Unit #2 - Limits, Continuity, and the Derivative

Some problems and solutions selected or adapted from Hughes-Hallett Calculus.

Continuity

1. Which of the following would be best repre-

sented as continuous functions of time?
(a) The speed of a billiard ball striking another lim f (x) = lim −2x + b
x→2− x→2−
ball, and then being left stationary as the other
= −2(2) + b
ball rolls away from the impact. (A ‘perfect
elastic collision’ for the physics folks out there.) = b − 4.
(b) The temperature at a measuring station −24
lim+ f (x) = lim+
within the Arctic circle. x→2 x→2 x−b
(c) The speed of your car as you drive from −24
=
home to work. 2−b

For both of these to be equal, we need

(a) Not continuous.
We would usually interpret this kind of collision as −24
the first ball’s speed would (almost/essentially) in- b−4=
2−b
stanteneously drop from the rolling speed to zero.
Solving for b : (b − 4)(2 − b) = −24
We would usually model this as a discontinuity in
the ball’s speed or velocity. −b2 + 6b − 8 + 24 = 0
(b) Continuous. tidying and dividing by -1, b2 − 6b − 16 = 0
There would be no reason for instantaneous jumps (b + 2)(b − 8) = 0
in the temperature.
(c) Continuous. Thus b = −2 or b = 8 will lead to both limits lim− f (x)
x→2
There would be no reason for instantaneous jumps and lim f (x) equaling the same value, and also f (2).
x→2+
in the car’s velocity. Even during quick braking This satisfies all the criteria for the function to be con-
or quick accelerating, you would be able to draw a tinuous at the transition point x = 2.
graph of the velocity with a continuous pen stroke.
 A function f (x) is said to have a jump disconti-
−2x + b, if x < 2
nuity at x = a if:
2. Let f (x) = −24
 , if x ≥ 2 1. lim− f (x) exists.
x−b x→a
There are exactly two values for b which make 2. lim f (x) exists.
x→a+
f (x) a continuous function at x = 2: find those 3. The left and right limits are not equal.
two values. (For fun, try to graph f (x).)

For the function to be continuous at x = 2, we need


7x − 8, if x < 3
the following 3 values to exist and be equal: 3. Let f (x) = 2
 , if x ≥ 3
x+4
• lim− f (x), Show that f (x) has a jump discontinuity at
x→2
x = 3 by calculating the limits from the left
• lim f (x), and and right at x = 3.
x→2+

• f (2).
Coming from the left side,
We note that f (2) will equal lim+ f (x), because the
x→2 lim f (x) = lim− 7x − 8 since x is less than 3
second branch of the function is defined for x = 2 for x→3− x→3 | {z }
f (x)
f (2), and x > 2 for the limit lim+ f (x). This means
x→2 = 21 − 8 = 13.
that we just need both one-sided limits to equal each
other.

1
Coming from the right • the limit from the left and right both to exist and
be equal, and
2
lim+ f (x) = lim> since x is larger than 3
x→3 x→3 x+4 • the limit and the value at x = 5 to be equal.
| {z }
f (x)
Looking at the limit from the left, only the formula for
2 2
= = x < 5 applies:
3+4 7
4x3 − 20x2 + 9x − 45
lim− f (x) = lim−
x→5 x→5 x−5
Since the two one-sided limit values do not have equal
0
values, we would say that the function has a jump dis- = or indeterminate: needs more work
continuity at x = 3. It would also be true to say that 0
the function is discontinuous at x = 3.

2
x + 3x + 8, if x < 9
 Factoring can help resolve these limit questions:
4. Let f (x) = 5, if x = 9
 4x3 − 20x2 + 9x − 45 (x − 5)(4x2 + 9)
−8x + 3, if x > 9

lim = lim
Show that f (x) has a jump discontinuity at x→5− x−5 x→5− x−5
x = 9 by calculating the limits from the left = lim (4x + 9) = 4(5)2 + 9 = 10
2
x→5−
and right at x = 9.
We then look at the limit from the right, which depends
Coming from the left side,
only on the formula 6x2 + 6x + a.
lim f (x) = lim− x2 + 3x + 8 since x is less than 9
x→9− x→9 | {z } lim f (x) = lim+ 6x2 + 6x + a
f (x) x→5+ x→5
= 81 + 27 + 8 = 116. = 6(5)2 + 6(5) + a = 180 + a

To be continuous, both of those limits must be equal:

Coming from the right
lim f (x) = lim> −8x + 3 since x is larger than 9 lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→9+ x→9 | {z } x→5+ x→5−
f (x) 109 = 180 + a
= −72 + 3 = −69 a = −71

Since the second formula, 6x2 + 6x + a also applies at

Since the two one-sided limit values do not have equal the point x = 5, with f (5) = 109, we therefore have
values, we would say that the function has a jump dis- the limits and the function all agreeing on the value
continuity at x = 9. If we are just interested in whether f (x) = 109 if a = −71.
there is a jump discontinuity, the actual value of the
function at x = 9 is irrelevant. x2 − 64
6. Explain why the function f (x) = is dis-
5. The function f is given by the formula x+8
continuous at x = −8.
3 2
4x − 20x + 9x − 45
f (x) =
x−5 The function is not defined at the point x = −8: we
get a division by zero error.
when x < 5 and by the formula
Being defined at the point is one of the first require-
2 ments for a function to be continuous at a point.
f (x) = 6x + 6x + a
when 5 ≤ x. What value must be chosen for a (Note that limit as x → −8 may still exist: that does
in order to make this function continuous at 5? not require that the function be defined at the limiting
point.)
These words describe a piecewise function:
( 4x3 −20x2 +9x−45 7. Find the value(s) of the constant c for which the
x−5 x<5 function f continuous on (−∞, ∞), where
f (x) =
6x2 + 6x + a 5≤x
(
y 2 − c if y ∈ (−∞, 9)
f (y) =
For the function to be continuous, we need: cy + 3 if y ∈ [9, ∞)

2
Both pieces of the function, y 2 − c and cy + 3, are con- Both pieces of the function, cy + 4 and cy 2 − 4, are con-
tinuous on their domain. The only possible problem tinuous on their domain. The only possible problem
point is at the transition y = 9. point is at the transition y = 8.
Check the left and right limits: Check the left and right limits:
lim f (y) = lim y 2 − c
y→9− y→9−
lim f (y) = lim− cy + 4
y→8− y→8
= 81 − c
= 8c + 4

lim f (y) = lim+ cy + 3

y→9+ y→9

= 9c + 3
lim f (y) = lim+ cy 2 − 4
y→8+ y→8
For both of these to be equal,
= 64c − 4
lim f (y) = lim f (y)
y→9− y→9+

81 − c = 9c + 3 For both of these to be equal,

−10c = −78
lim f (y) = lim f (y)
c = 7.8 y→8− y→8+

For the function to be continuous at y = 9 (the only 8c + 4 = 64c − 4

possible discontinuity), we must have c = 7.8. (8 − 64)c = −8
8. Find the constant c for which the function f is 8 1
c= = ≈ 0.1429
continuous on (−∞, ∞) where 56 7
(
cy + 4 if y ∈ (−∞, 8] For the function to be continuous at y = 8 (the only
f (y) = 1
cy 2 − 4 if y ∈ (8, ∞) possible discontinuity), we need c = ≈ 0.1429.
7

3
Limits

9. Let F be the function whose graph is shown be- (a) 4. Because the limit requested is x → 7− , then
low. Evaluate each of the following expressions. x < 7, so we use the function f (x) = 4 that applies
for x < 7.
(a) lim F (x)
x→−1− (b) 17. Because the limit requested is x → 7+ , then
(b) lim F (x) x > 7, so we use the function f (x) = 10 + x.
x→−1+ lim+ 10 + x = 10 + 7 = 17.
x→7
(c) lim F (x)
x→−1 (c) −21. We are evaluating the function exactly at
(d) F (−1) x = 7, so use the function f (x) = −3x. At x = 7,
(e) lim− F (x) f (7) = −3(7) = −21.
x→1
(f) lim F (x) 11. Evaluate the limit
x→1+
11x + 2
(g) lim F (x) lim
x→1 x→∞ 4x2 − 4x + 9
(h) lim F (x)
x→3
The limit’s value is zero.
(i) F (3)
Trying to ‘sub in’ the infinite values gives the indeter-
∞
minate form , so we need to do more work.
∞
We can divide top and bottom of the ratio by the high-
est power, x2 :

11x + 2 (11x + 2)/x2

lim = lim
x→∞ 4x2 − 4x + 9 x→∞ (4x2 − 4x + 9)/x2
11 2
x + x2
= lim 4 9
x→∞ 4 −
x + x2

All the 1/x and 1/x2 terms converge to zero, while the
4 term remains. Thus the limit tends towards → 40 = 0.
12. Evaluate the following limits.
2 + 10x
(a) lim
(a) lim F (x) = −1 - approach from the left. x→∞ 9 − 4x
x→−1− 2 + 10x
(b) lim
(b) lim F (x) = −1 - approach from the right. x→−∞ 9 − 4x
x→−1+
(c) lim F (x) = −1 - both one-sided limits agree on
x→−1 (a) −2.5.
this value. Trying to ‘sub in’ the infinite values gives the in-
(d) F (−1) = 0 - filled-in dot. ∞
determinate form , so we need to do more work.
(e) lim− F (x) = −1 - approach from the left. ∞
x→1 Dividing top and bottom by x will transform some
(f) lim+ F (x) = 0 - approach from the right. of our infinite quantities into zeros, which will help:
x→1
2
(g) lim F (x) DNE - the one-sided limits exist, but do (2 + 10x)/x + 10
x→1 lim = lim x9
x→∞ (9 − 4x)/x
not agree in their value. x −4
x→∞

(h) lim F (x) = −1 - both one-sided limits agree. 0 + 10

x→3 = = −2.5
0−4
(i) F (3) DNE - no filled-in circle for the graph at
x = 3.
 (b) −2.5. Almost identical logic/calculation to part
4,
 x < 7, (a).
10. Let f (x) = −3x, x = 7,
 13. Evaluate the following limits.
10 + x, x > 7. 7x + 6

(a) lim
Evaluate each of the following: 2
x→∞ 11x − 9x + 10
7x + 6
(a) lim− f (x) (b) lim+ f (x) (c) f (7) (b) lim
x→7 x→7 x→−∞ 11x2 − 9x + 10

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(a) 0. 17. Evaluate the following limits.
Trying to ‘sub in’ the infinite values gives the in- 10x3 − 7x2 − 4x
∞ (a) lim
determinate form , so we need to do more work. x→∞ 3 − 10x − 3x3
∞ 10x3 − 7x2 − 4x
Dividing top and bottom by x will transform some (b) lim
x→−∞ 3 − 10x − 3x3
of our infinite quantities into zeros, which will help:

(7x + 6)/x 7 + x6 (a) The limiting value is 10/(−3), or ≈ −3.33.

lim 2
= lim 10
x→∞ (11x − 9x + 10)/x x→∞ 11x − 9 + This can be found by dividing top and bottom by
x
7 x3 before evaluating the limit.
→ →0
∞ (b) The limiting value is also 10/(−3), or ≈ −3.33,
because the sign of the x3 terms is both negative,
(b) 0, by a similar calculation to part (a). so their sign effect cancels.

14. Evaluate the following limits. 18. Evaluate the following limit.
7
(a) lim x
x→∞ e + 2 x4 − 3x2 + 4
7 lim
(b) lim x x→∞ x5 + 3x3
x→−∞ e + 2

The limit value is 0.

(a) 0. This can be found by dividing top and bottom by x4
If we ‘sub in’ x → ∞, we note that ex → ∞ as before evaluating the limit.
well, so
19. Evaluate the following limits.
(a) lim −24x2 + 30x3


7 7 x→∞
lim → →0
(b) lim −24x2 + 30x3


x→∞ ex + 2 ∞
x→−∞

(b) 3.5.
After working with polynomials, you need to be (a) For large values of x, the term that dominates the
careful with this exponential limit! polynomial will be highest power, here the cubic
If we ‘sub in’ x → −∞, we note that ex → 0 (not term. As x → ∞, the term +30x3 → ∞ as well, so
infinity)! This is like an exponential decay in the the overall limit is → ∞.
long run, or the extreme left side of the y = ex (b) For large values of x (even negative), the term that
graph. dominates the polynomial will be highest power,
7 7 here the cubic term. As x → −∞, the term
lim = = 3.5 +30x3 → −∞ as well, so the overall limit is
x→−∞ ex + 2 0+2
→ −∞.
15. Evaluate the limit 20. Evaluate the following limits, given f (x) =
|x−5|
(5 − x)(11 + 7x) x−5 .
lim
x→∞ (3 − 11x)(7 + 6x)
(a) lim− f (x)
x→5
The limiting value is ≈ 0.106. (b) lim+ f (x)
This can be found by expanding/multiplying out the x→5
factors in the numerator and denominator, then divid- (c) lim f (x)
x→5
ing top and bottom by x2 , and finally evaluating the
limit. Recall that the absolute value function is a piecewise
16. Evaluate the limit function, which keeps positive values unchanged, but
flips the sign of any negative values:
4x3 − 5x2 − 4x
lim (
x→∞ 10 − 8x − 2x3 (x − 5) if (x − 5) > 0, or x > 5
|x − 5| =
−(x − 5) if (x − 5) < 0, , or x < 5
The limiting value is −2.
(a) The limit value is -1.
This can be found by dividing top and bottom by x3 We first note that a naive ‘subbing in’ of the limit
before evaluating the limit. 0
x → 5 gives the form , which is indeterminate.
0

5
 We thus need to go back to the original function (b) 0
and do a more careful analysis. (c) 0
When we evaluate the limit from the left,
lim f (x), then the x values are below 5, so we 22. Find all values of the constant k such that the
x→5−
use the second branch of the function above (with limit shown below exists.
the negative sign). 5kx + 5
lim
x→∞ 54x + 7
|x − 5| −(x − 5)
lim = lim
x→5− x−5 x→5− x−5
= lim− −1 5kx + 5 ∞
x→5 lim =
x→∞ 54x + 7 ∞
= −1.
which is an indeterminate form.
(b) The limit value is 1. 5kx /54x + 5/54x
When we evaluate the limit from the right, Divide top & bottom by 54x : = lim
x→∞ 1 + 7/54x
lim+ f (x), then the x values are above 5, so we
x→5 In this new form, the denominator always approaches
use the first branch of the function above (with no a single value, regardless of k:
sign change, because x − 5 is already positive).
lim (1 + 7/54x ) = 1 + 0 = 1
|x − 5| (x − 5) x→∞
lim+ = lim+
x→5 x−5 x→5 x−5
We are therefore more concerned with the numerator,
= lim +1
x→5+ and consider the following cases:
= +1.
• If k > 4, then 5kx /54x = 5(k−4)x will give
(c) DNE. In parts (a) and (b), we found two differ- 5(positive coef.)·x → ∞ as x → ∞. in the numera-
ent limiting values, so the two-sided limit does not tor, the limit will continue to grow unboundedly,
exist. so the limit is not finite/does not exist.
21. Evaluate the following limits, given f (x) = • If k = 4 then 5kx /54x = 54x /54x = 1 an overall
|x−2| 1
x . limit of = 1 so the limit exists.
1
(a) lim f (x) (b) lim f (x) (c) lim f (x)
x→2− x→2+ x→2 • If k < 4 then 54x /54x will give
5 (negative coef.) ·x
→ 0 as x → ∞ overall limit
For each of these, we try a naive ‘subbing in’ of the converges to 01 = 0, so the limit exists.
value x = 2, and find no issues with continuity or lim-
0 5kx + 6
its: we simply get = 0 for each limit. Thus, the limit lim exists if k ≤ 4 and does
2 x→∞ 54x + 4
(a) 0 not exist for k > 4.

Derivative Concept and Definition

23. A car is driven at a speed that is initially high

and then decreases, starting at noon. Which of
the following could be a graph of the distance
the car has traveled as a function of time past
noon?

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

6
Because the car is driven at a decreasing speed, the dis- 26. Consider the function shown in the graph be-
tance traveled for different time intervals of the same low.
length must decrease as time goes on. Therefore the
slope of the graph of distance traveled must decrease
with increasing time, and must be 3.
24. A car is driven at a constant speed, starting at
noon. Which of the following could be a graph
of the distance the car has traveled as a function
of time past noon?

1. 2. 3.

(a)For each labelled point, is the slope of the

graph positive, negative or zero?
4. 5. 6. (b) At which labeled point does the graph have
the greatest ( i. e., most positive) slope?
(c) At which labeled point does the graph have
the largest negative slope?
7. 8.

Because the car is driven at a constant speed, the (a)

change in the distance traveled is the same for differ- A. Negative
ent time intervals of the same length. Thus the graph B. Negative
of the distance traveled must have a constant positive C. Positive
slope, and must be graph 5. D. Positive
25. Match the points labeled on the curve below E. Zero
with the given slopes in the following table. F. Negative
(b) D
(c) F
27. Consider the distance vs time graph shown
below.

slope -3 -1 -1/2 0 1 2
label

Rank the following quantities as if along the real

We match the points and slopes by noting that the line (i.e. largest negative, through zero, up to
slope is zero where the tangent to the curve is hori- largest positive).
zontal, negative where the function is decreasing, and A - Instantaneous velocity at t = 1.
positive where the function is increasing. The magni- B - Instantaneous velocity at t = 3.
tude of the slope gives the rate at which the function C - Instantaneous velocity at t = 4.
is increasing or decreasing, so that we have D - Instantaneous velocity at t = 5.
E - Average velocity over t = 1 . . . 3.
F - Average velocity over t = 4 . . . 5.
slope -3 -1 -1/2 0 1 2
label F C E A B D The order, from largest negative through to largest pos-
itive, is:
A→E→B→C→F →D

7
We obtain this by ordering the slopes from 29. Let f (x) be the function whose graph is shown
below.

• steepest downhill (i.e. largest negative slopes)

through

• horizontal (i.e. zero slopes) to

• steepest uphill (i.e. largest positive slopes)

Which is larger?

• A. f 0 (6.5)
• B. f 0 (5.5)

The line tangent to the graph of y = f (x) at x = 5.5

has a larger slope than the line tangent to the graph of
y = f (x) at x = 6.5. Therefore, f 0 (5.5) is larger than
f 0 (6.5).

30. Use algebra to evaluate the following limit.

(3 + h)2 − 9
lim
28. Let f (x) be the function whose graph is shown h→0 h
below.

(3+h)2 −9 32 +6h+h2 −9 6h+h2

h = h = h =6+h

(3+h)2 −9
Thus, as h → 0 we have h → 6.

31. Estimate the following limit by substituting

smaller and smaller values of h, and by using
algebra (the two answers should be very simi-
Determine the derivative of f (a) at the points
lar!).
a = 1, 2, 4, 7.
(4 + h)3 − 64
lim
h→0 h

Remember that the value of the derivative of f at x = a

can be interpreted as the slope of the line tangent to
the graph of y = f (x) at x = a. From the figure, we see (4+0.1)3 −64
that the graph of y = f (x) is a horizontal line (that is, a We try successively smaller values of h: 0.1 =
(4+0.01)3 −64 (4+0.001)3 −64
line with zero slope) on the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 3. Accord- 49.2100 0.01 = 48.1201 0.001 = 48.0120
ingly, f 0 (1) = f 0 (2) = 0. On the interval 3 ≤ x ≤ 5, (4+0.0001)3 −64 (4+0.00001)3 −64
0.0001 = 48.0012 0.00001 = 48.0001
the graph of y = f (x) is a line of slope 0.5; thus,
f 0 (4) = 0.5. Finally, the line tangent to the graph
of y = f (x) at x = 7 is horizontal, so f 0 (7) = 0. These values suggest that the limit is 48.000.

8
32. Suppose y = f (x) graphed in the figure be-
low represents the cost of manufacturing x kilo-
grams of a chemical.
f (x)/x represents the average cost of producing
1 kilogram of the chemical when x kilograms are
made. This problem asks you to visualize these
averages graphically.
(a) We can represent f (4)/4 as the slope of a
line. Through what points does this line
extend?
(b) Which is larger, f (3)/3 or f (4)/4?
(a) f (4)/4 is the slope of the line connecting (0, 0) to
(4, f (4)), as shown below.
(b) Extending the line described in part (a) for both
the points x = 3 and x = 4, we will get a higher
slope in the second case, so
f (3) f (4)
<
3 4
9
33. Consider the function y = f (x) graphed below.
Give the x-coordinate of a point where:
(a) The derivative of the function is positive.
(b) The value of the function is positive.
(c) The derivative of the function is largest.
(d) The derivative of the function is zero.
(e) The derivative of the function is approxi-
mately the same as the derivative at x =
3.25.
(a) Recall that the derivative is positive when the func-
tion is increasing. So we’re looking for a point
on the graph where the function is increasing; one
such point is x = 1; other points that satisfy this
are any points on the intervals x ≈ −1.5 . . . 1.4, or
x ≈= 2.55 . . . 3.6.
(b) The function is positive when the function is above
the x-axis. One such point is x = 1.5; other pos-
sibilities are any points between x = 1 . . . 2, and
x = 3 . . . 4.
(c) The derivative of the function is largest when the
function is increasing the fastest. This occurs at
x ≈ 3.25.
(d) The derivative of the function is zero when the
function has a horizontal tangent. One such point
is x ≈ 1.5; other points are x ≈ 2.55 and x ≈ 3.6.
(e) Finally, we’re looking for a point where the deriva-
tive is the same as the derivative at x = 3.25.
This means that we want the slope of a tangent
to the curve to be approximately the same as it is
at x = 3.25. Such a point is x = 0.75.
34. Consider the graph of the function f (x) shown (a) Since f is increasing, f (8) < f (10).
below. (b) From the figure, it appears that f (8) − f (6) >
f (6) − f (4).
(c) The quantity f (6)−f
6−4
(4)
represents the slope of the
secant line connecting the points on the graph at
x = 4 and x = 6. This is less than the slope of
the secant line connecting the points at x = 4 and
x = 8, which is f (8)−f
8−4
(4)

(d) The function is less steep at x = 4 than at x = 10,

so f 0 (4) < f 0 (10).

Using this graph, for each of the following pairs

of numbers decide which is larger. Be sure that
you can explain your answer.

(a) f (8) vs. f (10)

(b) f (8) − f (6) vs. f (6) − f (4)
f (6) − f (4) f (8) − f (4)
(c) vs.
6−4 8−4
(d) f 0 (4) vs. f 0 (10)

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