1.

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER AIDED DRAWING

1.1. COMPUTER GRAPHICS OVERVIEW

In computer graphics we are generally concerned with images drawn on display screens.
(Hard copies can then be made of these images if needed, using various types of plotting device.)
There are several ways in which these images can be constructed and different types of display
device use a range of imaging techniques to achieve acceptable visual representations.

In modem industry, the computer supports all the design and manufacturing functions.
The concept of a common database has effectively integrated these engineering functions and
requires the engineer to be aware of the ramifications of changes anywhere in the design and
manufacturing process.

The link between the area of drawing and design and analysis is very strong. Computer
aided design and drawing systems provide the means to generate 3D models with the computer
and from those models generate drawings for manufacturing. Computer aided drawing is a
technique to produce engineering drawings with the assistance of a computer.

1.2. COMPUTER AIDED DRAWING (CADD)

Designers generally use drawings to represent the object which they are designing, and to
communicate the design to others. Of course they will also use other forms of representation —
symbolic and mathematical models, and perhaps three-dimensional physical models — but the
drawing is arguably the most flexible and convenient of the forms of representation available.
Drawings are useful above all, obviously, for representing the geometrical form of the designed
object, and for representing its appearance. Hence the importance in computer-aided design
(CAD) of the production of visual images by computer, that is computer graphics.

In the process of design, technical drawings are used. Drawings explain the design and
also establish the link between design and manufacture. During the stage of design and detailing
depend on the designers’ skill and experience. Changes in previous designs take a long time
because the drawings have to be produced again.
 Computer -aided drawing is a technique where engineering drawings are produced with
the assistance of a computer and, as with manual drawing, is only the graphical means of
representing a design. Computer - aided design, however, is a technique where the attributes of
computer-aided design it normally refers to a graphical system where components and
assemblies can be modelled in three dimensions. The term design, however, also covers those
functions attributed to the areas of modelling and analysis. The acronym CADD is more
commonly used nowadays and stands for computer-aided draughting and design; a CADD
package is one which is able to provide all draughting facilities and some or all of those required
for the design process.

Two-dimensional (2D) computer drawing is the representation of an object in the single-

view format which shows two of the three object dimensions or the mutiview format where each
view reveals two dimensions. In both cases, the database includes just two values for each
represented coordinate of the object. It can also be a pictorial representation if the database
contains X, Y coordinates only.Three-dimensional (3D) computer drawing is the coordinate
format. Three dimensional computer aided drawing allows the production of geometric models
of a component or product for spatial and visual analysis.

The variety of drawings that are utilized in engineering are too numerous to illustrate
individually here. A few examples from engineering disciplines will demonstrate the versatility
of modern CAD sys tems.

∑ Aerospace: Layout drawings, part drawings, subassemblies, assemblies

∑ Chemical: Process schematics, process plant layout drawings
∑ Civil, Construction: Structural detail drawings, site plan drawings,
construction drawings, road - use plans
∑ Electrical, Computer: Circuit board design, very large system integration
(VLSI) design
∑ Industrial and Manufacturing: Manufacturing plant layout drawings,
subassemblies, assemblies
∑ Mechanical : part drawing, subassemblies, assemblies

In the near future, CAD will become an important part of engineering activities. But we
will still have to know the rules of engineering drawing. In other words, as the computer does
not poses the ability to design a component, without knowing these rules we cannot draw, even
with the help of a computer. But drawing has been made simpler with the aid of computers.
The advantages of using CADD systems are listed as follow:

∑ constant quality drawing the quality of lines, dimensions, symbols, notes, etc.,
are independent of the individual skill of the draughtsman;
∑ creation of database, which is the collection of useful information that may be
retrieved by draughtsmen and accessed by other processors;
∑ creation of library of commonly used electrical, hydraulic, welding, etc.,
symbols standard components such as nuts, bolts, screws, bearings, etc.,
projection symbols, parts of drawings, etc., can be stored in the memory and
recalled when needed and additionally they can be positioned anywhere on the
screen and redrawn to any scale and angle of inclination.

∑ use of layers the drawings may be drawn on any one of a number of available
layers, which may be considered as a stack of transparent sheets and any
separate sheet can be selected for drawing construction lines, grids,
dimensions, notes, hatching, etc., but to make up together a complete drawing
when required.

∑ saving on repetition repetitive work on similar features or drawings and the

resulting tiredness and boredom is replaced by automatic redrawing, hence
attention and interest are maintained with the consequent marked increase in
speed and productivity;
∑ greater accuracy due to computer mathematical accuracy, a high level of
dimensional control is obtained with reduction in the number of mistakes
resulting in accurate material and cost estimates;

∑ multicolour drawings visualisation of drawings relates directly to the

projection used, pictorial projections are easier to understand than
orthographic projection and the different colours obtainable by computers
enhance the understanding even further;
 ∑ editing functions the powerful editing functions of correcting mistakes,
deleting and inserting new features, copying, moving, translating and rotating
features, scaling, etc., is only made possible with the use of computers.

1.3. HISTORY AND BACKGROUND

The first important step in the development of computer-aided draughting was made at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963 where a system called Sketchpad was
developed and demonstrated. It consisted of a cathode ray tube (CRT) driven by software
running on a Lincoln TX2 computer which was able to create, modify and graphically display a
drawing on the screen using a light pen as a pointing device (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Early CADD hardware, i.e. Sketchpad

The first computer aided drawing system was introduced by IBM. With the development
of computer hardware and software, many changes have been made in CADD systems. By using
computer, learning of drawing can be easier than conventional methods. With CADD systems,
drawings can be formed, mistakes can be corrected, stored and restored. CAD systems can also
be used together with manufacturing techniques, numerical control and robotics technology.

In modern systems the light pen has been replaced by more effective pointing hardware,
that is a digitizer tablet, a mouse or both as shown in Figure 1.2. The design of hardware is a key
factor in easing the communication between the user and the software functions and a vital part
of the software which makes use of the peripheral hardware to give the operator a usable
interface to the functionality of the software is called the user interface.

Figure 1.2 Typical modern CADD hardware

1.3.1. CAD system and Hardware

Computers are being used at an increasing rate for both engineering design and drawing
purposes. There are many CAD systems on the market which are being continually developed
and refined. There are three main types of computer: (a) the mainframe computer; (b)the
minicomputer;(c) the microcomputer.

The workstation, which is similar in appearance to a personal computer, is generally of

higher performance and typically four to five times more expensive. Computer -aided
engineering software available for workstation platforms is normally capable of carrying out the
more demanding numerical analysis required of sophisticated design systems with acceptable
performance in speed. A mainframe computer system is capable of supporting the functional
demands of complex software packages, and for CADD systems these are accessed and
presented to the user via a graphics terminal. The mainframe performs the relevant mathematical
modelling and sends the results in graphical form to the terminal, which has some computing
power to interpret the data received, manipulate it and display it in graphical form.
Input Devices

The input devices are used for making selections from a menu, which is a layout of a
variety of commands and functions required to operate the system. Sending these commands into
the computer produces complete engineering drawings.

The choice of optional commands on the screen menu is made by indicating the required
position with the cursor cross-hairs or by typing a required code. The movement of the cursor on
the screen may be controlled by the following devices as shown in Figure 1.3:
(a) a keyboard, where the allocated keys control the required movements,
(b) thumb wheels, where one wheel controls horizontal movement and another
wheel controls vertical movement.
(c) a light pen, where the required position is selected by pointing the pen
directly at the scree n;
(d) a joystick, a vertical lever mounted in a box controls movements in any
direction;

(e) a mouse, a small box which when pushed across a surface controls
movements in the same direction;
(f) a tracker ball, its rolling in the mounting controls movements in any
direction;

(g) a puck or (h) stylus in conjunction with the digitising tablet, can enter the
complete drawing from a sketch or half-completed drawing by attaching it to
the surface of the digitiser and indicating the important points on lines, curves,
etc., and entering the relevant commands.
 Figure 1.3 Input devices

Output Devices
The output devices receive data from the computer and provide an output, hard copy. There
are two main types of output devices, namely printers and plotters. The printers may be impact,
where images are formed by a striking action or non-impact:

(a) impact printers for drawing reproduction are of the dot matrix type and
form shapes by the appropriate selection of small dots from the printhead;
(b) non-impact printers include electrostatic, ink-jet and laser printers, viz.:
i) electrostatic printers create shapes by burning away a thin metallic
coating on the special printing paper;
ii) the ink-jet printers use a printhead which directs a jet of ink at the
paper to create the required shapes;
iii) the laser printers use a fine beam of laser light to create the
required shapes.

There are two basic types of plotter, i.e. flatbed and drum:

(a) flatbed plotters have a flat area on which the paper of any type and
thickness is placed and the pens of various thicknesses and ink colours are
free to move in any direction with plothead providing all the motion;

(b) drum plotters have a rotating drum over which the paper can move in two
directions and pens are limited to move only across the drum and, with a
combination of pen movement and drum rotation, provides the required
 motion. Drawings of longer length but sometimes of lower precision are
produced when compared with flatbed plotters.

1.3.2. CADD Software Structure

The database for a CADD package contains data defining the two- or three-dimensional
geometry of the drawing or design. It can be viewed as a mathematical model which is a precise
geometrically accurate representation of the component or assembly. The input to this is the
addition to and modification of the model by the designer or draughtsman and includes the
addition of geometric and detail entities such as lines, curves, points, notes or dimensions and
modification to correct errors and enhance productivity. These additions and modifications
should immediately be seen on the graphical display, which is the main interactive output
medium of the software and therefore needs to be very effective. In the case of draughting one
needs to be able to add a drawn feature with as much or greater ease than one would be able to
do on a drawing board.

1.3.3. The User Interface

CAD systems may be considered as comprising a large number of functions for creating
or manipulating the design model. For example a function might create a line in the database
parallel to another line at a given distance. The general sequence of operation of a CAD program
is for the user to select the function to be applied, and the particular way it is to be operated, and
then for the program to apply this function using data provided by the user. Traditionally, there
are two ways in which this is achieved:

Command-based systems
Command-based systems operate by reading a command and its parameters entered by
the user, carrying out the required actions, then waiting for the next command. The commands
themselves may often comprise English-like words. The main commands are indicated by the
permitted major words, and the options relating to the command by minor words. Many systems
also allow commands to be abbreviated, either through the use of an alternative form (for
example ‘dimension’ might be abbreviated by ‘dim’), or by allowing the user to type only those
characters of the command required for its unique identification . The command is itself
 sometimes followed by the name of an object on which to carry out the command. The general
form of command may thus be summarized as:command (optional parameters , target object)

Menu-driven systems
The menu-driven approach contrasts markedly with the command approach. The basic
principle is that the user is at any time presented with a list or menu of the functions that are
available to be selected. The user selects from the list, and then perhaps from further lists of
available sub -functions until the function is specified fully, at which point data is entered, or
items selected for the operation. In many systems the menus may be regarded as forming an
inverted tree, with the main command groupings at the first level (e.g. in a CAD context,
construct, modify, delete, move), and more specific functions at lower levels.

There are a number of rules which should be adopted in designing a user interface the
adherence to which should be investigated when choosing a software package for a particular
task. The most important of these rules are:

· A clear, well presented screen layout.

· Easy function selection by a well-structured menu system.
· Meaningful function names.
· Meaningful and helpful prompts to the user.
· Easily accessible and clearly written help information.

1.4. CADD FUNCTIONALITY

The main benefits of a computerized draughting and design system over those of manual
methods is this ability to represent the design of a component or assembly in a geometrically
accurate format so that t he same model can be used for other modelling, analysis and
manufacturing work.
The ease of use of a CADD system is centred mainly around good user interface design
and the performance around function availability. The number and range of functions in a typical
CADD system are normally extensive even for the simplest draughting and line modelling
systems for use on PCs. To ease the discussion and understanding of CADD system operation
the functions can be said to fall into three categories:

(a) Synthesis type functions are concerned mainly with the creation of geometric
features and drawing details.
(b) Modification functions include those which allow for the deletion and editing
of existing geometry or detail.
(c) Management functions are concerned with how the drawing is presented both
on the screen and eventually on paper.

1.5. CADD SOFTWARE SELECTION

There is a large variety of different CADD packages available on the market these days
and the design manager is faced with the enormous problem of selecting a package to suit the
demands of the company and its product range.

Computer aided drawing software exists in many forms and is available in a wide range
of prices, again depending upon the application. Most of packages have both a 2D and 3D
component or have an integrated 2D and 3D modeling system. The newer versions of drawing
software operate under a menu system which can be accessed through keyboard input or mouse
manipulationThe size of the company and the amount of investment capital available will be one
of the main deciding factors but there are many other questions to be considered:
Mainframe or PC/workstation platform?

A small company will not normally be able to invest in a mainframe installation unless it
can be justified in terms of its use by other departments. The choice of personal computers may
impose a restriction on how far the company can expand the system using its present hardware.
The technological life of a PC is generally much shorter than that of more powerful systems such
as minicomputers, workstations and mainframes.

Two dimensions or three? Lines, surfaces or solids?

A large proportion of computer assistance in the design office is still restricted to pure
draughting in two dimensions. A small company may find significant benefits in this but may
soon find the need to expand. Most modular CADD or CAE packages have an inexpensive 2D
draughting module which can be fully integrated with its geometric modelling and analysis
modules. Line modelling is suitable only for limited spatial design problems — is this enough?
Depending on the type of products the company produces, surface modelling, solid modelling or
both may be appropriate and worth the capital outlay.

Other analysis tools needed? Does the company become involved in complex analytical design
work such as stress or heat transfer analysis or the design of kinematic, dynamic or control
systems? Will the ability to transfer the geometry to these modelling and analysis systems be
needed?

Drawing details in producing a drawing either with a pure draughting package or from a
3D design in a CADD system the software needs to be able to provide facilities for details or
annotation on the drawings namely: notes, labels, dimensions, tolerances, arrows and cross-
hatching. Each will use text, geometric entities or a mixture of the two. The user will need to be
able to draw text of varying height, width, angle and text style or font. Dimensioning needs to be
automatic so that only the feature to be dimensioned and the position of the dimension line or
text needs to be specified. Some packages use associative dimensioning so that, when the size of
a feature is changed, the dimension and its text automatically changes.

Compatibility with other systems needed?

If the company carries out a lot of contract work with other companies who use CADD it
does not wish to be constrained to use the same systems as those other companies. As no two
CADD packages define and store models on backing store identically a procedure of conversion
to and from other CADD formats will nearly always be required. There are mainly two standards
that allow CADD geometry to be defined in a neutral format for conversion to models in other
CADD systems. DXF or drawing exchange format has been developed by Autodesk Inc. for use
with AutoCAD and many other CADD suppliers have included DXF conversion utilities in their
packages. The other system is the ANSI standard IGES (or its successors PDES and STEP) and
is a more comprehensive system of geometry transfer. IGES does tend, in many cases, to be
unreliable because of the many ways it specifies the definition of some geometric entities.

How good is the maintenance and support from the suppliers?

Bad maintenance and support from the software suppliers can reduce the productivity
existing even prior to acquiring the CADD system thereby nullifying the many benefits that the
system may offer. If the software requires a lot of maintenance and support then it is generally of
poor design. Many vendors of CADD packages offer hot- line support facilities where a designer
can phone in with a problem concerning the use of the package and speak to an expert.

How much, how good and how long is the training?

Many software suppliers provide their own training in using their packages. Often the
purchase price includes training for one or two potential users with further trainees being paid for
additionally. In some circumstances the software suppliers may offer the option of an in-house
course and send one of their trainers to the company to give instruction on the company’s
hardware using relevant design problems.
How easy is it to expand the system?
Once a company starts down the CADD path then it rarely looks back. There will always be the
need to expand both the size and capability of the system. As discussed previously a CADD
system which is designed in a modular fashion will allow greater scope for expansibility.

1.6. COMPUTER AIDED DRAWING SYSTEMS

CAD systems are available for a number of computer platforms: laptops, personal computers
(PCs), workstations, and mainframes. Among the more widely used CAD systems are AutoCAD,
CATIA, SolidWorks, I-DEAS, and ProEngineer.

AutoCAD R.14

AutoCAD, offered to the public in late 1982, was one of the first PCbased CAD software
products. Using AutoCAD gives you the highest probability of being able to share CAD files and
related data and information with others and the highest possibility that you can share CAD files
and related data with your colleagues, vendors, and clients. Compatibility of hardware and
software is an important issue in industry. Maintaining compatible hardware and software allows
you the highest probability for sharing data and information with others as well as offering you
flexibility in experimenting with and utilizing the latest technological advancements.

Learning AutoCAD gives you a higher probability of using your skills in industry. In addition,
learning AutoCAD as a first CAD system gives you a good foundation for learning other CAD
packages because many concepts and commands introduced by AutoCAD are utilized by other
systems. AutoCAD’s main window comprises the components shown in Figure 1.4. The graphics
window is where AutoCAD displays your drawing and where you work on your drawing.

Figure 1.4. AutoCAD’s main window

8
The crosshairs are controlled by your pointing device (usually a mouse) and are used to locate
points and select objects in your drawing. The status bar displays the coordinate location of your
crosshairs and the current settings of grid,snap, and other drawing aids.

The text window displays a history of the commands and options you have entered. You can see
the text activity that occurred at the command prompt. Pressing the F2 key activates the
AutoCAD Text window, sometimes called the command history (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5. AutoCAD text window

How to Access Commands

You use AutoCAD by running commands using one of these methods: Choosing a menu item;
Clicking a tool on toolbar ; Entering a command.

Most commands that can be entered on the command line can be found on a menu or a toolbar,
and most commands have additional choices, or options. Some commands display these options
on the command line, while others display them in a dialog box. You enter command line options
by typing at least the capitalized portion of the option name and then pressing ENTER. You set
command options in a dialog box by clicking the option with the pointing device and then
choosing OK.

The last-used settings of most command options are “remembered” in system variables, which
are stored in the drawing file. System variables determine the behavior and default values for a
command the next time you run it. At the Command prompt, you can invoke the last-used
command by pressing ENTER. You can exit any command by pressing ESC.

System Requirements for AutoCAD

To run AutoCAD on Windows NT or Windows 95/98/2000, the following minimum software
and hardware are required:
· Intel 486 or Pentium processor or compatible
· 32 MB of RAM
· 50 MB of hard disk space
· 64MB of disk swap space
· 2.5 MB of free disk space during installation only
· CD-ROM drive
· 640 x 480 VGA video display (1024 x 768 recommended)
· Windows-supported display adapter
· Mouse or other pointing device
 2. AutoCAD – BASICS

2.1 STARTING WITH ACAD

CAD uses four basic elements for preparation of any drawing:
1. Line
2. Curves
3. Text
4. Filling point.
Computer Aided Drafting is done by the operator by placing the mouse pointer
by placing the mouse pointer at the desired location and then executing the command to
draw the graphic elements using different methods.
Advanced computer aided drafting packages utilize four areas on the screen.
1. Drawing Area
2. Command Area
3. Menu Area
4. Tool boxes.
2.2 LAYOUT AND SKETCHING

The package provides various facilities for layout, sketching and borders for preparing a
drawing. It provides facilities for display co-ordinates and measurement units.
a. Units: The format for display co – ordinates and measurement can be selected
according to the requirement.
Several measurement styles are available in ACAD. The main methods are engineering
and architectural, having specific base unit assigned to them.
i. Decimal: select to enter and display measurements in decimal notation
ii. Engineering: Display measurements in feet and decimal inches.
iii. Architectural: Display measurements in feet, inches and fractional inches
iv. Fractional: Display measurements in mixed numbers notation
v. Scientific: Display measurements in scientific notation.
The precision that is specified controls the number of decimal places or fractional size to
which we want linear measurements displayed.

b. Angles: Select the format in which we want to enter and display angles.
i. Decimal Degrees: Display partial degrees as decimals
ii. Deg/Min/Sec: Display partial degrees as minutes and seconds.
iii. Grades: Display Angles as grades
iv. Radians: Display angles as radians.
v. Surveyor: Displays angles in surveyor units.

c. Angle measure: Select the direction of the zero angle for the entry of angles:
i. East: Select to specify the compass direction east as the zero angles.
ii. North: Select to specify the compass direction north as the zero angles.
iii. West: Select to specify the compass direction west as the zero angles.
iv. South: Select to specify the compass direction south as the zero angles.
v. Other: Select to specify a direction different from the points of the compass as the zero
angles.

d. Area: Enter the approximate width and length which is planned to draw in full scale
units. This limits the area of the drawing covered by grid dots when the grid is turned on.
It also adjusts several default settings, such as text height, line type scaling and snap
distance to convenient values. It is possible to adjust these settings.

e. Title block: Select the description of an ACAD drawing file of a title block to insert
as a symbol in the new drawing. It can add or remove drawing files of title blocks from
the list with the Add or Remove buttons

f. Layout: Paper space is often used to create complex multiple view drawings. There
are three types of paper spaces:
1. Work on the drawing while viewing the layout.
2. Work on the drawing without the layout visible
3. Work on the layout of the drawing.

The following procedure is used for this purpose

1. From the File menu or from the standard tool bar, choose New
2. In the start up dialog box, choose Use a wizard, and select Advanced wizard
3. Choose OK
4. In the Advanced Setup Dialog box, select Title Block.
5. Select Title Block Description and Title Block file Name from the lists and then
choose Add.
6. In the Select Title Block File dialog box, Select a title block, then choose open
7. In the Advanced Setup dialog box, a sample of that title is displayed.
8. Choose Done.

2.3 DRAWING ENVIRONMENT

ACAD provides two drawing environments for creating and laying out the drawing.
i. Model Space
ii. Paper Space.
ACAD allows creating drawing, called a model, in full scale in an area known as model
space without regard to the final layout or size when the drawing is plotted on the paper.
In the space opened for the first time, it is possible to create floating viewports to contain
different views of the model. In the paper space, floating viewports are treated as objects
which can be moved and resized in order to create a suitable layout.

LIMITS
This sets and controls the drawing boundaries.
At the command prompt, enter limits
ON/OFF/<LOWER LEFT CORNER> <current>: Specify a point, enter on or off,
or press
enter.

LTSCALE
This sets the line type scale factor. Use LTSCALE to change the relative length of the
dash – dot
line types per drawing unit At the Command prompt, enter ltscale
New scale factor <current>: Enter a positive real value or press enter
Changing the line type scale factor causes the drawing to regenerate.
MEASURE
This places point objects or blocks at measured intervals on an object.
At the command prompt, enter measure
Select object to measure: Use an object selection method <segment length> / Block:
Specify a distance.

PAN
This moves the drawing display in the current viewport.
At the command prompt, enter pan
Displacement: Specify a point (1)
The point which specify indicates the amount to move the drawing or the location of the
drawing
to be moved.
Second point: Press or specify a point (2)
If pressed, ACAD moves the drawing by the amount which is specified in the
Displacement prompt. If we specify a point, ACAD moves the location of the drawing to
that point.

2.4 ELEMENTS OF DRAWING

2.4.1 DRAW COMMANDS LINE:

A line is specified by giving its two end points or first point and the distance of line
along with its angle of inclination. A line can be drawn by using two commands.
Command: line
Specify first point: Specify a point (1)
Specify next point or [Undo]: Specify a point (2)
The second point can be indicated by @d<a
Where d is the distance of line and a is the angle of inclination in degrees.

PLINE:
This is a poly line which allows continuous segment of the line and it is drawn similar to
the line command. The polyline allows changing the thickness of the line according to
the requirement. From the Draw tool bar choose the Polyline flyout.
Draw pull down menu: Polyline
At the command prompt, enter pline
Syntax
Specify start point: Specify a point (1)
Current line-width is <current>
Specify next point or [Arc/Close/Halfwidth/Length/Undo/Width]: Specify a point (2) or
enter an option

LINETYPE
Creates, loads, and sets linetypes. The LINETYPE command defines line characteristics
consisting of dashes, dots, and spaces.
Format menu: Linetype or Command line: linetype

1. CURVES

Following are the various types of curves used in the drawings:

i. Circle
ii. Ellipse
iii. Arc
iv. Regular or any other type.

i. Circle: The circle can be drawn by using two types of commands

a. Circle
b. Donut

a. CIRCLE: This command draws the circle by using four methods:

Center point and radius
Two point circle
Three point circle
Tangent circle
At the command prompt, enter circle
Specify center point for circle or [3P (Three Points)/2P (Two Points)/Ttr]: Specify a
point or enter an option

b. DONUT: This draws filled circles and rings.

Donuts are constructed of a closed polyline composed of wide arc segments.
At the command prompt, enter donut
Specify inside diameter of donut <current>: Specify a distance or press ENTER
If you specify an inside diameter of 0, the donut is a filled circle.
Specify outside diameter of donut <current>: Specify a distance or press ENTER
Specify center of donut or <exit>: Specify a point (1) or press ENTER to end the
command

ii. ELLIPSE: It is a curve having major and minor axis with a center.
The ellipse can be prepared by four methods.
Axis endpoint
Arc
Centre
Iso circle

ELLIPSE
Creates an ellipse or an elliptic arc.
Axis end point: Defines the first axis by two specified endpoints. The angle of the first
axis determines the angle of the ellipse. The first axis can define either the major or the
minor axis of the ellipse.
Arc: Creates an elliptical arc. The angle of the first axis determines the angle of the
elliptical arc.
The first axis can define either the major or the minor axis of the elliptical arc
.
Center: Creates the ellipse by a specified center point.

Isocircle: Creates an isometric circle in the current isometric drawing plane.

At the command prompt, enter ellipse

iii. Arc: The arc is a curve specified by center and radius as well as the start angle and
end angle.
There are seven method used for drawing an arc.
1. Three point method
2. Start point-center point –end point
3. Start point-center point-length of chord
4. Start point-end point –angle of inclusion
5. Start point-end point-direction
6. Start point-center point-angle of inclusion
7. Start point-end point-radius
These methods can be used by executing the arc command

ARC: creates an arc.

At the command prompt, enter arc
Center/<start point>: specify a point, enter c, or press enter
 Polyarc: the second method of the drawing the arc is poly arc by use of pline command.
This command allows drawing of filled arc of any width .it also allows for drawing of a
regular or irregular curve.

2. Drawing of Rectangle: A rectangle can be drawn by LINE command or by Rectangle

command. The PLINE command also allows for drawing of hollow or filled rectangle .
SOLID command is also used for drawing of filled rectangles.

1. RECTANGLES: draws a rectangular polyline

At the command prompt, enter rectangle
First corner: specify point (1)
Other corner: specify point (2)
2. SOLID: creates solid –filled polygons .solids are filled only when fill system variable
is set to on view is set to plan.
At the command prompt, enter solid
First corner: specify point (1)
Other corner: specify point (2)
The first two points define one edge of the polygon.
Third point: specify a point (3) diagonally opposite the second
Forth point: specify a point (4) or press enter

3. DRAWING OF POLYGON
Creates an equilateral closed polyline .A polygon is a polyline object. AUTOCAD draws
polyline with zero width and no tangent information.
At the command prompt enter polygon
Number of sides <current>: enter a value between 3 and 1024 or press enter
Edge/<center of polygon>: specify a point (1) or enter.

4. POINT
Creates a point object .points can act as nodes to which you can snap objects .you can
specify a full
3D location for a point.
At the command prompt, enter point
Point: specify a point
5. ERASING OF OBJECT:
The object can be removed or erased by use of erase command
ERASE
This removes object from drawing
At the command prompt, enter erase
Select objects: use an object selection method.

6. COLOURING OF OBJECT:
The object can be drawn with any variety of colour which ranges from 0 to 256.
The setting of colour can be done by color command

COLOR
Sets the colour for new objects.
At the command prompt, enter color <current>: enter a value (1-255), color name, by
block, or by layer

7. FILLING OF OBJECT: the object can be filled with different colors and patterns by
use of hatch command
This command allows selection of various patterns, scale of pattern and angle of pattern.

HATCH
This fills an area with a pattern.
HATCH fills the specified hatch boundary with non-associative hatch
A non –associative hatch is not updated when its boundaries are modified .a hatch
boundary consists of an object or objects that completely enclose an area
At the command prompt, enter hatch
Pattern (? Or name/ U, style) <current>: enter a predefined pattern name, enter u, enter?
Or press enter.

8. SCALING OF DRAWING: zoom command displays the object at a specified scale

factor. The value entered is relative to the limits of the drawing .for example ,entering 2
doubles the apparent display size of any objects from what it would be if it were zoomed
to the limits of the drawing.
If you enter a value followed by xp, auto CAD specifies the scale relative to paper scale
Unit’s .for example, entering 0.5xp displays model space at half the scale of paper space
Unit’s .the following illustration shows a number of viewports arranged in paper space.
The view in each view port is scaled relative to paper space .the first view is scaled 1=1
relative to paper space (1xp) ,the second is scaled 0.5=1 relative to paper space
(0.5xp),and so on.

ZOOM
This increases or decreases the apparent size of objects in the current view port
At the command prompt, enter zoom
All/center/dynamic/extents/left/previous/vmax/window/<scale(x/xp)>: enter an option or
value, specify a point, or press enter

9. TEXT: The text in software is indicated by font’s .the fonts define the shapes of the
text characters that make up each character set. In AUTOCAD, you can use true type
fonts in addition to AUTOCAD’s own compiled shape (SHX) fonts.
A font is indicated by various parameters like
i. Style :these are four types: normal,bold,italic,underline
ii. Size: this is the size of characters
iii. Colour: there are facilities to colour the characters selecting layer.
iv. Type: different types of fonts may be used:
Mono text: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Romans: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN
Romand: COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Dtext: This displays text on the screen as it is entered .AutoCAD can create text with a
variety of character patterns, or fonts. These fonts can be stretched, compressed, oblique,
mirrored, or aligned in a vertical column by applying a style to the font .text can be
rotated, justified, and made any size.
At the command prompt, enter text
Justify/style/<start point>: specify a point or enter an option
TEXT: This creates a single line of text .AutoCAD can create text with a variety of
character
patterns, or fonts. These fonts can be stretched, compressed, oblique, mirrored, or
aligned in a
vertical column by applying a style to the font.
At the command prompt, enter text
Justify/style/<start point>: specify a point or enter an option

QTEXT: This controls the display and plotting of text and attribute of objects.
At the command prompt, enter text
ON/OFF <current>: enter on or off, or press enter

10. TRANSFORMATIONS: These are the modifications in the drawn objects.

There are different types of transformations used

1. MOVE: This allows to move or displace objects a specified distance in a specified

direction
At the command prompt, enter move
Select objects: use an object selection method
Base point or displacement: specify a base point (1)
Second point of displacement: specify a point (2) or press enter

2. COPY: This is used for producing a duplicate copy of the drawing.

At the command prompt, enter copy
Select objects: use an object selection method
<Base point or displacement >/multiple: specify a base point (1)
For a single copy or enter m for multiple copies

3. ROTATE: It moves objects about a base point

At the command prompt, enter rotate
Select objects: use an object selection method
<Rotate angle >/reference: specify an angle or enter r
4. STRETCH: This moves or stretches objects .AutoCAD stretches lines, arcs, elliptical
arcs, splines, rays and polyline segments that cross the selection window.
At the command prompt, enter stretch
Select objects: use the CPOLYGON or cross object selection method (1,2)
Base point or displacement: specify a point (3) or press
Second point of displacement: specify a point ($) or press

5. EXTEND: This extends an object to meet another object. Objects that can be
extended include arcs, elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D, and 3Dpolylines and rays.
At command prompt, enter extend
Select boundary edges
(projmode=UCS, edge mode=no extend)
Select objects: use an object selection method

6. SCALE: This enlarges or reduces selected objects equally in X and Y directions

At the command prompt, enter scale
Select objects: use an object selection method
Base point: specify a point (1)
<Scale factor>/reference: specify a scale or enter r

7. TRACE: This creates solid lines.

From the miscellaneous tool bar choose
At the command prompt, enter trace
Trace width<current>: specify a distance, enter a value, or press enter
From point: specify point (1)
To point: specify a point (2)
To point: specify a point (3) or press to end the command

8. EXTRUDE: This creates unique solid primitives by extruding existing two-

dimensional objects extrudes also creates solids by extruding two-dimensional objects
along a specified path .we can extrude multiple objects with extrude
At the command prompt enter, extrude
Select objects: use an object selection method
Path/<height of extrusion>: specify a distance or enter p
9. MIRROR: This is used to producing mirror image of the object
At the command prompt enter, mirror
Select objects: use an object selection method
First point of the mirror line: specify a point (1)
Second point: specify a point (2)

10. OFFSET: This creates concentric circles ,parallel lines and parallel curves, offset
creates a creates a new object at a specified distance from an existing object or through a
specified point
At the command prompt enter, offset
Offset distance: specify a distance, enter t or press enter

11. ARRAY: This creates multiple copies of objects in pattern.

Each object in an array can be manipulated independently
At the command prompt enter, array
Rectangular or polar array<current>: enter an option or press enter specify a point

12. CUTTING OF OBJECTS

The drawn objects can be cut or trimmed by using following commands

1. TRIM: Trims objects at a cutting object defined by other objects. Objects that can be
trimmed include arcs ,circles, elliptical arcs, lines, open 2D and 3Dpolylines,rays and
splines
At the command prompt, enter trim
Select cutting edges:
Select objects: use object selection method
<Select object to trim>/project/edge/undo: select an object, enter an option, or press enter

2. BREAK: This erases an object or splits the object in to two parts

From the modify toolbar select break flyout
At the command prompt, enter break
Select objects: use an object selection method
First point of the mirror line: specify a point (1) on an object
Enter second point: specify the second break point (2) or enter F

13. DIMENSIONING IN DRAWINGS:

The dimensions are inserted in the drawing by use of DIM command. There are various
types of dimensions used in AutoCAD.

1. Linear dimensions:
Horizontal- this allows horizontal dimensions
Vertical- this allows vertical dimensions
Aligned- this allows inclined dimensions
Rotated- this allows inclined dimensions

2. Angular dimensions:
This allows angular dimensioning of objects
3. Radial dimensions:
This allows radial dimensioning of arc or circle
4. Diametric dimensions:
This allows diametral dimensions of the circle
For dimensioning of objects, the first point and second point has to be specified. The
dimension text
must be written and then the position of dimension must be specified
At the command prompt, enter dim
Dim: Enter a dimensioning mode command

14. AREA:
This allows calculation of the area and perimeter of objects or of defined areas
From the object properties toolbar, choose the inquiry flyout, then
At the command prompt, enter area
<First point>/object/add/subtract: specify a point or enter option

15. FILLET
Rounds and fillets the edges of the object
At the command prompt enter fillet
Polyline / Radius / Trim / <Select first object>: use an object selection method or enter
an option
Select first object
Select second object: use an object selection method
Enter radius <current>: specify a distance or press
Chain / Radius <Select edge>: Select edges or enter c or r their intersection

16. CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM

The co- ordinate system can be modified in the AutoCAD. There are two types of co-
ordinate systems used. The WCS (World co- ordinate system) is a universal system in
which its origin is at the fixed position. The UCS (User co- ordinate system) is a system
in which user can fix his origin at any point.
1. UCS : This manages user co- ordinate systems
At the command prompt enter UCS
Origin / z axis/ 3 point/ object/ view/ X/Y/Z / Prev/ Restore/Save/ Del/?/< world>: enter
an option or press enter
2. WCS: This manages world co- ordinate system

17. EXPLODE:
This breaks a compound object into its component objects
At the command prompt enter explode
Select objects: use an object selection method.

18. UNION:
This measures the distance and angle between two points.
At the command prompt, enter union
Select object: Use an object selection method

19. DIST: This measures the distance and the angle between two points.
At the command prompt area enter dist
First point: Specify a point (1)
Second point: Specify a point (2)
Distance = calculated distance
Angle in XY plane = angle from XY plane = angle
Delta X = change in X
Delta Y = change in Y
Delta Z = change in Z.

20. REGENERATION OF DRAWING:

ACAD provides a facility of regenerating a drawing to clear the cross points or marks on
the screen.
REDRAW
REGEN
REGENALL
REGENAUTO

21. TOLERANCE
This creates geometric tolerances. Geometric tolerances define the maximum allowable
variations of form or profile, orientation, location and runout from the exact geometry in
a drawing. They specify the required accuracy for proper function and fit the objects
drawn in AutoCAD

22. SKETCH
This creates a series of free hand line segments.
From the miscellaneous toolbar, choose
At the command prompt enter sketch
Follow the prompting
 DC WINDING

Terminologies used in winding diagrams:

Conductor: An individual piece of wire placed in the slots in the machine in the magnetic field.

Turn: Two conductors connected in series and separated from each other by a pole pitch so that the
emf induced will be additive.

Coil: When one or more turns are connected in series and placed in almost similar magnetic
positions. Coils may be single turn or multi turn coils.

Conductor

Pole pitch
N S
N S
N S

Coil side

(a) Single turn Coil (b) 3 – turn coil (c) Multi turn coil

Fig. 1 Different types of winding coils representations

Coil group: One or more coil single coils formed in a group forms the coil group.

Winding: Number of coils arranged in coil group is said to be a winding.

Pole Pitch: Distance between the poles in terms of slots is called pole pitch.
 Fig. 2 Single and Multi turn coils

Full Pitch winding: If the coil pitch for a winding is equal to pole pitch the winding is called full
pitch winding Fig .3

Chorded winding: When the pitch of the winding is less than the full pitch or pole pitch then the
winding is called short pitch winding or chorded winding.

Fig. 3 Full pitched and short pitched coils

Single layer winding: Only one coil side placed in one slot.

Double layer winding: Two coil sides are placed in a single slot. Single and double layer windings
are shown in Fig 4

Fig.4 Single and double layer windings

Classification of windings: Closed type and open type winding

Closed type windings: In this type of winding there is a closed path around the armature or stator.
Starting from any point, the winding path can be followed through all the turns and starting point can
be reached. Such windings are used in DC machines.

Open windings: There is no closed path in the windings. Such windings are used in AC machines.

Fig. 5 Photographs of the windings and coils

DC Windings: Two types of windings (a) Lap winding (b) Wave winding

These two types of windings differ in two ways (i) number of circuits between positive and negative
brushes, (ii) the manner in which the coil ends are connected. However the coils of both lap and
wave windings are identically formed.

TYPES AND SHAPES OF WINDING WIRES: The winding wires used in electrical motors are
classified as follows. 1) Round wires 2) Rectangular straps 3) Stranded wires

1. Round Wires: It has thin and thick conductors and are used in semi-closed slot type motors and
mush winding rotors. It is wounded in reels and available in Kilograms.
2. Rectangular straps: It is used in open type slot motors. These conductors are available as long
straps in meters. They are used in the following places. 1) Low voltage motor windings. 2) Used as
conductor in high current motor. 3) Series field motor winding coils.
Winding Pitches:

Back Pitch: The distance between top and bottom coil sides of a coil measured around the back of
the armature is called back pitch and is designated as yb. Back pitch is approximately equal to
number of coil sides per layer. Generally back pitch is an odd integer.

Front Pitch: The distance between two coil sides connected to the same commutator segment is
called the front pitch and is designated as yf.

Winding Pitch: The distance between the starts of two consecutive coils measured in terms of coil
sides is called winding pitch and is designated as Y.
Y = yb – y f for lap winding Y = yb + yf for wave winding

Commutator pitch: The distance between the two commutator segments to which the two ends of a
coil are connected is called commutator pitch and is designated as yc and is measured in terms of
commutator segments.

Fig. 6 Lap winding

Lap Winding: The winding in which successive coils overlap each other hence it is called lap
winding. In this winding end of one coil is connected to the commutator segment and start of the
adjacent coil situated under the same pole as shown in fig. 6. Lap winding is further divided as
simplex and Duplex lap winding.

Simplex lap winding: In this type of winding finish F1 of the coil 1 is connected to the start S2 of
coil 2 starting under the same pole as start s1 of coil 1.
We have back pitch yb = 2c/p ± k where c = number of coils in the armature, p = number of poles, k
= an integer to make yb an odd integer.

Important rules for Lap winding:

Let Z = Number of conductors

P = number of poles
Yb = Back pitch
Yf = Front pitch
Yc = Commutator pitch
Ya = Average pole pitch
Yp = Pole pitch
YR = Resultant pitch

1. Yb (Back pitch) and Yf (Front pitch) must be approximately equal to Yp (Pole pitch)
2. Yb (Back pitch) must be less or greater than Yf (Front pitch) by 2m where m is the
multiplicity of the winding. When Yb is greater than Yf the winding progresses from left to
right and is known as progressive winding. . When Yb is lesser than Yf the winding
progresses from right to left and is known as retrogressive winding. Hence Yb = Yf ± 2m.

3. Yb and Yf must be odd.

4. Yb and Yf may be equal or differ by ±2. + for progressive winding, - for retrogressive
winding

5. Ya = (Yb + Yf ) / 2 = Yp

6. YR ( Resultant pitch) is always even.

7. Yc = m, m = 1 for simplex winding; m = 2 for duplex winding

 8. Number of parallel paths = mp = number of brushes.

Simplex wave winding: In this type of winding finish F1 of the coil 1 is connected to the start Sx of
coil x starting under the same pole as start s1 of coil 1.

Fig. 7 wave windings

Wave winding: In wave winding the end of one coil is not connected to the beginning of the same
coil but is connected to the beginning of another coil of the same polarity as that of the first coil as
shown in fig. 7. Important rules for Wave winding:

1. Yb (Back pitch) and Yf (Front pitch) must be approximately equal to Yp (Pole pitch)
2. Yb and Yf must be odd.

3. Yb and Yf may be equal or differ by ±2. + for progressive winding, - for retrogressive
winding

4. Yc = (Yb + Yf ) / 2 and should be a whole number.

Dummy coils: The wave winding is possible only with particular number of conductors and poles
and slots combinations. Sometimes the standard stampings do not consist of the number of slots
according to the design requirements and hence the slots and conductor combination will not
produce a mechanically balanced winding. Under such conditions some coils are placed in the slots,
not connected to the remaining part of the winding but only for mechanical balance. Such windings
are called dummy coils.

Equalizer rings or Equalizer connections in Lap winding: This is the thick copper conductor
connecting the equipotential points of lap winding for equalizing the potential of different parallel
paths.
Sequence diagram or ring Diagram: The diagram obtained by connecting the conductors together
with their respective numbers. This diagram is used for finding the direction of induced emf and the
position of brushes.
 AC WINDING

Terms Used in AC windings:

Balanced winding: If the number of coils per pole per phase is same and a whole number then
the winding is balanced winding.

Unbalanced winding: If the number of coils per pole per phase is not a whole number then the
winding is balanced winding.
Slot angle: Slot angle = 1800/ pole pitch (electrical degrees)
Full pitched winding: The pitch of the coil is equal to full pitch or equal to 1800 then the coil is
called the full pitched winding.

Short pitched winding or short chorded winding: If the pitch of the coil is less than 1800 or
less than the full pitch then the coil is called short pitched coil.

Coil span: Coil span is the distance between two coil sides measured in terms of slots. Coil span
= winding pitch/slot angle; For full pitched winding 180/slot angle
 Single Line Diagram of Substations

Substations
Electric power is produced at the power generating stations, which are generally
located far away from the load centers. High voltage transmission lines are used to
transmit the electric power from the generating stations to the load centers. Between the
power generating station and consumers a number of transformations and switching
stations are required. These are generally known as substations. Substations are important
part of power system and form a link between generating stations, transmission systems
and distribution systems. It is an assembly of electrical components such as bus-bars,
switchgear apparatus, power transformers etc.

Their main functions are to receive power transmitted at high voltage from the generating
stations and reduce the voltage to a value suitable for distribution. Some substations
provide facilities for switching operations of transmission lines, others are converting
stations. Substations are provided with safety devices to disconnect equipment or circuit
at the time of faults. Substations are the convenient place for installing synchronous
condensers for the purpose of improving power factor and it provide facilities for making
measurements to monitor the operation of the various parts of the power system.

The substations may be classified in according to service requirements and constructional

features. According to service requirements it is classified in to transformer substations,
switching substations and converting substations.
(1) Transformer substations: Majority of the substations in the power system are in the
type. They are used to transform power from one voltage level to another voltage level.
Transformer is the main component in such substations. Transformer substations are
further classified into Step-up substations, Primary grid substations, Secondary
substations and Distribution substations.
(a) Step-up substations: These substations are usually located at the generating
stations. Generating voltage of the order of 11kV needs to be stepped up to a
primary transmission voltage level of the order of 220kV or 400kV.
(b) Primary grid substations: These substations are located at the end of primary
transmission lines and the primary voltage is stepped down to suitable secondary voltages
of the order of 66kV or 33kV.

(c) Secondary substations: The voltage is further stepped down to 11kV. Large
consumers are supplied power at 11kV.
(d) Distribution substations: These substations are located near the consumer localities
to supply power at 400V, three phase or 230V, single phase to the consumers.

(2) Switching substations: These substations are meant for switching operations of
power lines without transforming the voltage. Different connections are made between
the various transmission lines.

(3) Converting substation: Such substations are meant for either converting AC to DC
or vice versa. Some are used to change the frequency from higher to lower or vice versa
for industry utilisations.

According to constructional features substations are classified into Indoor substations,

Outdoor substations, Underground substations and Pole mounted substations.
(1) Indoor substations: All equipments of the substation are installed within the station
buildings.

(2) Outdoor substations: All equipments such as transformers, circuit breakers,

isolators, etc., are installed outdoors.

(3) Underground substations: In thickly populated areas where the space is the major
constraint, and cost of land is higher, under such situation the substations are laid
underground.
(4) Pole mounted substations: This is an outdoor substation with equipments installed
overhead on a H pole or 4 pole structure.

Single Line Diagram

Any complex power system even though they are three phase circuits, can be
represented by a single line diagram, showing various electrical components of power
system and their interconnection. In single line representation of substation the electrical
components such as power transformers, incoming and outgoing lines, bus-bars,
switching and protecting equipments, are represented by standard symbols and their
interconnections between them are shown by lines. Single line diagrams are useful in
planning a substation layout.

Some of the standard symbols used to represent substation components are given in Table
below.
Sl Electrical components Symbols
No
1 AC Generator

2 Bus Bar

3 Power transformer -Two

winding

4 Three winding transformer

5 Current Transformer (CT)

6 Voltage transformer or
Potential transformer (PT)

7 Circuit Breaker (CB)

8 Circuit breaker with isolator

9 Isolator or Group Operating

Switch(GOS)

10 Lighting Arrestor (LA)

Or

11 Earth Switch (ES)

13 Wave or Line trap

 14 Coupling Capacitor (CC)

Power transformers: Power transformers are used generation and transmission network
for stepping-up the voltage at generating station and stepping-down the voltage for
distribution. Auxiliary transformers supply power to auxiliary equipments at the
substations.

Current transformers (CT): The lines in substations carry currents in the order of
thousands of amperes. The measuring instruments are designed for low value of currents.
Current transformers are connected in lines to supply measuring instruments and
protective relays. For example a 100/1A CT is connected in a line carrying 100A, and
then the secondary current of CT is 1A.

Potential transformers (PT): The lines in substations operate at high voltages. The
measuring instruments are designed for low value of voltages. Potential transformers are
connected in lines to supply measuring instruments and protective relays. These
transformers make the low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high
voltages. For example a 11kV/110V PT is connected to a power line and the line voltage
is 11kV then the secondary voltage will be 110V.

Circuit breaker (CB): Circuit breakers are used for opening or closing a circuit under
normal as well as abnormal (faulty) conditions. Different types of CBs which are
generally used are oil circuit breaker, air-blast circuit breaker, vacuum circuit breaker and
SF6 circuit breaker.

Isolators or Isolating switches: Isolators are employed in substations to isolate a part of

the system for general maintenance. Isolator switches are operated only under no load
condition. They are provided on each side of every circuit breaker.
Lightning arresters (LA): Lightning arresters are the protective devices used for
protection of equipment from lightning strokes. They are located at the starting of the
substation and also provided near the transformer terminals.

Earth switch: It is a switch normally kept open and connected between earth and
conductor. If the switch is closed it discharges the electric charge to ground, available on
the uncharged line.

Wave trap: This equipment is installed in the substation for trapping the high frequency
communication signals sent on the line from remote substation and diverting them to the
telecom panel in the substation control room.
Coupling capacitor: A coupling capacitor is used in substations where communication is done
by AC power line. It offers very low impedance to high frequency carrier signal and allows them
to enter the line matching unit and blocks the low frequency signal.

Bus-bar: When number of lines operating at the same voltage levels needs to be connected
electrically, bus-bars are used. Bus-bars are conductors made of copper or aluminum, with very
low impedance and high current carrying capacity. Different types of bus-bar arrangements are
single bus bar arrangements, single bus-bar with sectionalisation, double bus-bar arrangements,
sectionalised double bus-bar arrangement, double main and auxiliary bus-bar arrangement,
breaker and a half scheme/1.5 Breaker scheme, and ring bus-bar scheme.

Single bus-bar arrangement: It consists of single bus-bar. Both incoming and outgoing lines
are connected to the single bus-bar. The advantages of this arrangement are low maintenance,
low initial cost and simple operation. The drawback of this arrangement is if any repair work is
to be done on bus-bar, complete system get interrupted.

Figure below shows that three incoming and three outgoing line are connected to the single bus
arrangement.
 Fig .1 Single bus-bars with sectionalisation

Single bus-bar with sectionalisation: Single bus-bar is divided into sections. Any two sections
are connected by circuit breaker and isolators. During fault or maintenance particular section can
be de-energised. This eliminates complete shutdown of the system. Figure .1 shows that two
incoming and two outgoing lines are connected bus section 1 and other two incoming and two
outgoing lines are connected bus section 2.
 Fig .2 Double bus-bar arrangements
Double bus-bar arrangements: This arrangement is also known as duplicate bus-bar system. It
consists of two bus-bars ‘main’ and ‘spare’ of same capacity. Incoming line and outgoing lines
can be connected to either bus by means of bus coupler breaker and isolators. Continuity of
supply to the circuit can be maintained during maintenance of main bus-bar or fault occurring on
it.
Figure above shows that three incoming lines and three outgoing lines are connected to either
bus by a bus coupler
 ELECTRICAL MACHINE ASSEMBLY DRAWING USING
DESIGN DATA OR SKETCHES OR BOTH

Transformers- sectional views of single and three phase core and shell
type transformers

Transformer
• To know the parts of transformer
• To know the types of transformer
• To make preparatory sketch of the transformer from the given design data
• To make drawing of the sub assembly or assembly drawing using CAD

Single Phase and Three Phase Transformers (Core Type)

The elevations of single phase core type
transformer and three phase core type
transformers are shown in Figure 1. The
widths of cores on the two limbs are
equal in single phase transformers. The
widths of cores of all the three limbs are
equal in three phase transformers. The Figure 1- Core Type
height of yoke may be equal or greater
than the width of core, in both cases. The
depth of core will be confined to the
dimension of circumcircle diameter

.
Single Phase and Three
Phase Transformers (Shell
type)
The elevations of single phase shell type Figure 2- Shell Type
transformer and three phase transformer
are shown in Figure 2. The width of the
extreme limbs will be about half the
width of central limb. The depth of the
core may equal to about two to three
times the width of central limb. The
height of yoke may equal to or greater
than half the width of central limb
LV and HV windings
The transformer will have Low Voltage (LV) winding and High Voltage (HV)
winding wound over the limbs. The LV winding is placed near the core. There
will be a gap between LV and HV windings for oil circulation. The HV winding
is placed away from the core. The finished windings are cylindrical in shape. The
thickness and height of the cylinder will depend upon the number of turns and
area of cross section of winding wire. The internal diameter will depend on the
circum circle diameter, slack allowance and insulation layer. It may be noted that
the sections of the cylinders so formed is confined to the window dimensions,
viz, width of window and height of window. When the winding wires are thin or
when the handling of finished winding is difficult because of heavy weight, the
winding may be split into smaller discs. These discs may be stacked one above
the other so that the required length may be formed. The views of such windings
are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4.

Figure 4 – Disc winding

Figure 3 – Cylindrical winding

Rectangular coil winding

In the case of shell type
transformers, the winding will be
hollow- rectangular in shape as
shown in Figure 5. The inside
dimension of the rectangle will
depend upon- i) widthwise, the
central limb width and the
insulation between core and
winding and ii) depth wise, depth
of core and projection of fasteners
like bolt, rivet head etc.,
protruding outside the core.

Figure 5- Rectangular
coil
Core section
The core section of core type transformer may be – square type, two stepped or
cruciform, three stepped, four stepped and so on. The imaginary circle passing
through the corners of the core section is known as circumscribing circle or circum
circle. The dimensions for obtaining the maximum area in the given circum circle,
for various number of steps is given in Figure 6.

Figure 6 – Step dimensions

 ELECTRICAL MACHINE ASSEMBLY DRAWING USING
DESIGN DATA OR SKETCHES OR BOTH

DC Machine- sectional views of yoke, field system, armature and

commutator dealt separately.

DC Machine

Introduction:

DC Machines form one of the varieties of electrical equipment and are extensively in
use in various industrial applications like DC voltage generation, electro- plating, metal
extraction, traction, steel industry, paper mills etc. While the performance analysis and
design features have been considered already, given the design data, this chapter deals
as to how to make drawings of parts, sub assembly and general assembly. The input
data for making the CAD drawing may be in the form of wordings, sketches or both.

Te following are the parts of DC machine-

1. Yoke- Housing- Casing
2. Poles- Main Poles- Inter Poles- Compensating Winding
3. Armature and Armature Winding
4. Commutator
5. Brush and Brush Holder
6. Fan
7. Bearing
8. End Shields
9. Lifting lug

The general appearance (Figure-1), a dismantled view (Figure-2), an exploded view

(Figure-3), a general assembly (Figure-4) and a sectional pictorial view (Figure-5) of
DC Machine are given below, to familiarize with the various parts and their relative
position in the machine-assembly.
Yoke and pole with winding constitute stator and armature with winding and
commutator form the rotor. The brush and brush holder assembly is used for supplying
or collecting current from/to the machine. The other structural parts are end shields,
bearings, fan, foot and terminal board. The drawing of active parts is given
prominence. However, knowledge of other parts also, will greatly help in assuming
data require for completion of drawing.
Figure-1, General Appearance
Figure-3, Exploded View

Figure-2, Dismantled Machine

Figure-4, General Assembly

2
 Figure-5, Details of Pole

Pole and Yoke Assembly:

The pole is made up steel laminations of 1.2 mm thick as shown in Figure-6. The
laminations are assembled to the required length and then riveted to form a solid core.
The central hole is the driven with steel rod. The longitudinal holes in axial view are
two in number. The bolts are driven through yoke, pole and then to the central rod. The
yoke is shown in Figure-7. If the dimensions are given for pole/yoke, the CAD drawings
can be made.

Figure-7, Details of Yoke

 40 SLOTS, 4 POLE, SIMPLEX LAP WINDING

FIGURE(1) WINDING DIAGRAM

31 33 35 37 39 2 4 6 8 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

N S N S
33 35 37 39 2 4 6 8

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
+VE -VE +VE -VE

+VE -VE DC SUPPLY

FIGURE(2) SEQUENCE DIAGRAM

-VE -VE

1 12 3 14 5 16 7 18 9 20 11 22 13 24 15 26 17 28 19 30 21 32 23 34 25 36 27 38 29 40 31 2 33 4 35 6 37 8 39 10 1

+VE +VE
 DC WAVE WINDING DOUBLE LAYER, 23 SLOTS, 4 POLE DC MACHINE

FIGURE(1) WINDING DIAGRAM

37 39 41 43 45 2 4 6 8 10
01 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45

N S N S
36 38 40 42 44 46 1 3 5 7 9 11

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

+VE -VE

-VE DC
+VE SUPPLY

FIGURE(2) SEQUENCE DIAGRAM

-VE

01 12 23 34 45 10 21 32 43 08 19 30 41 06 17 28 39 04 15 26 37 02 13 24 35 46 11 22 33 44 09 20 31 42 07 18 29 40 05 16 27 38 03 14 25 36 01

+VE
 24 SLOTS, 4 POLE, 3-PHASE, SINGLE LAYER, LAP WINDING

21 22 03 04

DELTA CONNECTED
STARTING "R" STARTING "Y"

ENDING "R" ENDING "Y"

STARTING "B" ENDING "B"

22 03

STARTING "R" ENDING "B" STARTING "Y" STARTING "B" ENDING "R" ENDING "Y"

STARTING ENDING
3-PHASE DELTA
PHASES PHASES
RED YELLOW BLUE
CONNECTED AC RED YELLOW BLUE
SUPPLY
 48 SLOTS, 8 POLES, 3-PHASE, SINGLE LAYER LAP WINDING

45 46 03 04

STAR CONNECTED

STARTING "R" STARTING "Y"

ENDING "R" ENDING "Y"

STARTING "B"

46 03

ENDING "B"

STARTING "R" STARTING "Y" STARTING "B" ENDING "R" ENDING "Y" ENDING "B"

STARTING ENDING
PHASES PHASES
NEUTRAL
RED YELLOW BLUE RED YELLOW BLUE
3-PHASE,
STAR CONNECTED,
AC SUPPLY
 SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF A 66/11 KV SUB-STATION

INCOMING LINES

66 KV 66 KV

LA LA

GOS GOS
CC CC
PT PT

ES ES

OCB OCB
INDEX

CT CT
= LIGHTING ARRESTERS 66 KV BUS BAR

= COUPLING CAPACITORS

= EARTH SWITCH

S S
BC

= POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER PT
OCB S
PLCC
66/11 KV
= OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER

= CURRENT TRANSFORMER

CT
11 KV BUS BAR
= GROUP OPERATING SYATEM

S S 6.6 KV/400 V
S S S S PT
OCB OCB
OCB OCB OCB OCB S

11/6.6 KV OCB
LA LA LA LA
6.6 KV BUS BAR

11 KV FEEDERS
S S S S S S S

OCB OCB OCB OCB OCB OCB OCB

CT CT CT CT CT CT CT
LA LA LA LA LA LA LA

6.6 KV FEEDERS
OUTGOING LINES
 DESIGN OF A 3-PHASE CORE TYPE TRANSFORMER

BOLT

CORE

END PLATE

BAKELLITE RING

HV WINDING

HV INSULATION

LV WINDING

LV INSULATION

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM

FIGURE(A) PLANE VIEW LEFT HALF IN

SECTION

FIGURE(B) ELEVATION IN LEFT HALF IN

SECTION
 HALF SECTIONAL ELEVATION AND PLAN OF A DC MACHINE

INSULATION RIVETS

COIL

POLE CORE

POLE SHOE

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM

FIGURE(A) ELEVATION RIGHT HALF SECTION

FIGURE(B) PLAN RIGHT HALF IN SECTION

 ARMATURE OF A DC MACHINE

DIA 7.20
ARMATURE SLOTS
COMMUATAOR

AIR DUCTS

RIVETS

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM SHAFT

FIGURE(A) END VIEW OF ARMATURE

FIGURE(B) FRONT VIEW OF ARMATURE