would

closed. (This one isn’t) make an ellipse
Circular Motion
„ E = E3 Æ r = r0 (fixed) V ′(r )
„ Only one radius is allowed
E1
Stays on a circle
E = V ′(r0 ) E2
r = 0 r
r = const = r0
E3
r0
„ Classification into unbounded, bounded and circular motion
depends on the general shape of V’
„ Not on the details (1/r2 or otherwise)
Another Example
a 3a a l2
V =− 3 f =− 4 V′ = − 3 +
r r r 2mr 2
„ Attractive r-4 force
„ V’ has a bump
l2
„ Particle with energy E may be
either bounded or unbounded, 2mr 2
depending on the initial r V′
E
r
V
Stable Circular Orbit
„ Circular orbit occurs at the bottom of a dip of V’
mr 2 dV ′
= E −V ′ = 0 mr = − =0
2 dr
r = const
„ Top of a bump works in theory, E
r
but it is unstable stable
„ Initial condition must be exactly
unstable
r = 0 and r = r0
E
d 2V ′
Stable circular orbit requires 2
>0
dr
r
r0
Power Law Force V ′( r ) ≡ V ( r ) +
l2
2mr 2

dV ′ l2 d 2V ′ df 3l 2
= − f (r0 ) − 3 = 0 2
=− + 4 >0
dr r = r0 mr0 dr r = r dr r = r0 mr0
0

df 3 f (r0 )
<−
dr r = r0 r0

„ Suppose the force has a form f = −kr n

„ k > 0 for attractive force
„ Condition for stable circular orbit is
− knr0n −1 < 3kr0n −1 n > −3

Power-law forces with n > –3 can make stable circular orbit

Summary
„ Started discussing Central Force Problems
„ Reduced 2-body problem into central force problem
„ Problem is reduced to one equation l2
mr = 3
+ f (r )
„ Used angular momentum conservation mr
l2
„ Qualitative behavior depends on V ′( r ) ≡ V ( r ) +
2mr 2
„ Unbounded, bounded, and circular orbits
„ Condition for stable circular orbits

„ Next step: Can we actually solve for the orbit?