NOTE

P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROSTATICS

What you already know What you will learn

• Vector • Introduction to electric charge

• Newton’s laws of motion • Properties of electric charge
• Motion in one and two dimensions • Coulomb’s law
• Relative motion • Superposition of Coulomb’s force
• Kinematics • Problems based on Coulomb’s law

Introduction to Electric Charge

The word ‘electrostatics’ is an amalgamation of two words: electro and statics. Electro means that
it has something to do with electricity derived from electrons, and static means ‘not in motion’.
q
We know that the electric current (i) is defined as, i = , where q denotes the electric charge and
t
t denotes the time. This means that the charge flowing per unit time gives the electric current.
However, electrostatics deals with static charges and therefore, this formula can be kept aside for
some time.
Now, the question is: if moving charges are the cause of electric current, what possibly could
charges at rest do? To understand this in detail, let us have a look at the following phenomena:

1. If you rub amber (a fossilised resin that is used to make jewellery) with a cloth, the amber
attracts the pieces of dry leaves.
2. If you rub a glass rod with a silk cloth, the glass rod attracts the pieces of dry paper. If you rub
a plastic rod with a woolen cloth, the plastic rod also attracts the pieces of dry paper. Although
the different materials of the rod and the cloth are used, they show the same property.
It is time to look at phenomenon 2 in greater detail. It was mentioned that because of rubbing the
rod with the cloth, it got charged and the rod became capable of attracting the pieces of dry paper.
Because of this, the scientists called the charge in the first case of phenomenon 2 (the glass rod
and the silk cloth combination) by A and the charge in the second case of phenomenon 2 (the
plastic rod and the woolen cloth combination) by B. However, the question that arises is if both
the rods get charged by the same charge, why are they called by two different names, A and B? Is
there any chance to prove that both A and B are the same? To answer this question, the following
experiment is done.
Suppose that a glass rod and a plastic rod are charged individually by rubbing them with a silk cloth
and a woolen cloth, respectively, in such a way that the glass rod is able to attract 10 pieces of dry
paper and the plastic rod is also able to attract 10 pieces of dry paper. Hence, it is likely that when
02

these two rods are brought together, they should be able to attract 20 pieces of dry paper. On the
contrary, what is actually seen is that they do not attract any pieces of dry paper. This proves that
the effectiveness with which the rods were able to attract the dry papers gets nullified when the
rods are brought together. Hence, it can be concluded that charge A and charge B are opposite
to each other.
The following three phenomena are also seen from the experiment.
1. When two glass rods are charged by charge A and brought close to one another, they repel
each other.
 hen two plastic rods are charged by charge B and brought close to one another, they repel
2. W
each other.
 hen one glass rod is charged by charge A and one plastic rod is charged by charge B, and
3. W
they are brought close to one another, they attract each other.

From these observations, it can also be concluded that there are two types of charges and charges
of the same type repel each other, whereas charges of different types attract each other. Later,
these two kinds of charges were denoted by positive and negative charges.
Do you wonder why glass was rubbed with only silk cloth? Why not any other rod or any other cloth?
How does the rod get charged by rubbing it with a cloth? When two materials are rubbed, it seems
that the friction between the objects produces the charge. However, that is not the case. When
two objects come in contact, a transfer of charge occurs. Some materials attract negative charges
(electrons), while other materials cannot wait to lose the negative charges, thereby obtaining the
positive charges (protons).

Triboelectric series

Materials that attract charge and materials that want to lose charge are listed in a series known as
the triboelectric series. The series is listed as follows:
Air Positive Nickel, Copper Positive
Human body Gold, Platinum

Glass Natural rubber

Nylon Sulphur
Triboelectric series

Triboelectric series

Wool Acetate
Decreases

Decreases

Lead Polyester

Cotton Celluloid

Aluminium Urethane

Paper Polyethylene

Steel Vinyl

Wood Sillicon

Gelatin Negative Teflon Negative

03

The conclusions that one gets from the triboelectric series are the following:
 s one goes down the series, the capability of accepting the electron by the material increases
1. A
and therefore, it gets negatively charged. As one goes up the series, the capability of donating
the electron by the material increases and therefore, it gets positively charged.
2. Farther apart are the substances in this series, easier it is for them to transfer the charges
between them.

BOARDS
Properties of Charge

1. Like mass, charge is an inherent property of matter.

2. T
 here are two types of charges: positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike charges
attract each other.

– + + + – –

3. C
 onservation of charge: Just like energy, the net charge of an isolated system remains constant
throughout any process. In other words, charge can neither be created nor be destroyed.
4. R
 elativistic invariance: Charges obey relativistic invariance. It means the quantity and quality
of charge is independent of the frame of reference. No matter how fast or slow the frame of
reference is moving, the quantity and quality of the charge remain the same. If there is one
electron in a frame of reference moving with the speed of light, the value of the charge (–1.6 ×
10–19 C) remains unchanged.
5. Q
 uantisation of charge: All free charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge denoted
by e. Therefore, the net change on a body is always, Q = ne, where n is any integer. The basic
unit of charge ‘e’ can either be positive or negative. By convention, the charge on an electron
is taken as negative.
6. C
 harges obey algebraic addition. Example: Suppose there are three protons and five electrons
in an object. Therefore, we have, np = 3, and ne = 5 and hence, the net charge in the object is,
Q = Charge of protons + Charge of electrons
Q = np(+e) + ne (–e)
Q = 3e + (– 5e)
Q = –2e

Unit of charge

SI unit of charge: Coulomb Charge of an electron, e– = –1e = –1.6 × 10–19 C

Standard symbol: C Charge of a proton, p+ = +1e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
04

Method of Charging

Charging by friction

When two bodies come in contact and get rubbed

with each other, the transfer of charges happens.
The electricity produced by this method is known as
frictional electricity. For example, when a glass rod is
rubbed with a silk cloth, the transfer of charge happens.
Since the glass lies above the silk in the triboelectric
series, the glass becomes positively charged and the
silk becomes negatively charged. Hence, the glass
rod is able to attract small pieces of dry paper.

Charging by conduction + + +
+

+
Consider that a charged source is brought in

+ + +

+ + +
contact to a neutral object as shown in the figure.
When the source is brought in contact with
the neutral object, the charges get distributed
+

+
between both the bodies. Remember that this +
+
+
distribution of charges on the neutral object fully
depends on its shape. If the charged object and + +
the neutral object have the same shape, then it +
+
+

+
is safe to say that the charge will be distributed
equally.
+

+
This method of charging is known as charging by
conduction. + +
+

+ +
Charging by induction
– –
In this case, let us consider two objects: one is a
–
negatively charged object and the other is a neutral – –
object. The neutral object has both the positive and –
negative charges but in equal proportion. Consider that –
these objects are placed very close to each other but –

not in contact.

– –
Let us assume that a glass rod is negatively charged.
–
When the glass rod is brought near the neutral object (we – + – –
choose a ball here), due to electrostatic attraction and – – + + –
repulsion, the glass rod attracts all the positive charge – – + +
–
– +
towards itself and pushes all the negative charges in the –

opposite direction as shown in the figure.

05

– –
Due to this separation of the charges, the polarisation
–
of the charges takes place, which means that it is now + – –
possible to identify which side of the ball is positive – – – + + –
and which side is negative. – – + +
– –
– – +
– –
Now, the ball is connected to the ground. Since the
earth is an infinite sink of charges, i.e., it can take any
amount of charge, the negative charges of the body
go into the ground. Now, unearthing the ball from +
+
grounding the body only contains excess positive +
+ +
charges that spread on the object and become +
positively charged.

By this method, we can charge a neutral body in the opposite nature to that of the source.

Photocopy Machine

Firstly, let us take a look at a photocopy The electrostatics has application in this.
machine as shown in the figure. Consider the side view of the inside of a
photocopy machine.

We keep the paper, which we want to make the copy

of, on the glass upside down and press the start button.
An intense beam of light falls on the paper, which gets
reflected from the paper except from the part where
the text is written. The reflected light then falls on a + +
+ +
photosensitive drum that is already positively charged. +
This photosensitive drum has a property such that + +
when the light falls on it, the light gets absorbed and + +
kills the charges there. So, when the reflected light from Paper
the paper falls on the drum, it neutralises the charges
wherever light falls on it, leaving a few charges that Drum
make the shape of the text.
06

Now, this drum rotates and reaches where the negatively

charged ink on another drum is present as shown in the
figure.
The positive charge attracts the negatively charged ink
and then rolls over to the conveyor that has a positively
charged blank paper. Since the positive charge on the
blank paper is greater in magnitude than the positive
charge on the drum, the ink sticks to the paper. Then, the
paper is passed through two heating rollers where the
ink is permanently pasted on the paper. This is why we
get a warm paper right after the paper comes out.

MAIN BOARDS
Coulomb’s Law

Charles-Augustin de Coulomb discovered this law, which states that the force between two static
point charges is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the charges and is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the two charges and the force acts along
the line joining the two charges.
Mathematically, if Q1 and Q2 are two point charges separated by distance r, then the electrostatic
force between them is,
F ∝ Q1Q2 ........... ( i )
1
F∝ ........... ( ii )
r2
By combining the equation ( i ) and eqaution ( ii ) , we get,
Q1Q2
F∝
r2
kQQ
⇒ F =e 12 2
r
Where ke is the proportionality constant known as Coulomb’s constant
The electrostatic force (F) as defined looks similar to the the gravitational force between two masses
GM1 M2
defined by F = . The comparison between the expression of the electrostatic force and the
r2
gravitational force is given.

Quantity Electrostatic force Gravitational force

GM1 M2 keQ1Q2
Expression of force F = F =
r2 r2

Force of interaction between Force of interaction between

Applicability
static point charges masses
07

Nature Attractive or repulsive Always attractive

Comparable strength Stronger Weaker

Nature of proportionality It can be shielded that means

Universal
constant depends on the medium

Coulomb’s constant

It does not matter where the masses are; be it at

the ground, underwater, or even outer space, the
gravitational force is always the same, but it is not true
for the electrostatic force. It is different in different
mediums.
Consider that a light beam from a torch is falling on a
surface as shown in the figure.

Now, if the medium is changed, i.e., we put something

in between the torch and the surface (say a glass slab),
the intensity of light falling on the surface gets reduced.
Similarly, the electrostatic force also varies with the
medium, and the way it varies is given by the constant
ke we saw earlier. From this discussion it may seem
to you that it is not a constant after all. Then why is it
known as a constant? It is because it is constant for a
given medium.

1
The Coulomb constant ke is defined as ke = , where ε is known as the permittivity of the
4πε
medium, and it is the deciding factor of the Coulomb’s constant.
In the case of vacuum, the permittivity of the medium is given by, ε0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C 2N–1m–2
Therefore, the value of Coulomb constant at vacuum is, ke = 9 × 109 Nm2C –2

Relative permittivity

If the permittivity of vacuum is denoted by ε0 and the the permittivity of any medium is denoted by ε,
then the relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the given medium is defined by the following
expression:
ε
εr =
ε0
08

The physical significance of the relative permittivity or the

dielectric constant is the ability of a medium to ionise whatever
is put inside it. For example, when hydrochloric acid (HCl) is
mixed with water, the HCl molecule gets ionised as H+ and
Cl– because the dielectric constant for water is 81. Hence, the
electrostatic force between the ions is reduced by 81. HCl H+ and CI–

Force experienced by two point charges placed in a medium

It may seem that the force between two point charges placed in a medium other than the vacuum
changes from what was the force between them in vacuum. However, this statement is incomplete.
The correct statement is that the force between two charges placed in a medium other than
vacuum does not change from what was the force between them in vacuum, but the force
experienced by each charge alone in totality changes. To understand this statement clearly, let
us consider the scenario shown in the figure.

– + – +
F – + – + F1
+Q1 F1 – + – + +Q2 F

r
In this figure, the yellow particles are the charged particles of the medium. Here, F is the force on
Q1 due to Q2 and vice versa, and F1 is the force on the charges by the medium.
keQ1Q2
Therefore, the net force on the charge is, Fnet = ( F − F1 ) <
r2

Vector Form of Coulomb’s Law

Let us consider that two like charges, Q1 and Q2, are placed somewhere in space. According to
Coulomb’s law, the electrostatic forces act along the direction of the line joining the two charges.
Since we have taken the charges of the same nature, there must be a repulsive force acting
between them.

The force on charge Q1 due to charge Q2 is F12 . The position vector of charge Q1 as seen from

charge Q2 is r12 = r rˆ12 , where r is the separation between the charges.
By applying Coulomb’s law, we get the following: r
kQ1Q2
F=
r2

Also, the position vector is given by, F12 Q Q2
 1
r12 = r rˆ12
Therefore, force acting on charge Q1 due to charge Q2 is given by,
 kQ Q
F12 = 12 2 rˆ12 .......... ( i )
r
The unit position vector is given by,

r
ˆr = 12
 Also, the position vector is given by,

09r12 = r rˆ12
Therefore, force acting on charge Q1 due to charge Q2 is given by,
 kQ Q
F12 = 12 2 rˆ12 .......... ( i )
r
The unit position vector is given by,

r12
rˆ12 =
r
By substituting rˆ12 in equation ( i ) , we get,
 
kQ1Q2 r12
= F12 ×
r2 r
 kQ Q 
⇒ F12 =13 2 r12 .......... ( ii )
r

Similarly, the force on charge Q2 due to charge Q1 is F21 . The position vector of charge Q2 as seen

from charge Q is, r21 = r rˆ21
1

Therefore, the force acting on charge Q1 due to charge Q2 is given by,

 kQ Q
F21 = 12 2 rˆ21 .......... ( iii )
r
The unit position vector is given by,
 r
r21
rˆ21 =
r

By substituting rˆ21 in equation ( iii ) , we get, Q1 Q2 F21
 
kQ1Q2 r21
F21
= ×
r2 r
 kQ Q 
⇒ F21 =13 2 r21 .......... ( iv )
r

• For unlike charges, the forces become attractive in nature and hence, their directions
 kQ1Q2 
get changed. Therefore, the force on Q1 due to Q2 is expressed as, F12 = r21 and
r3
 kQ1Q2 
the force on Q2 due to Q1 is expressed as, F21 = r12
r3
• Only the formulas for the like charges are enough to remember because to obtain the
formulas for the unlike charges, we just need to put the value of charges with sign.
   
• Since r12 = − r21 , what we get from equations (i) and (ii) is, F12 = − F21 . Thus, Coulomb’s
law agrees with Newton’s third law of motion.

Superposition of Coulomb’s Force

 –Q2
The resultant electrostatic force on a point will be the r21
vector sum of electrostatic forces due to individual Q3 Q4
 
point charges. r13 r14
Consider a system with five charges as shown in the 
r15 Q5
figure.
Q1
10

For finding the net force on any charge, we have to find the forces
by each charge present in the vicinity of it. 
F12
Let us consider charge Q1 and analyse all the forces acting on it. 
The forces acting on Q1 are shown in the figure. F13
Q1
The net force acting on Q1 is the vector sum of all the electrostatic 
force acting on it, which is given by, F14 
     F15
Fnet = F12 + F13 + F14 + F15
The force applied by one charge does not affect the force by other charges. They have their
individual effects, but the net force acting on the charge changes.

Five balls numbered 1 to 5 are suspended using separate threads. Pairs (1, 2), (2, 4), and
(4, 1) show electrostatic attraction, while pairs (2, 3) and (4, 5) show repulsion. What should
ball 1 therefore be?

(A) Positively charged (B) Negatively charged (C) Neutral (D) Made of metal

Solution

Consider five balls as shown in the figure. 3

2
The dotted arrow represents the repulsive force between
two balls and the solid arrow represents the attractive force
between two balls.
1
It is given that the pairs (1, 2), (2, 4), and (4, 1) show electrostatic
attraction, while pairs (2, 3) and (4, 5) show repulsion. 4
To show electrostatic repulsion, two charges must be like 5
charges. Suppose that there is a repulsive force between ball
2 and ball 3, assuming that they have charge A.

Now, for electrostatic attraction to take place between two charges, it is not necessary that both
the charges should have opposite charges. The electrostatic attraction can also happen between
a charge particle and a neutral particle (recall the example of the glass rod attracting dry papers).
Now, since ball 4 and ball 5 are repelled to each other, they should have the same charge. Therefore,
ball 4 cannot be neutral. On top of this, ball 2 and ball 4 are attracted to each other and since ball 4
cannot be neutral, it should have the opposite charge of type A. Let ball 4 have a charge of type B.
Therefore, ball 1 gets attracted by ball 2 having charge of type A and also gets attracted by ball 4
having charge of type B. Hence, it is possible only if ball 1 is neutral.
Therefore, option (C) is the correct answer.
11

Two identical charges in vacuum are separated by a distance of r. The electrostatic force
between them is given by F. If 75 % of the charge is taken from one of the charges and given
F
to the other, then the new force becomes F’. Find the ratio .
F'

16 16 7
(A) 1 (B) (C) (D)
9 7 16

Solution

Initially, let there be two identical charges of magnitude Q separated by a distance of r. Therefore,
according to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of the electrostatic force is,
kQ 2 ........(i)
F = 2
r
3 Q
Now, if 75 % (or ) of one charge is given to the other, then those two charges become, Q1 =
4 4
3Q  7Q
and Q2 =  Q + =
 4  4
However, the separation between them remains the same.
Therefore, the electrostatic force in between is,
kQ1Q2
F′=
r2
 Q  7Q 
k  
4 4 
⇒ F ′ =  2
r
7 kQ 2
⇒ F′= 2
16 r
7
⇒ F′= F
16
F 16
⇒ =
F′ 7
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

Two charge particles, each having charge q and mass m, are apart with a distance of d from
each other. If two particles are in equilibrium under the gravitational and electrostatic force,
q
then find the ratio .
m

(A) 10–8 (B) 10–10 (C) 108 (D) None of these

12

Solution

According to the problem, both the particles are in equilibrium under the gravitational and
electrostatic force. So, it can be said that the electrostatic force is balanced by the gravitational
force. Therefore,
Felectrostatic = Fgravitational
kq2 Gm2
⇒ =
d2 d2
2
q G
⇒  =
m k
q G 10− 11
⇒ = ≈
m k 109
q
⇒ ≈ 10− 20 ≈ 10− 10
m
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.

y
Two identical point charges +Q are fixed in a gravity-free
space at points (L, 0) and (–L, 0). Another particle with mass
m and charge –q is placed at the origin. Now, this particle +Q +Q
is displaced by a distance of y along the y-axis and then (–L, 0) –q (L, 0) x
released. Show that this particle will execute oscillatory
motion.

Solution BOARDS

The only way to prove the particle executes oscillatory y

motion is to prove that the particle executes SHM because
oscillatory motion is a consequence of SHM. Now, if we are –q
able to prove that the force on the particle of charge –q
r  θ θ  r
is restoring and is proportional to the displacement, then
+Q F y F +Q
it will be enough to conclude that the charged particle
executes SHM. (–L, 0) O (L, 0) x
Suppose the particle of charge –q is displaced along the
y-axis by a distance of y as shown in the figure.
If the force on –q by +Q is given by F, then the net force on the charge –q by both the charges +Q
is given by,
Fnet = 2F cos θ
Also, this force is pointing towards the equilibrium position (O) of the charge –q. Therefore, the net
force on the charge –q is restoring in nature.
13

Now,
Fnet = 2F cos θ
 kQq  y 
⇒ Fnet =
2 2  
 r  r 
 kQq 
⇒ Fnet =
2 3  y
 r 
r
From the figure, it is seen that= L2 + y 2
Thus,
 kQq 
Fnet = 2 2 3  y

(
 L + y2 2 
 )
Since the charge − q is displaced slightly along the y -axis, y << L.
Hence,
 kQq 
 3 
Fnet = 2 3  y 
2 2
y
 L 1 + 2  
  L  
 kQq 
⇒ Fnet 2 3  y [Since y << L]
 L 
Therefore, the net force on the charge –q is proportional to the displacement of the charge from its
equilibrium position and hence, the charge will execute SHM with time period,
m
T = 2π
  kQq  
 2 L3  
  
mL3
2π
⇒T =
2kQq
 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC
LINES OF FORCE

What you already know What you will learn

• Introduction to electric charge • Faraday’s lines of force

• Properties of electric charge
• Coulomb's law
• Superposition of Coulomb's force
• Problems based on Coulomb's law
• Electric field and its strength
• Properties of electric field lines
• Electric field strength due to a point
charge
• Superposition of electric field strength
• Equilibrium and null point

Faraday’s Lines of Force

When any two point charges of equal magnitude, Q, are separated by a distance r at some region
in space, they exert force on each other according to Coulomb’s law. Now, we need to understand
how charges exert force on each other without being in contact (this is also known as action
at a distance). This is answered by Michael Faraday in his research paper named ‘Experimental
Researches in Electricity’. He did a simple experiment, which is as follows:
A bar magnet was placed under light on a dry paper
and some iron filings were spread on the paper. It was
seen that the iron filings were arranged in a particular
way on the paper instead of in a random way as shown
in the figure.
In this figure, the bar magnet (mentioned by NS) was
placed under the paper. The curves that are seen
around the magnet is the pattern that the iron filings
got on the paper. Although the iron filings were not in
contact with the bar magnet, they were influenced by
something that the bar magnet produced.
02

From this experiment, Michael Faraday concluded the following points:

1. Faraday’s belief was that force transmits through

an action of continuous contact and this contact
is provided by a field that is induced in space
due to the presence of objects. The term ‘action
of continuous contact’ can be understood by
visualising an army of dominos between two
charged particles. The force due to one charged
particle gets transmitted through the dominos,
and finally reaches the other charged particle.
2. Faraday termed the pattern obtained from the experiment with iron filings as lines of force,
which were later known as field lines.
3. The patterns of the iron fillings around the magnet represent the magnetic fields.
When an experiment similar to the one with iron filings
and a bar magnet was done with electric charges, a
similar type of pattern was observed. This pattern is
known as electric fields. The pattern is shown in the
figure.
From the first conclusion, it becomes clear that the
charges create their own field in the surroundings.
Although there is no contact between the two charges
in space, they exert force on each other through their
fields whenever one charged particle comes in the
field of another. This is known as action at a distance.

Fields and field lines

Fields are like any other physical quantities, describing both scalars and vectors.
Scope of fields
Both scalar and vector

Qualitatively, in order to explain any non-contact forces Temperature field

between two objects or in order to describe the ‘action Gravitational potential field
at a distance’ phenomenon, we have to imagine a field, Electrostatic potential field
irrespective of the nature of the non-contact forces.
The field may be vector or scalar, and it should be
remembered that field lines represent vector fields
(only vector quantities) as they denote the direction of Velocity field
action or force. Electric field
Magnetic field
Scope of fields
Only vector
03

Example of scalar field: There are temperature fields,

but there cannot be temperature field lines. In the
figure, the temperature field in India during summer is
shown.

Electric Field

Electric field is a region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted
on other charged particles or objects.
The force that is exerted by the source charge on the test charge is a two-step process:
1. A
 t first, the source charge creates its own field, which means that it creates a region up to
which it will be able to exert force on any other charged particle or object.
2. Whenever the test charge comes in that region, it feels the force due to the source charge.
The term ‘field’ signifies how some distributed quantity (scalar or vector) varies with position


Electric field strength ( E )

The electric field strength (often simply called electric field) at a point is defined as the electrostatic
force Fe per unit positive charge at that point.

Electric field strength due to a point charge at a distance

Consider a source charge Q (it creates the field) and a test charge q (it feels the force) as shown in
the figure. Let the separation between them be r.
The magnitude of electrostatic force on the test charge
1 Qq
q is, Fe = . The magnitude of this electrostatic
4πε r 2
force will remain unchanged as long as the test charge
is at the surface of a sphere of radius r. The field from 
E
the source charge can be visualised as light spreading Q r q
out from a bulb in all directions.
The electric field strength or the electric field of a
Fe 1 Q
charge Q at a distance r is given by, E
= = .
q 4πε r 2
SI unit: The SI unit of the electric field is NC–1.
04

1. The nature of the electric field produced by a point charge is non-uniform because
at every point in space, even though the magnitude is the same, the direction of the
electric field is different.
Fe 1 Q
2. The electric field of a charge Q at a distance r is given by, E
= = .
q 4πε r 2

3. The direction of the electric field is radially outwards for a positive charge and radially
inwards for a negative charge.

Graphical plot of electric field strength variation with distance from a point charge

The electric field of a point charge Q at a distance r is E

Fe 1 Q
given by, E
= = .
q 4πε r 2

Hence, it can be said that the electric field is inversely 1

E∝
proportional to the square of the distance from the r2
charge itself. Therefore, the E-r graph will be parabolic
in nature as shown in the figure.
r

Calculate the electric field strength at a point 1 cm away from a point charge of magnitude,
10 μC. (Assume no other electric charge to be present)

Solution

Given,
The charge is, Q = 10 μC.
The distance from the charge where the electric field strength is to be measured is,
r = 1 cm = 0.01 m.
1 Q
E=
4πε 0 r 2
 10 × 10− 6 
(
⇒ E = 9 × 109  ) 
 ( 0.01) 
2

 10 × 10− 6 
(
⇒ E = 9 × 109  ) −4 
 10 
⇒ E =9 × 108 NC − 1
The direction of the electric field strength will be radially outward.
05

BOARDS
Properties of Electric Field Lines

1. F
 or a positive charge, the field lines will be radially
outwards, and for a negative charge, the field lines +q –q
will be radially inwards.

2. Electric field lines always begin on a positive charge and end on a negative charge.

+ +
+ –

3. The number of lines leaving a positive charge or

ending at a negative charge is proportional to the
magnitude of the charge. The greater the magnitude
of the charge, the more dense the field lines will 1C 3C
be at the location of the charge.
It should be noted that if 1 C charge and 3 C charge
are considered, and 4 lines are used to represent the
field lines for the 1 C charge, then 12 lines should be
used to represent the field lines for the 3 C charge.

  
E P EQ E R
  
E P EQ E R
4. The tangent to a field line at any point gives us the P   
E P EQ E R
direction of electric field at that point. R

5. Two electric field lines can never intersect because

if it happens, then there will be two different
directions for a single value of electric field at the
point of intersection of those two field lines, which
is impossible.

6. The field lines never form closed loops, as a line can never start and end on the same charge.
06

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
7. In a region of a uniform electric field, the field lines

+
are straight, parallel, and uniformly spaced.

+
+
+

8. Let us take a case of a region of non-uniform electric field.

AT P1 AT P2
+q –q
Electric Field P2 P2
High Low
strength
P1 P1

The strength of the electric field is greater where the density of the field lines is larger.

MAIN
Principle of Superposition

The resultant electric field at a point will be the vector sum of the electric fields due to all individual
point charges.
Consider three point charges q1, q2, and q3, as shown q2
   
EEnet
in the figure. EE1E1+1+,+
Enetnet==If= EE2E2+,2++
EE3E3 3are the electric fields due to
q1, q2, and q3, respectively, then the net electric field at
point P is, q1
    r2
E net = E1 + E2 + E3 r1
r3 q3
Therefore, if n number of charges are present in the    
space, then the electric field at point P will be, E net = E1 + E2 + E3
P    
     n  E net = E1 + E2 + E3
E net = E1 + E2 + E3 + .... + E n = ∑
∑
i =0i
EEi i    
E net = E1 + E2 + E3

20 cm
Find the electric field at the midpoint of the
line joining two charges separated by 20 cm. +ve
10 μC P 5 μC x-axis
07

Solution

Let q1 = 10 μC = 10 × 10–6 C and q2 = 5 μC = 5 × 10–6 C

The distance of point P from both the charges is, r = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
Therefore, at point P,

 1 q11 ˆ
The electric field due to q1 is, E11 = 2
i.
4πε 00 r 2

The electric field due to q=
2
is, E 2
2
1 q22
4πε 00 r 22
( )
− iˆ .

Hence, the net electric field at point 1 P is,q22 ˆ

   E 2 = i
2
4πε 00 r 22
E net
= E1 + E 2
 1  q1 q2  ˆ
⇒ E= − i
4πε 0  r 2 r 2 
net

  10 × 10− 6 5 × 10− 6 
(
⇒ E net =9 × 109  ) −  iˆ
 ( 0.1) (0.1) 
2 2

 10− 6 ˆ
( )
⇒ E net = 9 × 109 [10 − 5] × i
(0.1)
2

 10− 6
( )
⇒ E net = 45 × 109 × − 2 iˆ
10
 5 ˆ
⇒ E net =45 × 10 i NC − 1

60 cm
Find the electric field at the midpoint of the
+ve
line joining two charges separated by 60 cm.
50 μC P –10 μC x-axis

Solution

Let q1 = 50 μC = 50 × 10–6 C and q2 = –10 μC = –10 × 10–6 C

The distance of point P from both q1 ˆ is, r = 30 cm = 0.3 m.
 the1 charges
E1 = i
Therefore, at point P, 4πε 0 r 2
 1 q12 ˆ
The electric field due to q=
1
is, E12 =
4πε 00 r 22 ( )
i .− iˆ


The electric field due to q=
2
is, E 2 =
2
4πε 00 r 22
( )
1 q22 ˆ − iˆ
i.

 1 q2 ˆ
E2 = i
4πε 0 r 2
08

In this case, the directions of the electric field at point P due to both the charges are along the
positive x-axis. Hence, the net electric field at point P is,
  
E net
= E1 + E 2
 1  q1 q2  ˆ
⇒ E= + i
4πε 0  r 2 r 2 
net

  50 × 10− 6 10 × 10− 6 
(
⇒ E net =9 × 109  ) +  iˆ
 ( 0.3) (0.3) 
2 2

 10− 6 ˆ
( )
⇒ E net = 9 × 109 [50 + 10] × i
(0.3)
2

 10− 6 ˆ
(
⇒ E net = 9 × 60 × 109 × ) 9 × 10− 2
i

6 106 iˆ NC − 1
⇒ E net =×

–q –2q
a

Find the electric field at point P shown in the diagram. a a

P a –q

Solution

This is a square of side a. Thus, the length of the diagonal of y

–q –2q
the square is a 2 . a
     
The magnitude of the electric fields E net E=netE1=+and
EE1 2++EE23+will
E3 be the
same since both the electric fields are due to charge –q. The
      a
E netE=netE=1 +
magnitude of the electric fields E1E+2 +E2E+3is,E3
and a
  1 q        
E=1 E
= 2
E = E=1E+ E+2E+ E+3E
E net
net
4πε 0 a2 1 2 3

   
The magnitude of the electric field due to − 2q is, E net = EP1 + E2 + E3a –q
 1 2q x
E3 = O
(
4πε 0 a 2 2
)
 
Now, the magnitude of the resultant electric fields of E1 and E2 is,
  2  2
E12 = E1 + E2 [Since the angle between them is 90°]
2 2
  1 q  1 q
⇒
= E12  2
+  2
 4πε 0 a   4πε 0 a 
2
 E3 =
4πε 0 a 2
( )
2

09
 
Now, the magnitude of the resultant electric fields of E1 and E2 is,
  2  2
E12 = E1 + E2 [Since the angle between them is 90°]
2 2
  1 q  1 q
⇒
= E12  2
+  2
 4πε 0 a   4πε 0 a 
 1 q
2

⇒ E12 = 2  2 
4πε 0 a 
 1 q 2
⇒ E12 = 2
4πε 0 a
 
E12 will be along the direction of E3 . Therefore, the net electric field at point P is,
  
E= net E 12 + E 3

 
 1 q 2 2q 
E net
⇒= +
 2
4πε 0 a
( )
2
 a 2 
 1 q 2 q 
Enet
⇒=  + 2
4πε 0  a2 a 


⇒ Enet =
1 ( 2 +1 q )
4πε 0 a 2

   
E net
The resultant electric field will also be along the = E1 + E2of+ E3.
direction

Find the net electric field at P (at centroid). a a

q q
a

Solution

The given triangle is an equilateral triangle of side length a, and q

we know that the centroid divides the altitude in the ratio of 2 : 1.
Hence, the distance of the centroid from any vertex of the triangle
is a .      
3 Eanet E=netE1=+EE1 2++EE2 3+ Ea3
       1 q    P
EEnet
The magnitude =E
Enetnet
=of=E1E1+1+,E +E3E3, 3will be, E=
+E2E2+,2+E 1 E
= 2 E
= 3 E net = E1 + E2 + E3
4πε 0  a 2
  q a q
 3
By symmetry, the net electric field at point P will be zero.
10

Short trick :
By polygon law, if we have any number of vectors forming the polygon, and they obey cyclic
symmetry, the resultant of that vectors will always be zero.
       
Enetnet
In this Ecase, =EE=
E=net ,+1 E+
E
1 1+ E
E+2 E+
2 2+ E
and E can also form a triangle and they have a cyclic symmetry since the angle
33 3
between each of them is 120°.

Equilibrium

Equilibrium is a state for a mass/charge/particle when its state of motion remains unaffected, which
implies that the net force acting on it is zero. Since the force is interconnected with the field, the
previous statement also implies that the net field acting has to be zero.

Types of equilibrium

1. Stable equilibrium: In this case, if a particle is subjected to an

impactive force, it tries to go back to its initial state of motion.

2. Unstable equilibrium: In this case, if a particle is subjected

to an impactive force, it cannot go back to its initial state of
motion.

3. Neutral equilibrium: In this case, if a particle is subjected to

an impactive force, it gets displaced, but its current and initial
states of motion have no difference.

Layman’s View of Geography of Electric Charges

The electric charges also possess different states of equilibrium. To begin the discussion, we should
remember that the electric field lines always begin on a positive charge and end on a negative
charge.
When we talk about positive and negative charges, we can consider them on the same level, as
shown in the figure.

+q –q
11

However, if the concept of field lines is incorporated with positive and negative charges, then
the position of the positive charge can be thought of as the top of a hill from which a fountain
originates. It is because field lines originate from the positive charge. The position of the negative
charge can be thought of as a valley or the bottom of a funnel, because field lines originate from
the positive charge and end at the negative charge.
+q

–q
Hence, it can be said that the positive charge acts as the source and the negative charge acts as
the sink. Therefore, it can be concluded that from the topological point of view, the positive charge
and the negative charge are not at the same level. The side views of the geography of the charges
are shown below.

+q

–q

Equilibrium of electric charges

+q +q

• When two positive charges of an equal

magnitude are placed side by side, from
layman’s view of the geography of charges,
they can be seen as shown in the figure.

From the figure, the position of two positive +q +q

charges of equal magnitude can be
thought of as two different peaks of a hill of
the same height. Now, the question arises
that is there any possibility of equilibrium
in this arrangement? Yes, the valley or
region between the two peaks is the stable
equilibrium position.
Zone of possibility for
stable equilibrium
12

+q
• Suppose that two positive charges of unequal
magnitude are placed side by side. For this
case as well, the valley or region between the +q
two peaks is at the stable equilibrium position,
but the region becomes smaller here and it is
closer to the charge with less magnitude.

• When two negative charges of equal

magnitude are placed side by side, from
layman’s view of the geography of charges,
the position of the two negative charges
of equal magnitude can be thought of as
bases of funnels of the same depth. Now, the
question arises that is there any possibility –q –q
of equilibrium in this arrangement? Yes, the
region (the peak) between the two charges is Zone of possibility for
the unstable equilibrium position.
unstable equilibrium

Null Point

The null point is a position where the net field turns out to be zero as a vector sum.

Consider two point charges q1 and q2 as shown in q1 q

    P   2
the figure. For the net field to be zero at point P, the E net = E1 + E2 + E3E net = E1 + E2 + E3
following should be true:
  r1 r2
E net = 0
  
⇒ E1 + E 2 =0
1  q1 q2  The negative
 sign arises because the directions 
⇒  2 − 2 =0  
4πε 0  r1 r2   of E 1 and E 2 are opposite.

q q2
⇒ 12 =
r1 r22

q q
Find the position along the line joining two point
charges where the net electric field is zero.
d

Solution

Let the electric field be zero at point P, which is x distance away from the charge on the left as
shown in the figure.
13

Since both the charges are positive, the direction of the electric field on P due to these charges
will be opposite.
Also, we assumed the net electric field at point P to be zero.
Thus,
 
E net = 0
  q x q
⇒ E1 = E2 P
1 q 1 q
⇒ =
4πε 0 x 2
4πε 0 ( d − x )2 d
⇒x=± (d − x )
d
⇒x= [By taking only the positive value]
2
Therefore, the equilibrium position or the null point will be at the middle of the line joining the two
equal positive charges.

q 4q
Find the position along the line joining two point
charges where the net electric field is zero.
d

Solution

Let the electric field be zero at point P, which is x distance away from the charge at the left.
Since both the charges are positive, the direction of the electric field at P due to these charges will
be opposite.
Also, we assumed the net electric field at point P to be zero.
Thus,
 
E net = 0
 
⇒ E1 = E2 x
 q      4q
P = E1 + E 2 + E3
E net = E1 + E2 + E net
1 q 1 4q 3
⇒ =
4πε 0 x 2
4πε 0 ( d − x )2
d
⇒ 4 x 2 =( d − x )
2

± (d − x )
⇒ 2x =
⇒ 2x = ( d − x ) [By taking only the positive value]
d
⇒x=
3
Therefore, the equilibrium position or the null point will be closer to the smaller positive charge
along the line joining the two unequal positive charges.
 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC FIELD AND
ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

What you already know What you will learn

• Coulomb's law • Motion of charges in electric field

• Faraday’s lines of force • Electric dipole
• Electric field and its strength • Electric field due to a dipole and its
• Properties of electric field lines different cases

• Electric field strength due to a point • Electric dipole in a uniform electric field
charge • Electric field due to a continuous charged
• Superposition of Coulomb’s force and body
electric field strength

Motion of Charges in Electric Field

Case 1: A charged particle kept in a uniform electric field


E
The uniform electric field is represented by equispaced
parallel electric lines of force, where the arrowhead
represents the direction of the electric field.
A positively charged particle of charge q and mass m is 
released from rest in an existing uniform electric field E m, q
as shown in the figure. We want to find its acceleration,
speed, distance travelled, and kinetic energy after time t
(neglecting effects of gravity).

It is given that the particle has a positive charge q and mass m, and it is placed in a uniform
electric field. It is known that when a charged particle is placed in an electric field, it experiences
an electrostatic force; positively charged particles experience an electrostatic force in the direction
of the electric field, while negatively charged particles experience an electrostatic force in the
opposite direction of the electric field.
Therefore, neglecting the effects of gravity, the charged particle experiences the Coulombic force
or electrostatic force only, which is given by F = qE, and the direction of this force is along the
direction of the electric field.
F qE
a
Therefore, the acceleration of the particle is, = =
m m
02

Since the electric field is uniform, the acceleration of the particle is constant. Also, since the particle
is released from rest, its initial speed is zero. Hence, by applying the first equation of motion in 1D,
we get the speed of the particle in time t as, = qEt
v at=
m 2
2 1 2 1  qEt 
Therefore, the kinetic energy1 2of the qEt  at time t =
1 particle is, K = mv m
= K = mv m  2 2  m 
2 2  m 
Now, by applying the second equation of motion in 1D, we1 get the qEtdistance
2 travelled by the
1 2 qEt 2 = S = at 2
particle in time t as,
= S = at 2 2m
2 2m

Case 2: A charged particle projected in a uniform electric field


E
A positively charged particle of charge q and mass m is
projected with initial speed in an existing uniform electric
field of E as shown in the figure.
We want to find its acceleration, speed, distance travelled,
and kinetic energy after time t (neglecting effects of
gravity). m, q u

It is given that the particle has a positive charge of q and

mass m, and it is projected in a uniform electric field with
initial speed u.
By neglecting the effects of the gravity on the charged particle, only the Coulombic force or
electrostatic force acts on the charged particle, which is given by F = qE, and the direction of this
force is along the direction of the electric field, as the charge of the particle is positive.
F qE
a
Therefore, the acceleration of the particle is, = =
m m
Since the electric field is uniform, the acceleration of the particle is constant. In this case, the
particle is projected in the uniform electric field with initial speed u. Hence, by applying the first
qEt
equation of motion in 1D, we get theqEtspeed of the particle v=
inutime
+ at t=u +v =u + at =u + qEt
as,
v =u + at =u + m m
m 1 2 1  1 qEt2  1 
2 2
is, K =
time t = mv = mK u += qEt 
Therefore, the kinetic energy
1 2of the
1 particle
qEt at mv m u+
2  2 m  2 
2

= K = mv m u +


2 m 
Now, by applying the second2 2 
equation ofmmotion
 in 1D, we get1the2 distance qEt1travelled
2
byqEt
the
2
S= ut + at = Sut=+
ut + at 2
=ut +
1 qEt 2
2 2m2 2m
particle in time t as, S =ut + at 2 = ut +
2 2m

Case 3: A charged particle obliquely projected in a uniform electric field

A positively charged particle of charge q and mass m is 

projected with initial speed u at an angle θ with respect to E u
the horizontal
 direction into a region of a uniform electric
field of E (vertically downwards direction) as shown in m, q θ
the figure. Neglecting the effects of gravity, we want to
describe its parameters of motion.
03

This charged particle will undergo projectile motion just like the motion of a projectile under
gravity. In projectile motion, a constant gravitational force acts in the downward direction, which
is responsible for the parabolic motion of the projectile. In this case, instead of gravity, a constant
electrostatic force acts in the downward direction and it produces a constant acceleration along
the vertically downward direction.
By neglecting the effects of gravity on the charged particle, only the Coulombic force or electrostatic
force acts on the charged particle, which is given by F = qE, and the direction of this force is along
the direction of the electric field, as the particle has positive charge.
F qE
a
Therefore, the vertical acceleration of the particle is, = =
m m
This vertical acceleration plays the role of the gravitational acceleration for projectile motion.
qE
qEqE g' = qEqE
Therefore, we can denote this acceleration as, g ' = g' = m g ' g=' = m
mm m
2u sin θ
θ θT =
u sin
2u 2sin θθ
u sin
2u2sin
Thus, the time of flight of the changed particle is,T =T = g' TT ==
g' g' g' g'
u sin θ
2 2
θ
θ = level is, H u=2 usinsin
2 2
The maximum height that the particle can reachHfrom u2 usin
the
2 2 2
sinθHmax
horizontal
2
θ
Hmax= = 2 g ' Hmaxmax=
2 g2' g '
max
2 g2' g '
u sin 2θ
2
2 u sin 2θ
2
The range of the projectile motion of the charged particleu2 usin
2
2θis,2θR =
sin R u= sin 2θ
R =R = g' R=
g' g' g' g'
If the gravity is not neglected, then the gravitational acceleration wouldqE act along the same qE direction
qEqE g=' g + g =
' g qE
+
g=' g=' g acceleration
of the electric field, and therefore, the net downward +g + be, g=' g + m
will m
mm m

Electric Dipole

+q
The electric dipole is a system consisting of two point charges, equal in
magnitude but opposite in nature, and separated by an infinitesimally 2a
small distance.
–q

Axis of the dipole +q

The axis of the dipole is the line joining the negative and 2a
positive charges. The highlighted dotted line in the figure
is the axis of the dipole.

–q
04

Equatorial line
+q

a
The equatorial line is the line that is the perpendicular bisector of
the axis of the dipole. The highlighted dotted line in the figure is the
equatorial line of the dipole.
a

–q

Equatorial plane
+q

a
The plane that is perpendicular to the dipole axis and passes through
the equatorial line of the dipole is known as the equatorial plane.
The highlighted grey-shaded plane in the figure is the equatorial
plane of the dipole. a

–q

p

Dipole moment ( p )

The dipole moment of the electric dipole is a vector quantity.

+q
1. Magnitude: The magnitude of the dipole moment is the product of the
magnitude of either of the charges and the separation distance
between them. If the magnitude of the charges is q and the separation 
distance between them is 2a, then the magnitude of the dipole p 2a
moment is defined as p = 2aq 
p
2. Direction: It is along the axis of the dipole (directed from the negative
charge to positive charge). –q
3. SI unit: The SI unit of the electric dipole moment is Cm

An HCl molecule has a dipole moment of 3.4 × 10–30 Cm. Assuming that equal and opposite
charges lie on the two atoms forming the dipole, what will be the magnitude of the charge?
[The separation distance between the two atoms of HCl is 1 × 10–10 m]

(A) 3.4 × 10–20 C (B) 2.4 × 10–20 C (C) 2 × 10–20 C (D) 1 × 10–20 C

Solution

The dipole moment is given by the formula, p = q(2a), where 2a is the separation between the
positive and the negative charges and q is the magnitude of the charges.
05

Given,
The distance between the charge, 2a = 1 × 10–10 m
The dipole moment, p = 3.4 × 10–30 Cm
Therefore,
p
q=
2a
3.4 × 10− 30 Cm
⇒q=
1 × 10− 10 m
⇒ q = 3.4 × 10− 20 C

Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

Notes

Electric dipole need not necessarily be only two point charges that are equal in magnitude and
opposite in nature. Fundamentally, an electric dipole is an electrically neutral system and the
smallest possible case of an electrically neutral system is that of one positive and one negative
charge. It can also be a system of charges but it should be neutral.
Consider an electrically neutral system consisting of equal numbers of positive and negative
charges. If the centre of the positive charges, which is known as the centre of positivity ( just like
the COM of many discrete particles), and the centre of negative charges, which is known as the
centre of negativity, do not coincide with each other, i.e., they are separated by a small distance,
they will form an electric dipole. This is the reason an HCl molecule has an electric dipole moment.
However, an H2 molecule does not have an electric dipole moment because for the H2 molecule,
due to symmetry (linear molecule with the same atom at both the sides of the bond), the centre of
the positive charge and the centre of the negative charge coincide with each other.

–q

Find the electric dipole moment of the equilateral triangle

formed by three charges as shown in the figure.

–q 2q

Solution MAIN

Let the side length of the equilateral triangle be d.

Method 1 A –q
Suppose that the charge 2q is made up of two charges of magnitude
q as shown in the figure.
Therefore, it can be considered as two dipoles: one is made up with q
–q at A and q at C, and the other is made up with –q at B and q at C. B C
–q q
06

Hence, there will be two dipole moments with the same magnitude but different directions, and the
angle between them will be 60° as shown in the figure.
Here, p1 = p2 = qd
A –q
Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant dipole moment will be,
pres = p12 + p22 + 2p1 p2 cos 60°
1 q
( qd ) + ( qd ) + 2( qd )( qd ) × C p1
2 2
⇒ pres
= B
2
–q q 60°
⇒ pres
= 2q d + q d
2 2 2 2
p2
⇒ pres =3qd

The direction of the resultant dipole moment will be along the angle bisector of the angle subtended
 
by p1 and p2

Method 2
In this method, let us consider that the two negative charges are concentrated at the centre of the
line joining them (similar to the concept of COM) and the charge 2q remains at C. Thus, it forms an
electric dipole consisting of charges 2q and –2q.
The length CD is equal to d sin 60°.
A
Therefore,
The dipole moment is given by, –2q D
p (2q )[d sin 60°] q
60°
3 B C
⇒ p = 2q × d q
2
⇒ p =3qd

The direction of the dipole moment will be along CD.

From the study of electric dipole, we know that an electrically neutral system has the
possibility to become an electric dipole, but for a non-zero electric dipole moment, the
centre of the positive charges (centre of positivity) and the centre of negative charges
(centre of negativity) of the system must be separated by a small distance.
07

MAIN BOARDS
Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole

Case 1: At a point on the axis of the dipole

Consider that an electric dipole is placed in such a y

way that its midpoint is at the origin of 2D cartesian –q +q 
x M E−
coordinate system as shown in the figure. The  
length of the dipole is 2a and the magnitude of the a a E− E+
charges is q. Therefore, the magnitude of the dipole 
x E+
moment is, p = 2qa
The direction of the dipole moment vector is along the positive x-axis (from negative charge to
positive charge).
Suppose that we want to find the electric field at point M, which is x distance away from the origin.
The electric field at point M due to the + q charge is,
 1 q
E+ = iˆ
4πε 0 ( x − a )2
The electric field at point M due to the − q charge is,
 q
E−
1
4πε 0 ( x + a )2
− iˆ ( )
Therefore, the net electric field at point M is,
  
E net
= E+ + E−
 q q
⇒ E net
=
1
4πε 0 ( x − a )2
iˆ +
1
4πε 0 ( x + a )2
− iˆ ( )
 q  1 1 
⇒ E net =  −  iˆ
4πε 0  ( x − a )2
( x + a ) 
2

q  ( x + a) − ( x − a)  ˆ
2 2

⇒ E net =  i
4πε 0  ( x − a )2 ( x + a )2 
 
 q  4 xa 
 iˆ
⇒ E net =
4πε 0  ( x − a )( x + a )  2 
  
 
 1  2( 2qa ) x  ˆ
⇒ E net = i
(
4πε 0  x 2 − a2 2 
 )
  
1  2px  ˆ
⇒ E net = i
(
4πε 0  x 2 − a2 2 
  )
 
1 2px
⇒ E net = ................... ( i )
(
4πε 0 x − a2 2
2
)
Equation (i) gives the general relation for the electric field along the axis of an electric dipole.
Now, if x >> a (field at a far point), then the given equation takes the form of the following equation:
08

 
1 2px
E net =
4πε 0 x 2 − a2( )
2

 
1 2px
⇒ E net =
4πε 0 
2
a 
2

x 1 −   
4
  x  

 a 
2

Since x >> a ,  1 −  x   ≈ 1,
   

 
1 2p
⇒ E net =
4πε 0 x3

1. Along the axis of an electric dipole, the direction of the net electric field is always parallel
to the direction of the electric dipole moment.
1 
1  and p
2. For a given medium and a given dipole, and p are constants. 4πεTherefore, the
4πε 0 0
 1
 away
electric field due to a dipole at a long distance 1 along its axis is E ∝ 3 .
E∝ 3 x
3. The mathematical definition of the electrical dipole x is, 'If an electrically neutral system
produces an electric field in its surroundings and the electric field obeys the inverse cubic
law with the distance, then the system will be known as an electric dipole'.

Two charges, each of 5 μC but opposite in sign, are placed 4 cm apart. What is the electric
field intensity at a point distance of 4 cm from the midpoint on the axial line of the dipole?

–8 –1 –8 –1 –8 –1 –8 –1
(A) 1 × 10 NC (B) 2 × 10 NC (C) 3 × 10 NC (D) 4 × 10 NC

Solution

Given,
–6
The magnitude of the charges, q = 5 μC = 5 × 10 C
–2
The separation between the charges, 2a = 4 cm = 4 × 10 m
–2
The electric field to be found at a distance, x = 4 cm = 4 × 10 m
This is the case of finding the electric field due to a dipole at a nearby point. Therefore, the electric
field due to the dipole moment is,
1 2px
E=
(
4πε 0 x 2 − a2 2 )
1 2( 2qa ) x
⇒E =
4πε 0 x 2 − a2 2 ( )
⇒E =
( )
9 × 109 × 2 × 5 × 10− 6 × 4 × 10− 2 × 4 × 10− 2 ( )
2
 4 × 10− 2 2 − 2 × 10− 2 2 
 (
 ) ( )
 1 2px
E=
(
09 4πε 0 x 2 − a2
)
2

1 2( 2qa ) x
⇒E =
4πε 0 x 2 − a2 2( )
⇒E =
( ) (
9 × 109 × 2 × 5 × 10− 6 × 4 × 10− 2 × 4 × 10− 2 )
2

( ) (
 4 × 10− 2 2 − 2 × 10− 2 2 
  )
⇒E =
(18 × 10 ) × ( 80 × 10 )9 − 10

(12 × 10 )
2
−4

144
⇒E =
144 × 10− 8
⇒E =
108 NC − 1
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

Two point charges, 0.2 × 10–12 C and –0.2 × 10–12 C, are separated by 10–8 m. Find the electric
field intensity at an axial point at a distance of 0.1 m from their midpoint.

–8 –1 –8 –1 –8 –1 –8 –1
(A) 1.2 × 10 NC (B) 2.4 × 10 NC (C) 3.6 × 10 NC (D) 4.8 × 10 NC

Solution

Given,
–12
The magnitude of the charges, q = 0.2 × 10 C
–8
The separation between the charges, 2a = 10 m
The electric field to be found at a distance, x = 0.1 m
This is the case of finding the electric field due to a dipole at a far point (since a << x).
Therefore, the electric field due to the dipole moment is,
1 2p
E net =
4πε 0 x 3

⇒E =
( 9 × 10 ) × 2 × (0.2 × 10
9 − 12
× 10− 8 ) 0.1 m
(0.1)
3

⇒E =
( 9 × 10 ) × ( 4 × 10 × 10 )
9 − 13 −8
O Q
(10 )
3 –8
−1
10 m

⇒E =
( 9 × 10 ) × ( 4 × 10 )
9 − 21

10− 3
⇒ E = 3.6 × 10− 8 NC − 1
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
10


E−
Case 2: At a point on the equatorial line

E+
θ
Consider that an electric dipole is placed in such E+ sin θ + E– sin θ M 
a way that its midpoint is at the origin as shown E−
in the figure. The length of the dipole is 2a and  θ θ 
E− E+
the magnitude of the charges is q. Therefore,  x
the magnitude of the dipole moment is, E+
p = 2qa y
–q +q
The direction of the dipole moment vector is x
along the positive x-axis (from negative charge
to positive charge). a a

Suppose that we want to find the electric field at point M on the equatorial line, which is x distance
away from the origin.
The magnitude of the electric field at point M due to the + q charge is,
 1 q
E+ =
(
4πε 0 x 2 + a2 2
)
The magnitude of the electric field at point M due to the − q charge is,
 1 q
E− =
(
4πε 0 x 2 + a2 2
)
  1 q
Hence, E= E
= = E
( )
+ −
4πε 0 x +a2 2
2

By component division of the elecctric field vector at point M , we get the net electric field as,

E net = − 2E sin θ iˆ
 1 q
⇒ E net =− 2 × sin θ iˆ
(
4πε 0 x 2 + a2 2
)
 1 q a
⇒ E net =− 2 × × iˆ
4πε 0
( )
2
x +a2 2 x +a2 2

 1 2qa
⇒ E net =
− iˆ
2
(
4πε 0 x + a 2
x +a
2 2
)
 
1 p
⇒ E net =
− .............. ( i )
4πε 0 2 3
x +a( 2 2
)
Equation (i) gives the general relation for the electric field along the equatorial axis of an electric
dipole at a near point.
11

Note:
The negative sign in equation (i) indicates that the electric field vector is in the opposite direction
to the dipole moment vector.
Now, if x >> a (field at far point), then the given equation takes the form of the following equation:
 
1 p
E net = −
4πε 0 2 3

(
x + a2 2 )
 
1 2p
⇒ E net = −
4πε 0 3
 a 
2 2
x3  1 + 2 
 x 
 a2 
Since x >> a ,  1 + 2  ≈ 1,
 x 
 
1 p
⇒ E net =
−
4πε 0 x 3

Consider two charges of magnitude 10 μC separated by 5 mm. Find the electric field at a
point 0.2 m away from the midpoint on a line that is passing through the midpoint and the
normal to the axis of the dipole.

4 –1 4 –1 4 –1 4 –1
(A) 5.6 × 10 NC (B) 6.7 × 10 NC (C) 7.8 × 10 NC (D) 8.9 × 10 NC

Solution

Given,
1 p
The magnitude of the charges, q = 10 μC = 10 × 10–6EC= 4πε x 3 [By taking the magnitude only ]
0
The separation between two charges, 2a = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m
⇒ Efrom
( ) (
9 × 109 × 10 × 10− 6 × 5 × 10− 3
= the midpoint on3 a line that is passing
)
We want to find the electric field at a point 0.2 m away
through the midpoint and the normal to the axis of the dipole. Therefore, (0.2
x =) 0.2 m
9 × 10
Since a (2.5 × 10–3 m) << x (0.2 m), we have to apply the formula
⇒E =
9
× 5field
for the (
× 10at−8
) ( )
a far point to get the
electric field at x.
( )
3
−
2 × 10 1

1 p 450
E=
4πε 0 x 3
[By taking the magnitude only ] ⇒E =
8 × 10− 3

⇒E =
( 9 × 10 ) × (10 × 10
9 −6
× 5 × 10− 3 ) E 5.625 × 104 NC − 1
⇒=

(0.2)
3

⇒E =
( 9 × 10 ) × (5 × 10 )
9 −8

(2 × 10 )
3
−1

Thus, 450 (A) is the correct answer.

option
⇒E =
8 × 10− 3
E 5.625 × 104 NC − 1
⇒=
 12


E1

E2
Case 3: At a general point a << x  
E net E1
 
E1 𝛼 E2
 at point M that
Suppose that we want to find the electric field  
p
makes an angle of θ with dipole moment and is x distance E2 E net
   M
away from the centre of the dipole with dipolep moment p. Let us E net

divide the dipole moment vector in two components asp shown
p cos θ the axial point of
 the figure. As a result, point M becomes
in  x
p cos θ and the equatorial point of p sin θ . 
 p cos θ
p θ know, a << x (field at a far point)
sinalso  
We pθsin θ p
 
The magnitude of the electric field at point M due to p cos θ is, p θ
p cos

1 2p cos θ p sin θ
E1 =
4πε 0 x3
The magnitude of the electric field at point M due to p sin θ is,
1 p sin θ
E2 =
4πε 0 x 3
Therefore, the magnitude of the net electric field is,
E=
net E12 + E22
2 2
 1 2p cos θ   1 p sin θ 
⇒ E net =  + 
 4πε 0 x  4πε 0 x
3 3
 
1 p
(2cos θ ) + ( sin θ )
2 2
=⇒ E net 
4πε 0 x 3
E1

1 p E2
⇒ E net
= 4 cos2 θ + sin2 θ
4πε 0 x 3  
E net E1
1 p  
⇒ E net
=
4πε 0 x 3 (
4 cos2 θ + 1 − cos2 θ ) E1 𝛼 E2
 
1 E2 E net

⇒ E net =
(
1 p 1 + 3cos θ
2
) 2 
E net
M
4πε 0 x3 𝛼
The direction of the net electric field is given by,
x
E
tan α = 2
E1 
p cos θ
 sin θ   θ+𝛼
⇒ tan α =  2 cos θ  pθsin θ 
   p cos θ
p 
 tan θ   p sin θ
⇒ tan α =  2  p
 
 tan θ 
⇒α = tan − 1  
 2 

This angle is shown in the figure. Therefore, the angle between the dipole moment vector and
the net electric field is (θ + α).
13

Dipole Interaction with a Uniform Electric Field

Net force acting on a dipole

Consider an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field as shown in the figure.

  E B
The force on the positive charge, F+ q = + qE 
  +q F +q
The force on the negative charge, F− q = − qE 
F −q
Therefore, the net force on the dipole is,
  
F=
net F+ q + F− q O
   
( ) (
⇒ Fnet = + qE + − qE ) F +q
  
⇒ Fnet = 0 F −q –q
A
Thus, we can say that the dipole in a uniform electric field is in translatory equilibrium.

Net torque acting on a dipole

Although the net force acting on the dipole is zero, the lines of action of the two equal and opposite
forces on the dipole are different. Thus, it will rotate about its COM. Therefore, there will be a net
torque acting on the dipole.
The torque on positive charge about point O,

   E B
(
τ + q= OB × +qE ) +q

F +q
The torque on negative charge about point O, 
     F −q
( ) ( )
τ −q= OA × −qE = AO × +qE [Notice the change]
Therefore, the net torque on the dipole is, O
   
τ net
= τ +q + τ −q
    F +q

⇒ τ net
 ( )
= OB × +qE  +  AO × +qE 
   ( ) 
F −q –q
   
⇒ τ net= q  AO + OB  × E A
  
⇒ τ net= q  AB  × E
   

⇒ τ net = p × E Since AB is the separation distance between the two charges, p =

q AB 
 ( )
• Magnitude: The magnitude of the net torque acting on the dipole, τnet = pE sin θ
• Direction: The direction of the net torque is perpendicular to the plane containing the dipole
axis and the electric field. We can use the right-hand grip rule to find the direction of the net
torque.
14

Cases of equilibrium

1. Stable equilibrium: When θ = 0°, the net torque

τnet = pE sin θ on the dipole becomes zero (τnet
= 0). The net force on the dipole is already zero.
Therefore, at θ = 0°, the dipole will be at equilibrium. 
 p
If we slightly deviate the dipole moment vector 
E p
from angle θ = 0° with E, then torque will act on
it and it will make sure that the dipole moment
vector gets aligned along the direction of E and it
comes back to its initial state. Thus, at θ = 0°, the
dipole will be at stable equilibrium.

2. Unstable equilibrium: When θ = 180°, the net

torque τnet = pE sin θ on the dipole becomes
zero (τnet = 0). The net force on the dipole is
already zero. Therefore, at θ = 180°, the dipole
will be at equilibrium. If we slightly deviate the 
E
dipole moment vector from angle θ = 180°, then
torque will act on it and it will flip the dipole
moment vector to get aligned along the direction
of E. It will not return to its initial state. Thus, at
θ = 180°, the dipole will be at unstable equilibrium.

3
An electric dipole, when held at 30° with respect to a uniform electric field of 10 NC ,
–1

experiences a torque of 9 × 10–26 Nm. Calculate the dipole moment of the electric dipole.

Solution

Given,
3 –1
The magnitude of the electric field, E = 10 NC
–26
The net torque acting on the dipole, τ = 9 × 10 Nm
The angle between the dipole and the electric field, θ = 30°
We know that the net torque on the dipole is,
τ = pE sin θ
τ 
⇒p= E 
E sin θ p

9 × 10− 26 p
⇒p=3
10 × sin 30° 30°
− 26
9 × 10
⇒p=
1
103 ×  
2
⇒ p = 18 × 10− 29 NC − 1
15

Continuous Charged Body


dE
Till now, we have dealt with discrete charges (point
charges). Now, we will deal with the continuous charged P
body, which consists of a swarm of point charges with
no separation between them, like how a swarm of water
droplets form the sea. dq
Consider a continuous charged body as shown in the
figure.
The electric field at point P due to the small, charged element dq of the continuously charged body
is,
   
dE = dE x + dE y + dE z
Therefore, to find the net electric field at point P due to the continuously charged body, we
will apply the following method:
   
∫  ∫  ∫  ∫ z
dE = dE x + dE y + dE
⇒ E net = E x + E y + E z

BOARDS
Electric Field Due to a Uniformly Charged Thin Ring

dq
Consider a uniformly charged thin ring of radius
R. Let us take two tiny elements of charge dq as x 2 + R2
R
shown in the figure. We want to find the electric dEy
field at point P, which is at distance x on the axis of x θ dE
P
the ring from its centre. Let the electric fields due dEx
to these charged elements be denoted by dE. dq dE
dEy

we resolve the electric vector dE , due to the symmetry of the ring, the vertical component
Now, if
of the dE gets cancelled and the net electric field is along the axis of the ring. The component of
the electric field along the axis of the ring is,
dE x = dE cos θ

1 
dq x 
⇒ dE x =  
4πε 0
( )
2
x +R 
2 2  x 2
+ R 2


1 xdq
⇒ dE x =
4πε 0 3

(x 2
+ R2 ) 2

1 x
⇒ ∫ dE x = ∫ dq
4πε 0 3

(x 2
+R 2 2
)
If the net charge of the ring is q, then,
1 qx
Ex = E net
4πε 0 2 3

( x +R 2 2
)
16

Therefore, the net electric field on the axis of a thin, uniformly charged ring is,
 1 qx
E net = iˆ [By assuming the x-axis along the axis of the ring]
4πε 0 2 3

(
x + R2 2 )

Position of the maximum electric field due to a ring on its axis

We know that the electric field due to a uniformly charged ring is,
 1 qx
E net = iˆ
4πε 0 2 3
x +R (
2 2
)
To find the position of the maxima, let us take the magnitude of the electric field and differentiate
it with respect to x. By doing this, we get the following:
 
dE net d  1 qx 
=  3 
dx dx 4πε 0 2

 (
x + R 2 2  )
For the maxiumum,
dE net
=0
dx
 
d  1 qx 
⇒  3 
= 0
dx 4πε 0 2

 (
x + R 
2 2
)
 
1  q 3qx 2 
⇒ − =
0
4πε 0  2 3 5 

( x +R

2 2
) (
x + R 
2 2 2
)
q 3qx 2
⇒ 3
= 5

(x +R
2
)
2 2
(
x +R
2 2 2
)
(
⇒ 3x 2 = x 2 + R 2 )
R
⇒x=±
2
The value of the electric field at different points on the axis of the ring is tabulated as follows:

At the centre x
of the ring Enet = 0
R
17

E
–x
1 qx
|x| << R E net = x
4πε 0 R3 +x
R

R E
x=
2
–x
R 1 2q
x= E net = x
2 4πε 0 3 3R 2 +x
R
1 2q
E net =
4πε 0 3 3R 2
E

1 q –x
|x| >> R E net = x
4πε 0 x 2 +x
R

Simple harmonic motion: A case study

1 qx
For |x| << R, we know that the electric field due to the uniformly charged ring is, E net = .
4πε 0 R3
Therefore, if we place a charged particle of charge q0 at x (<< R), it will feel an electrostatic force,
1 qq0 x
F = − .
4πε 0 R3
It can be easily seen that the force is restoring in nature, and we can also see that the force is
proportional to the displacement x. Hence, the particle will execute SHM.
 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A CONTINUOUS
CHARGE DISTRIBUTION

What you already know `` What you will learn

• Coulomb's law • Electric field strength due to a

• Electric field and field lines uniformly charged rod

• Electric field strength due to a point charge
• Superposition of Coulomb’s force and electric
field strength
• Motion of charges in electric fields
• Electric dipole
• Electric field due to a continuous charged body
• Electric field due to a quarter ring
and a semicircle at its centre
• Electric field due to a disc along its
axis
• Electric field due to a uniform infinite
charged sheet

BOARDS
Electric Field Strength Due to a Uniformly Charged Rod

Case 1: At a point along its length

Consider a rod of length l with charge (positive) per unit length (or linear charge density) λ. Consider
a small element of length dx. The charge of the element of small length is, dq = λ dx.
The electric field at point P due to the element of small length of charge dq is given by,
k dq  1 
dE = 2  Where k = in vacuum 
x  4πε 0 
r+l
1 λ
⇒ E =∫ dx
r
4πε 0 x 2 l
r+l
λ dx dx
⇒E =
4πε 0 ∫
r
x2
r P
dE =
k dq
r+l
x2
λ  1
E
⇒= − x
4πε 0  x  r dq = λ dx
λ  1 1
⇒E =−  − 
4πε 0  ( r + l ) r 

λ  r − (r + l ) 
⇒E =−  
4πε 0  r ( r + l ) 
λl
⇒E =
4πε 0 r ( r + l ) 
The direction of the electric field depends on the polarity of charge.
02

Case 2: At a point on a line perpendicular to the rod (Asymmetrical point)

Let the electric field be required at

point P, which is r distance away A
from the rod as shown in the figure. dEy = dE sin θ dE
Consider an element of infinitesimally λ
small length, dy, at a distance y from r
the foot of the perpendicular drawn θ P dEx = dE cos θ
from point P.
y
Assume that the linear charge density
of the rod is λ. Thus, the charge of the y2 + r 2
element of small length is, dq = λ dy.
dy dq = λ dy
Here, the elemental electric field dE
at point P due to each element dq will
be in a different direction. Therefore,
to get the net electric field, we will B
resolve them along the x and y axes,
and integrate with proper limits.
The electric field at point P due to the element of small length of charge dq is given by,
1 λ dy
dE =
4πε 0
( )
2
y2 + r 2
This can be divided into two components as shown in the figure.
Horizontally, the component of the electric field is, dE x = dE cos θ and the component of
the electric field along the vertical direction is, dE y = dE sin θ .
1 λ dy
⇒ dE x = cos θ
4πε 0
( )
2
y +r
2 2

Now, from the figure, it is seen that,

y = r tan θ
⇒ dy = r sec2 θ dθ
Therefore,
1 λr sec2 θ dθ
dE x = cos θ
4πε 0  2 
2

 ( r tan θ ) + r 
2

 
1 λr sec θ cos θ dθ
2
⇒ dE x =
(
4πε 0 r 2 tan2 θ + r 2 )
1 λr sec2 θ cos θ dθ
⇒ dE x =
4πε 0 r 2 1 + tan2 θ( )
1 λ cos θ
⇒ dE x = dθ ......... ( i )  1 + tan2 θ =
sec2 θ 
4πε 0 r
 03

Therefore, the net electric field along the horizontal direction is,
θ1
1 λ cos θ
∫ dE x =
− 2
4πε 0
∫θ r
dθ

The limit of the integration is from − θ2 to θ1 ,

because they are on the opposite sides of
the horizontal line. The anticlockwise direction A
is taken as negative and the clockwise direction
is taken as positive.
Therefore, λ
r θ1 P
θ1 dEx
1 λ θ2
4πε 0 r −∫θ2
Ex = cos θ dθ
y
1 λ
[ sin θ ]−1θ
θ
⇒ Ex =
4πε 0 r 2

1 λ dy +
⇒ Ex
=
4πε 0 r
[sin θ1 + sin θ2 ]
kλ
⇒ Ex
= [sin θ1 + sin θ2 ] ........... ( ii ) B
r
Due to the concerned charge element, the electric field along the vertical direction is,
dE y = dE sin θ
1 λr sec2 θ sin θ dθ
⇒ dE y =
(
4πε 0 r 2 tan2 θ + r 2 )
1 λr sec2 θ sin θ dθ
⇒ dE y =
4πε 0 r 2 1 + tan2 θ ( )
1 λ sin θ
⇒ dE y = dθ
4πε 0 r
Therefore, the net electric field at point P along the vertical direction due to the rod is,
θ1
1 λ sin θ
∫ dE y = ∫θ
−
4πε 0 r
dθ
2

θ
1 λ 1
4πε 0 r −∫θ2
⇒ Ey = sin θ dθ

1 λ
[ − cos θ ]−1θ
θ
Ey
⇒=
4πε 0 r 2

1 λ
⇒ Ey
=
4πε 0 r
[cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
kλ
⇒ Ey
=
r
[cos θ2 − cos θ1 ] ........... ( iii )
 04

Special cases

1. When θ1 = θ2 = θ
A
From equation (ii), we get,
kλ θ1 = θ2 = θ
=Ex
r
[ sin θ1 + sin θ2 ]
λ
From equation (iii), we get,
kλ
=Ey
r
[cos θ2 − cos θ1 ] r θ P
Enet
Now, while substituting the values of θ1 θ
2λ sin θ 2k λ sin θ
and θ2, it is important to remember that we =Ex =
4πε 0r r
have to put only the magnitude of the angle
and not the sign, as the sign of the angle is
already taken into account.
Therefore, B
2λ sin θ 2k λ sin θ
=Ex = and Ey = 0
4πε 0r r
2λ sin θ 2k λ sin θ
Hence, the net electric field will be, E=
net
= Ex = and the direction will be
4πε 0r r
along the horizontal direction as shown in the figure.
Note:
For a body of uniform shape and size having a uniformly distributed charge, the electric field
will be along the unique line of symmetry. In this case, the perpendicular bisector will act as the
unique line of symmetry.

2. At a point on a line perpendicular to the end of a semi-infinite wire

A semi-infinite wire is basically a wire whose one end is at infinity.
In the figure, one end of the rod is on the line drawn from point P, ∞
and the other end is at infinity. We want to find the electric field at
point P. In this case, the angles subtended by the upper and lower
ends of the rod, respectively, are:
λ
θ1 = 90°
θ2 = 0°
Point P is an asymmetrical point to the given system, and we also
know the relation for the electric field for an asymmetrical point.
Therefore, by substituting these values of θ1 and θ2 in equations (ii)
and (iii), we get,
1 λ
=Ex
4πε 0 r
[sin θ2 + sin θ1 ]
r P
1 λ
⇒ Ex
=
4πε 0 r
[sin 0° + sin 90°]
1 λ kλ  1 
Ex
⇒= = k
Since= in vacuum
4πε 0 r r  4πε 0 
And,
1 λ
=Ey
4πε 0 r
[cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
 4πε 0 r
1 λ
05 ⇒ E x
=
4πε 0 r
[sin 0° + sin 90°]
1 λ kλ  1 
Ex
⇒= = k
Since= in vacuum
4πε 0 r r  4πε 0 
And,
1 λ
=Ey [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
4πε 0 r
1 λ
⇒ Ey
=
4πε 0 r
[cos 0° − cos 90°] λ
1 λ kλ
Ey
⇒= =
4πε 0 r r
The horizontal component of the electric field Ex will be
pointing away from the rod and the vertical component of
the electric field Ey will be pointing downwards because
the entire length of the rod is above the horizontal line.
Therefore, the net electric field is, r P
Ex
E=
net E +E
2
x
2
y

2 2 Enet
 1 λ  1 λ
⇒
= E net   +  Ey
 4πε 0 r   4πε 0 r 
2λ 2k λ
⇒ E net= ≡
4πε 0r r

3. At a point due to an infinite wire ∞

We want to find the electric field at point P. For an infinite long rod,
any non-axial point will behave as a point on the perpendicular
bisector. λ
Thus, the angles subtended by the upper and lower ends of the
rod, respectively, are:
r P
θ1 = 90°
θ2 = 90°
Therefore, by substituting these values of θ1 and θ2 in equations (ii)
and (iii), we get,
1 λ
=Ex
4πε 0 r
[sin θ2 + sin θ1 ]
∞
1 λ
=⇒ Ex
4πε 0 r
[sin 90° + sin 90°]
1 2λ 2k λ λ
⇒
= Ex ≡
4πε 0 r r
And, r P
1 λ Enet = Ex
=Ey
4πε 0 r
[cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
1 λ
=⇒ Ey [cos 90° − cos 90°]
4πε 0 r
⇒ Ey =
0
06

The horizontal component of the electric field Ex will be pointing away from the rod. We know
that for any symmetrical point, the field will always be along the symmetric line. Thus, the vertical
component of the electric field Ey will be zero.
Therefore, the net electric field will be,
1 2λ 2k λ
E net
= E= x =
4πε 0 r r

∞
y

x
λ

Find the force exerted by a positively charged infinite rod on r P

charge q. q

Solution

Assuming the linear charge density of the rod to be +λ, the electric field at a distance r from the
 1 2λ ˆ
rod is, E = i.
4πε 0 r
Therefore, for a positive charge +q at a distance r from the rod, the net electric force on this charge
  2qλ ˆ
by the rod is, =F qE= i.
4πε 0r

Electric Field Due to Uniformly Charged Circular Arc at Its Centre

Consider a uniformly charged circular arc of radius r. A

The charge density of the arc is +λ. The total angle
subtended by the arc at the centre is ϕ. Now, consider +
an elemental arc of length dx at an angular position θ λ
dθ
from the symmetric axis as shown in the figure.
Since the angle subtended by the elemental arc of r θ P
length dx at the centre is dθ, ϕ θ
dx = r dθ dE

dx = r dθ
+ r
dx P B
dθ
 07

Now, consider another elemental arc that is a symmetric A

mirror element to the previous one as shown in the
figure. +
The electric field due to the elemental arc is, λ
dθ
1 λ dx 1 λ dθ dE
=dE = θ P
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r r θ
θ ϕ θ
Now, if we divide the electric field vector, then the dE
vertical components of the electric field get cancelled dθ
due to the symmetry of the rod and the horizontal
components of the electric field get added. +
Therefore, the net electric field is, B
E net = ∫ dE x

∫ dE cos θ
⇒ E net =
1 λ dθ
∫ 4πε 0 r cos θ
⇒ E net = A

φ
+
1 λ 2 λ y
⇒ E net =
4πε 0 r ∫φ cos θ dθ
−
2
r P
φ
1 λ + x
⇒ E net = [sin θ ] φ2
4πε 0 r −
2λ  φ
2
E net =  sin 
1 λ φ 4πε 0r  2
⇒ E net =  2 sin 
4πε 0 r  2
1 2λ φ
⇒ E net = sin ............. ( iv ) B
4πε 0 r 2
Equation (iv) is the general relation for the electric field at the centre of any shape of arc. ϕ is the
total angle subtended by the arc at its centre.
The net electric field will be radially outwards for a positively charged arc and radially inwards
for a negatively charged arc.

Electric field due to a quarter ring at its centre

1 2λ φ
E net = sin
Consider a quarter ring of linear charge4πε 0 r
density +λ.2Since the quarter A
ring is an arc, the total angle subtended by 1 it at2the
λ centre is, ϕ = 90°.
 90° 
⇒ E net = sin  
Therefore, the net electric field at the centre
4πε 0ofrthe quarter
 2  ring is, λ
1 2λ φ 1 2λ
E net = sin =⇒ E net sin 45° r
4πε 0 r 2 4πε 0 r
1 2λ  90°  2λ 2k λ P
⇒ E net = sin   ⇒ E net= ≡
4πε 0 r  2  4πε 0r r B
The 1 2ofλ the electric field will be radially outward as shown
direction
⇒ E net
= sin 45° Enet
4πε 0 r a positive charge).
in the figure(for
2λ 2k λ
⇒ E net= ≡
4πε 0r r
08

Electric field due to a semi-circular ring at its centre

Consider a semi-circular ring of linear charge density +λ. The total

angle subtended by the semi-circular ring at the centre is, ϕ = 180°.
Therefore, the net electric field at the centre of the semi-circular
ring is, r
1 2λ φ
E net = sin
4πε 0 r 2
P
1 2λ  180° 
⇒ E net = sin  
4πε 0 r  2  Enet
1 2λ
⇒ E net
= sin 90°
4πε 0 r
2λ 2k λ
⇒ E net= =
4πε 0r r
The direction of the electric field will be radially outward as shown A
in the figure.
λ
Alternative method: From the analysis of the electric field due
to a quarter ring, we get the net electric field at the centre as, r
2λ
E = . If we divide this electric field vector in two components,
4πε 0r P Ex
then along the horizontal direction, the component of the electric
B
λ
field is, E x = , and along the vertically downward direction, Ey
4πε 0r Enet
λ
the component of the electric field is, E y = .
4πε 0r
Now, the semi-circular ring can be assumed
to be consisting of two quarter rings side by
side as shown in the figure. r r
It is easily seen that if we club the two quarter
rings, then it will form a semi-circular ring
2λ P Ex Ex P
with net electric field as, E= net Ey
2= .
4πε 0r
Ey Ey

Electric field at a distance r

2λ 2λ
For a semi-infinite wire, E = For a quarter ring (at the centre), E =
4πε 0r 4πε 0r

2λ 2λ
For an infinite wire, E = For a semi-circular ring (at the centre), E =
4πε 0r 4πε 0r
 09

λ
A
Find the electric field at point P.
λ

r P r
B

Solution

As per the question, point P is the centre of the quarter ring and a point at distance r from a semi
2λ
infinite wire. Thus, the electric field at point P due to the semi-infinite wire is, E = . If we divide
4πε 0r
this electric field vector in two components, then along the horizontal direction, the component of
λ
the electric field is, E x = , and along the vertically downward direction, the component of
4πε 0r
λ λ λ
the electric field is, E y = . Ex = Ex =
4πε 0r 4πε 0r 4πε 0r
As the electric field at the centre of the quarter ring is equal to
the electric field by a semi infinite wire, the scenario described E = 2λ E =
2λ
above happens for the quarter circular wire as well. The whole 4πε 0r 2λ 4πε 0r
discussion is depicted in the figure. E =
4πε 0r
2λ 2λ
P
Therefore, the net electric field at pointE= E=
net is, 2 Ey .
Enety 2=
4πε 0r 4πε 0r
Mathematically, this can be derived as follows:
The electric field due to the semi-infinte wire is,
 ∞
1 λ ˆ ˆ
E wire
=
4πε 0 r
(
−i − j )
λ
The electric field due to the quarter ring is,
A
 1 λ ˆ ˆ
E ring
=
4πε 0 r
(
i− j ) λ
y
Therefore, the net electric field at point P is,
 1 λ ˆ ˆ
E net
=
4πε 0 r  ( ) ( )
− i − j + iˆ − ˆj 

r P r
x
B
 2λ
⇒ E net = − ĵ
4πε 0r
( )
10

A ∞

Find the electric field at point P. C λ

r P
r
D
B ∞

Solution

As per the question, point P is the centre of the semi-circular ring and a point at distance r from an
infinite wire. The electric field at a distance r from an infinite rod and that at the centre of the semi
2λ
circular ring is the same, and it is given by, E = .
4πε 0r
P
According to the configuration of the given figure, the electric field due to
the semi-circular ring and an infinite wire at point P is oppositely directed asE = 2λ E = 2λ
shown in the figure. 4πε 0r 4πε 0r
Therefore, the net electric field at point P is zero.

A ∞ ∞ D

Find the electric field at point P.

P
B C
r

Solution

The given structure can be splitted into three parts: two semi-infinite rods and one semi-circular
ring of radius r.
2λ
We know that the electric field at a distance r due to the semi-infinite rod is, E = . If we divide
4πε 0r
this electric field vector in two components, then along the horizontal direction, the component of
λ
the electric field is, E x = , and along the vertically downward direction, the component of the
4πε 0r
λ
electric field is, E y = .
4πε 0r 2λ
The electric field at the centre of the semi-circular ring is given by, E = .
4πε 0r
11

Therefore, the direction of the component of the electric field at point P is as follows:
A D

r P λ λ P r
Ex = Ex =
B 4πε 0r 4πε 0r C

λ λ
Ex = Ex =
4πε 0r 2λ 4πε 0r
E =
4πε 0r
B C
P
r

A careful observation of the figure tells us that the net upward electric field and the net downward
electric field balance each other. Therefore, the net electric field at point P is zero.

–3λ

The figure shows a square of side l, where the four sides

are charged with uniform linear charge densities, λ, −3λ, 2λ, λ 2λ
C
and 4λ, respectively. Find the electric field strength at the
centre of the square.

4λ
l

Solution

All the sides can be considered as the charged rods of finite length
with different linear charge density as shown in the figure. Αll of these –3λ
rods make the same angle at point C, and those angles are 45° on each 2
side of the median of the rod. For better understanding, the angles are
shown for the rod with linear charge density λ in adjacent figure.
45°
Therefore, λ 2λ
1 45° C 3
The electric field at point C due to the rod with linear
charge density λ is, 4
 1 λ 1 2λ
E1
4πε 0  l 
[ =
sin 45° + sin 45°]iˆ
4πε 0 l
(2 sin 45° ) iˆ 4λ
l
2
 
 1 2 2λ ˆ
⇒ E1 = i
4πε 0 l
 The electric field at point C due to the rod with linear
12charge density λ is,
 1 λ 1 2λ
E1
4πε 0  l 
[ =
sin 45° + sin 45°]iˆ
4πε 0 l
(2 sin 45° ) iˆ
2
 
 1 2 2λ ˆ –3λ
⇒ E1 = i 
4πε 0 l E4
The electric field at point C due to the rod with linear 
E2
charge density − 3λ is, C
λ   2λ
 1 (3λ ) 1 6λ E3 E1
E2 =
4πε 0  l 
[ 45° + sin 45°] ˆj
sin =
4πε 0 l
(2 sin 45° ) ˆj
2
 
 4λ
1 6 2λ ˆ
⇒ E2 = j l
4πε 0 l
The electric field at point C due to the rod with linear charge
density 2λ is,
 1 ( 2λ ) 1 4λ
E3
4πε 0  l 
[ sin 45°= ( )
+ sin 45°] −iˆ
4πε 0 l
(2 sin 45° ) −iˆ ( )
2
 
 1 4 2λ ˆ
⇒ E3
=
4πε 0 l
( )
−i

The electric field at point C due to the rod with linear charge density 4λ is,
 1 ( 4λ ) 1 8λ
E4
4πε 0  l 
[ 45° + sin 45°] ˆj
sin =
4πε 0 l
(2 sin 45° ) ˆj
2
 
 1 8 2λ ˆ
⇒ E4 = j
4πε 0 l
Therefore, the net electric field at point C is,
    
E net = E1 + E2 + E3 + E 4
 1  2 2λ 4 2λ  ˆ 1  6 2λ 8 2λ  ˆ
⇒ E net =  − i +  + j
4πε 0  l l  4πε 0  l l 
 1  2 2λ ˆ 14 2λ ˆ 
⇒ E net = − i+ j
4πε 0  l l 

A system consists of a uniformly charged ring of radius R R

with charge q. A semi-infinite uniformly charged thread with
linear charge density λ is oriented along the axis of the ring
λ
with one end at the centre of the ring as shown. Find the
interaction force between the ring and the thread.

q
13

dF = ( dq ) E
∞
1 qx
∫0 4πε 0
⇒F = 3 [λ dx ]
Solution MAIN (x 2
+R 2 2
)
∞
Consider an infinitesimal element of length dx in⇒the qλ at xa dx
thread
4πε 0 ∫0 2
F= 3
distance x from the centre of the ring as shown in the figure.
x +R 2 2
( )
Since the linear charge density of the thread is λ, the charge of the R
element is, dq = λ dx. Let, λ
x = R tan θ
Now, since the ring has a total charge q and the radius of the ring 
dx E
⇒ dx = R sec 2
θ
is R, the electric field due to the ring at a point on its axis, which is x dθ
x
distance away from its centre, is given by, Now,
1 qx When x = 0, tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0
E =
4πε 0 2 2 32
x +R ( ) π
When x = ∞ , tan θ = ∞ ⇒ θ = q
2 field created
Therefore, the force experienced by the small element of the thread due to the electric
by the ring is, Therefore,
π
dF = ( dq ) E qλ 2 ( R tan θ ) ( R sec2 θ dθ )
∞
qx
F=
4πε 0 ∫ 3

∫0 4πε 0
⇒F =
1
3 [λ dx ] 0
(R 2
tan θ + R
2
)
2 2

(x 2
+R 2 2
) π

qλ 2 R 2 tan θ sec2 θ dθ
qλ
∞
x dx ⇒F = ∫
⇒F = ∫ 4πε 0 0 3 3

4πε 0 0
( x 2 + R2 )
3
2
R tan2 θ + 1 2 ( )
π
Let, qλ tan θ sec2 θ dθ
2

4πε 0R ∫0
⇒F =
x = R tan θ sec3 θ
⇒ dx =R sec2 θ dθ π

qλ 2
4πε 0R ∫0
Now, ⇒F = sin θ dθ
When x = 0, tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0
qλ π

When x = ∞ , tan θ = ∞ ⇒ θ =
π F
⇒=
πε R
[ − cos θ ]02
2 4 0

Therefore, qλ  π 
⇒F =−  cos − cos 0
π 4πε 0R  2 
qλ 2 ( R tan θ ) R sec θ dθ
2
( ) qλ
4πε 0 ∫0
F= 3 ⇒F =
(
R 2 tan2 θ + R 2 2 ) 4πε 0R
π
Alternative
qλ 2method
R 2 tan θ sec2 θ dθ
⇒F = ∫
We know 4πεthat 3
the electric field at a distance r due to the uniformly charged semi-infinite rod (or
0 0
R3 tan2 θ + 1 2
2λ
( )
wire) is given πby, E = . We also know that this electric field can be splitted vectorially into two
qλ 2 tan θ sec 4πε2 r
θ0 dθ λ
⇒F =
perpendicular
4πε 0R 0∫ components
sec θ
3 Ex =
of magnitude
4πε 0r
, one component is along the axis of the rod and

the other component

π is perpendicular to the axis of the rod.
qλ 2
4πε 0R ∫0
⇒F = sin θ dθ

qλ π
F
⇒=
πε R
[ − cos θ ]02
4 0

qλ  π 
⇒F =−  cos − cos 0
4πε 0R  2 
14

Therefore, the ring is in this electric field. Since the ring has dFy
charge q and its centre coincides with the finite end of the
rod, every element in the ring is R distance away from the dFx
semi-infinite wire. λq
dFx = dFy =
Therefore, the electric field that is R distance away from the R 4πε 0R
semi-infinite wire in every direction is the same. Hence, each λ
element in the ring that experiences the force on it due to the
rod also has two components that are same as the electric
λq
field but with magnitude . Due to the symmetrical
4πε 0R
configuration of the ring, the perpendicular components of
the force get vanished. Therefore, the net interactive force dFx
λq q
between the rod is along the axis of the rod which
4πε 0R dFy
passes through the centre of the ring.

BOARDS MAIN
Electric Field Due to a Disc Along Its Axis

Consider a uniformly charged disc of radius

R with surface charge density (charge per
unit area) σ. We want to find the electric σ
field at a point P situated at a distance x on
its axis. A disc is the combination of infinite
coaxial thin rings. C
Now, consider a thin elementary ring of P
R x
radius y in this disc with thickness dy as
shown in the figure. Therefore, the charge
in the elementary ring is, dq = σ(2πy dy).
We know that the electric field on the axis
due to a ring having charge q and radius R is,
1 qx
E=
4πε 0 2 3

(
x + R2 2 ) dq
Therefore, the electric field at point P due
to the elementary ring is,
σ
dE =
1 ( dq ) x y
4πε 0 3

(x 2
+ y 2 2
) θ P
x
1 (σ 2π y dy ) x
⇒ dE =
4πε 0 3
x 2 + y2 2 ( )
1 (σ 2π y dy ) x
R

∫0 4πε 0 2 2 3
⇒E =
x + y 2 ( )
R
σ 2π x y dy
4πε 0 ∫0
⇒E = 3

(x 2
+ y )
2 2

Let,
 1 ( ) σ 2π x ( )( )
4πε 0 ∫0
⇒ dE = E=
4πε 0 3 3
15 (x 2
+ y )
2 2
(x 2
tan2 θ + x )
2 2

1 (σ 2π y dy ) x
R φ
σ 2π x x 2 tan θ sec2 θ dθ
∫0 4πε 0 2 2 3
⇒E = ⇒E =
4πε 0 ∫0 3 3
x + y 2 ( ) x tan2 θ + 1 2 ( )
R
σ 2π x y dy σ
φ
tan θ sec2 θ dθ
4πε 0 ∫0
⇒E = 3 ⇒E = ∫
2ε 0 0 sec3 θ
(x 2
+ y2 ) 2
φ
σ
Let, ⇒ E = ∫ sin θ dθ
2ε 0 0
y = x tan θ
σ
⇒ dy =x sec2 θ dθ E
⇒=
2ε 0
[1 − cos φ ]
Now,
When y = 0, tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0  y
Since θ = tan − 1   =φ ⇒ φ =θ
R
y  y
When y = R , tan θ = ⇒ θ = tan − 1   = φ Also,
R R
x
Therefore, cos θ = cos φ
=
x 2 + R2
σ 2π x ( x tan θ
φ
) ( x sec2 θ dθ )
4πε 0 ∫0
E= 3
Finally,
2
(x tan θ + x
2
)
2 2
σ  x 
φ =E 1 − 
σ 2π x x 2 tan θ sec2 θ dθ 2ε 0  x 2 + R 2 

4πε 0 ∫0 3
⇒E = 3
x tan2 θ + 1 2 ( )
φ
σ tanofθthe
The direction 2
θ dθ field will be along the axis of the disc.
secelectric
⇒E = ∫
2ε 0 0 sec θ
3

φ
σ
⇒ E = ∫ sin θ dθ Electric Field Due to a Uniform Infinite Charged Sheet
2ε 0 0
σ
An=
⇒ Einfinite[1sheet
− cosisφ ]nothing but a disc having an infinite
ε 0 the surface charge density be σ.
radius. 2Let
We know that− 1the  y electric field at a distance x from the
Since θ = tan  =of φ ⇒ φ =θ
centre along the R axis
 a disc is, σ
σ   xx 

=
=Also,σ 1
E
E 1 −
− 
σ x
E 2 2εε 00 1 −x xx 2 + R 2 
2 2
= + R 2 
=cos θ2ε 0 = x 2
+ Rcos φ
x 2 + R 2 
 
Finally, σ
σ 1 − xx 
⇒ =E
⇒= E 2σε 1 −
 x R 22  P
⇒= E 2ε 0 1 − x 1 + R 
0
x
σ 2ε 0  xx 1 + R 22 
=E 1 − x 2 
2ε 0   x 2x +1R+2 xx 2 
Now,  
Now,
Now,
R 2
R 22 ≈ ∞
For the case of infinite sheet, x
For the case of infinite sheet, x << R, thus, 1 + R2 ≈ ∞ << R , thus, 1 +
For the case of infinite sheet, x << R, thus, 1 + xx 22 ≈ ∞
Therefore, x
Therefore,
Therefore,
σ
≈ 2σε [[1 0]]
E σ
E≈ 1− −0
E ≈ 2ε 0 [1 − 0]
0
2ε 0 σ
⇒ E = σ ............. ( v )
⇒E = 2σε 0 ............. ( v )
⇒E = 2ε 0 ............. ( v )
Therefore, 2ε 0 from equation (v), it is clear that the electric field due a uniform infinite charged sheet is
constant.
 NOTE
P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

What you already know What you will learn

• Electric field and field lines • Electric potential energy

• Superposition of Coulomb’s force and • Electric potential energy of system of
electric field strength charges
• Electric dipole • Potential energy of an electric dipole in a
• Electric field due to a continuously charged uniform external electric field
body

Potential Energy

Recall what we have learnt about potential energy till now. We cannot define absolute potential
energy. However, what we can define is the change in potential energy.
The change in potential energy is negative of the work done by the conservative force, as the
system changes from initial to final configuration. Mathematically, the change in the potential
energy is defined as,
ΔU = Uf – Ui = (–W)i → f
It is very important to note that the potential energy can be defined only for conservative force
fields. Thus, change in the potential energy of a system in a conservative force field does not
depend on the path through which the system changes from the initial to final configurations.
It is because the change in potential energy is not a path function but a state function, i.e., it
depends only on the initial and final states of the system.

Spring potential energy

x
We know that the change in the potential energy k
for spring is defined as, F
 1 
U2 − U1 =−  − k ( x 2f − xi2 ) 
 21  xi xf
(
U2 − U1 =−  − k x 2f − xi2 
1  22 2 )
⇒= ∆U k ( x f − xi ) 
2
1
⇒= ∆U if xthe
Now,
where, 2f
(
k initial
and i
)
x 2fx −are
xposition
2
i final andofinitial
the spring is chosen
positions as the natural length, i.e., reference position,
of the spring.
and if ifwe
Now, theassume the potential
initial position of theenergy
springatis that
chosenposition
as theto natural
be zero, then, i.e., reference position,
length,
and
∆U = if1 we
kx 2 assume
 Where the we potential
chose x f=energy
x= The at extension
that position to be
in the zero,
spring  then,
2
1
∆U =kx 2  Where we chose x f= x= The extension in the spring
2
 02

Electric Potential Energy

Consider two positive point charges, q1 and q2, r2

initially separated by a distance of r1. We know r1
that like charges repel each other. Let charge q1 q1 (Fixed) q2
be fixed in space and q2 be moving from r1 to r2. At F
any instant, suppose charge q2 is shifted away by + +
a distance of r from the charge q1. At this position,
the electrostatic force on charge q2 is, A B C
q1q2 r dr
F =
4πε 0r 2
The direction of this force will be along AB.
Therefore, the work done for the further small displacement dr is,
 
dW= F ⋅ dr
1 qq
⇒ dW = 1 2 2 dr
4πε 0 r
If point C is final position of the charge q2 , then the net work done is,
r2
1 q1q2
W =∫ dr
r1
4πε 0 r 2
r
q1q2 2 dr
4πε 0 r∫1 r 2
⇒W =

r
q1q2  1  2
⇒ W= −
4πε 0  r  r1
q1q2  1 1 
⇒
= W  − 
4πε 0  r1 r2 
Therefore, the change in electric potential energy is,
q q 1 1
U 2 − U1 = − W =1 2  − 
4πε 0  r2 r1 
Now, if the charge q1 already exists at a position in space, charge q2 is brought from infinity
(i.e., r1 = ∞) to the final position r2 = r from charge q1, and we choose the potential energy to be
zero at infinity (reference position), i.e., U (∞) = 0, then the change in the potential energy in this
process is given by,
q1q2  1 1 
U2 −=
U1  − 
4πε 0  r2 r1 
q1q2  1 1 
⇒ U (r ) − =
U (∞) −
4πε 0  r ∞ 
q1q2  1 1 
U2 −=
U1 q1q2 − 
⇒ U ( r )4πε
= 0  r2 r
4πε 0r 1 
q1q2  1 infinity
1
⇒U (r ) − =U ( ∞by
Therefore, ) choosing  −  as the reference position (datum), it can be said that the potential
energy of two charges4πε 0  r ∞ 
separated by a distance of r is given by,
q1q2
⇒ U (r ) =
4πε 0r
03

Alternative definition of electric potential energy

The potential energy of a system of charged particles is defined as the negative of the work done to
bring those charges from infinity to the desired position. Let charges q1 and q2 be separated initially
by infinite distance. Now, charge q2 is brought from infinity to r. Thus, the separation between the
two point charges is r. Therefore, the potential energy is,
qq
U ( r ) = U ( r ) − U ( ∞ ) = 1 2 = ( − Wel )∞→r
4πε 0r
Where, Wel is the work done by the electrostatic force.
Now, suppose those two charges are brought at a separation of r because of the work done (Wext)
by some external agent. Hence, according to the work-energy theorem,
Wext + Wel = Δ(K.E.)
Assuming the charges are brought quasi-statically, it can be said that Δ(K.E.) = 0 Therefore,
Wext + Wel = 0
⇒ Wext = – Wel
Thus, ΔU = Wext if and only if Δ(K.E.) = 0.

q1q2
1. While calculating the potential energy by using the formula, U ( r ) = , the charge
4πε 0r
value should be put with the sign. It means that if +q1 and –q2 are separated by a
distance of r, then the potential energy of the system will be,
qq
U (r ) = − 1 2
4πε 0r
2. ΔU = Wext if and only if Δ(K.E.) = 0
3. ΔU = – Wel (Always)

Charge +q1 starts from infinity with an initial q1 q2 (Fixed)

velocity of v0 towards charge +q2, which is v0
fixed at its position. Find the distance of closest + +
approach between the two charges. m

Solution

Since q1 and q2 are the like charges, there will be an electrostatic repulsive force between them.
Therefore, as the charge q1 moves close to charge q2, the velocity will decrease up to the closest
distance, and at the distance of closest approach, the velocity will become zero.
Let the distance of the closest approach be r as shown
in the figure.
As charge q1 moves closer to charge q2, an electrostatic
force with an increasing magnitude will act on charge q1 q2 (Fixed)
q2, but as it is fixed in space, the net work done by the v0
external force on the system is zero. Therefore, the + m
+ +
principle of conservation of mechanical energy can r
be applied to the given system.
04

The potential energy and kinetic energy of the system at the initial and final positions are listed in
the table.
Total energy = K.E. + P.E.

At ∞ 1 2 kq1q2
mv0 = 0
2 r
At distance r 1 2 2kqkq1q12q2
r=
⇒0mv 0 =
2 mv0r
2

2kq q
1 ⇒ r = 12 2
Where k = in the case ofmv
vacuum.
4πε 0 0

By applying the principle of conservation of energy, we get,

1 2 kq1q2
mv0 =
2 r
2kq1q2
⇒r = 2
mv0

Charge +q1 starts from infinity with an initial velocity of v0 towards charge +q2, which is initially
at rest and is not fixed. Find the distance of closest approach between these two charges.

Solution MAIN
q1 q2 (Rest)
Initially, charge +q1 has velocity v0 and the charge v0
m + +
+q2 is at rest, and they are separated by an infinite
distance. In this case, both the charges are not fixed
as shown in the figure. ∞
As charge +q1 moves towards charge +q2, charge +q2 starts moving away from +q1, as there is a
repulsive force between them. Now, the force on +q1 due to +q2 opposes the momentum of +q1,
whereas the force on +q2 due to +q1 reinforces the momentum of +q2. Hence, as +q1 moves towards
+q2, the velocity of +q1 decreases and the velocity of +q2 increases. At some instant, the velocity
of both the charges become equal, i.e., the relative velocity between them becomes zero. At that
instant, the distance of separation between them is the minimum and it is known as the distance
of closest approach.
q1 q2
Let the velocity of each of the charged particles be v v0 v v
at the distance of the closest approach. + + +
The potential energy and the kinetic energy of the m1 m2
system at the initial and final positions are listed in
the table. r

Total energy = K.E. + P.E.

1 1 1 kq q
At ∞ m1v02 = m1v 2 + 0 m2v 2 + 1 2 .............. ( i )
2 2 2 r
1 1 By applying
1 1 2 2 thekqkq principle of conservation of linear momentum, we get,
1q12q2
m1vr02 = m1v 2 + m2mv
At distance v + 0 = .............. ( i )
2 2 m= 1v0 2 2
m1v + m2rv r
By applying the principle kq1conservation
v02of q2 of linear momentum, we get,
⇒v= ⇒m r 1= 2 .............. ( ii )
m=1v0 m1v + m2v ( m1 + mmv 2) 0
m1v0By substituting the value of v in equation ( i ) , we get,
⇒v= .............. ( ii )
05

The initial and final linear momenta of the charged particles are listed in the following table:

Momentum q1 q2

Initial m1v0 0

At distance r m1v m2v

By applying the principle of conservation of energy, we get,

1 1 1 kq q
m1v02 = m1v 2 + m2v 2 + 1 2 .............. ( i )
2 2 2 r
By applying the principle of conservation of linear momentum, we get,
m=
1v0 m1v + m2v
mv
⇒v= 1 0 .............. ( ii )
( m1 + m2 )
By substituting the value of v in equation ( i ) , we get,
2
1 1  mv  kq q
m
=1v0
2
( m1 + m2 )  1 0  + 1 2
2 2  ( m1 + m2 )  r
1 1 m12v02 kq q
⇒ m=v 2
+ 1 2
2 ( m1 + m2 )
1 0
2 r
1 m12  2 kq1q2
⇒ m1 − v =
2  ( m1 + m2 )  0 r
1  m1 ( m1 + m2 ) − m1  2 kq1q2
2

⇒  v =
2  ( m1 + m2 )  0 r
1  m2 + m1m2 − m12  2 kq1q2
⇒  1  v0 =
2  ( m1 + m2 )  r
m1m2v02 kq1q2
⇒ =
2( m1 + m2 ) r
2kq q ( m + m )
⇒r = 1 2 1 2 2
m1m2v0

MAIN
Electric Potential Energy of a Multiple-Charge System

–q1 +q2
Consider a system of four charges as shown in the figure.
First, let us focus on –q1 and +q2 only. There is only one potential
energy term between them, which is,
k ( − q1 ) q2
U21 (or U12 ) = +q4 –q3
r
 06

Now, let us focus on –q1, +q2, and –q3. In this case, there will be three potential energy terms: U21, U31
(= U13), and U32 (= U23). The number of the potential energy term can also be obtained by applying
the method of combination given as follows:
For a system consisting of n charges, the total potential energy of the system will be the sum of the
potential energy of the interaction between n possible pairs of interaction.
To find the number of pairs of possible interactions within the system, we use permutation and
combination (without repetition), i.e., if a system consists of three charges, we always need a pair
of charges for an interaction. Therefore, out of three charges, we have to consider two charges
at a time to calculate the potential energy between them. Hence, the number of possible pair
combinations is,
3! 3×2×1
=3
C2 = = 3 terms
2!(3 − 2 )! 2 × 1 × 1
n!
(By the formula, nCr = )
r ! ( n − r )!
If we consider all the four given charges, then there are
4! 4×3×2×1
=4
C2 = = 6 terms and the terms are,
2!( 4 − 2 )! ( 2 × 1) × ( 2 × 1)
U21, U31 (= U13), U32 (= U23), U41 (= U14), U42 (= U24), and U43 (= U34)
Hence, if we generalise this concept to a system consisting of n charges, then it will be
n n ( n − 1)
C2 = potential energy terms.
2

2.0 × 10–5 C

How much work has to be done in assembling

three charged particles at the vertices of an 10 cm 10 cm
equilateral triangle as shown in the figure?

10 cm

4.0 × 10–5 C 3.0 × 10–5 C

Solution

Looking at the figure, it can be concluded that there will be three potential energy terms.
Assume that initially, the charges are infinitely separated from each other. Therefore, the initial
potential energy of the system is, Ui = 0.
If we consider q = 10–5 C, then the charges at the vertices of the equilateral triangle are 2q, 3q, and
4q. Let the length of the side of the triangle be, r = 10 cm = 0.1 m.
Therefore, the final potential energy of the system is,

Uf =
1 (2q )( 4q ) + 1 (2q )(3q ) + 1 (3q )( 4q )
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
1
⇒ Uf
= 8q2 + 6q2 + 12q2 
4πε 0r 
2
07

Uf =
1 (2q )( 4q ) + 1 (2q )(3q ) + 1 (3q )( 4q )
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r
1
⇒ Uf
= 8q2 + 6q2 + 12q2 
4πε 0r
26q2
⇒ Uf =
4πε 0r
We know that if the change in kinetic energy is zero, then the change in potential energy of the
system is equal to the work done by the external agent, i.e., ΔU = Wext if and only if Δ(K.E.) = 0.
In the given problem, the charges are assumed to be at rest at infinity initially. Assume that the
charges are brought quasi-statically and finally, they are placed at the vertices of the equilateral
triangle.
Therefore, Δ(K.E.) = 0
Hence,
26q2
Wext = U f − Ui =
4πε 0r

( 9 × 10 ) × 26 × (10 )
2
9 −5

⇒ Wext =
0.1
26 × 9 × × 109 × 10− 10
⇒ Wext =
10− 1
⇒ Wext 234 J
=

An electric field E = 20 NC–1 exists along the x-axis in space. A charge of −2 ×10–4 C is moved
from points A to B. Find the change in the electrical potential energy (UA – UB) when points A
and B are given by the following:
(a) A = (0, 0); B = (4 m, 2 m)
(b) A = (4 m, 2 m); B = (6 m, 5 m)
(c) A = (0, 0); B = (6 m, 5 m)

Solution

The electric field, E = 20 iˆ NC −1
 
The electrostatic force on charge q = −2 ×10–4 C, F =qE =− 4 × 10−3 iˆ N

(a) In this case, A = (0, 0); B = (4 m, 2 m) y (m)


The displacement vector, AB = 4iˆ + 2 ˆj
Therefore, the work done by the electrostatic force is,
 
Wel= F ⋅ AB
⇒ Wel = ( )(
− 4 × 10− 3 iˆ ⋅ 4iˆ + 2 ˆj ) (4, 2)
B
⇒ Wel =
− 16 × 10− 3 J
A
Now,
q  x (m)
− (Wel ) A → B
UB − U A = (0, 0) E = 20 NC −1
⇒ ∆U= 16 × 10− 3 J
 08

(b) In this case, A = (4 m, 2 m); B = (6 m, 5 m) y (m)

The displacement vector is,

AB = ( 6 − 4 ) iˆ + (5 − 2) ˆj = 2iˆ + 3 ˆj (6, 5)
B
Therefore, the work done by the electrostatic force is,
 
Wel= F ⋅ AB (4, 2)

⇒ Wel = ( )(
− 4 × 10− 3 iˆ ⋅ 2iˆ + 3 ˆj ) A q

⇒ Wel =− 8 × 10− 3 J
(0, 0)  x (m)
Now, E = 20 NC −1
− (Wel ) A → B
UB − U A =
⇒ ∆U = 8 × 10− 3 J

(c) In this case, A = (0, 0); B = (6 m, 5 m) y (m)


The displacement vector is, AB = 6iˆ + 5 ˆj
Therefore, the work done by the electrostatic force is, (6, 5)
  B
Wel= F ⋅ AB
⇒ Wel = ( )(
− 4 × 10− 3 iˆ ⋅ 6iˆ + 5 ˆj )
⇒ Wel =
− 24 × 10− 3 J
A
Now,
q  x (m)
− (Wel ) A → B
UB − U A = (0, 0)
E = 20 NC −1
⇒ ∆U= 24 × 10− 3 J

BOARDS
Electric Dipole in a Uniform External Electric Field

Consider that an electric dipole with dipole moment

     
τ= p is
×E τ= field
placed in an external electric p × E as shown in qE
the figure. Since the force on each of the charges +q
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction, p
there is no net force on the dipole. However, since
the line of action of the two forces are different, θ1
there is a non-zero torque about the centre of the O E
dipole.
  
The torque acting on the dipole, τ= p × E
Due to the torque, there is always a tendency that –q
   qE
dipole momentτ= p ×becomes
E parallel to electric field
  
τ= p × E .
09

Suppose the dipole is rotated anticlockwise from qE

+q
θ1 to θ2 by an external agent as shown in the figure.
qE
In this case, the dipole is rotated anticlockwise, but +q
we know that the action of the torque is such that p
the dipole becomes parallel to the electric field. θ2
Hence, the direction of the angular displacement θ1
(anticlockwise) and the effect of the torque O E
(clockwise) on the dipole are opposite.
Thus, the work done by the torque is given by,
 
W= ∫τ ⋅ dθ –q
qE
 
⇒W = − ∫τ dθ τ and dθ are oppositely directed 
  –q
θ2 qE
− ∫ ( pE sin θ ) dθ
⇒W =
θ1

− pE [ − cos θ ]θ2
θ
⇒W =
1

⇒ W pE [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
=
Therefore, the change in potential energy is,
− (Wel ) =
Uθ2 − Uθ1 = −W
− Uθ1 pE [cos θ1 − cos θ2 ]
⇒ Uθ2=

We know that the potential energy or the change in potential energy is always measured from a
reference position (datum) and we assume the potential energy at the reference position to be
π
zero. In this case, the reference position is, θ = .
2
Therefore, the potential energy of the dipole is,
π   π  
U (θ ) − U=
 2  pE cos  2  − cos θ 
     
 π π   Uππ  = 
⇒ U (θ ) = − pE cos θ  θ = is(θthe
U ) − reference
U= pE level,
cos  −cos 0θ 
 2 2   22   
     
 π   π  
⇒ U (θ ) =− p ⋅ E U (θ ) − U=   pE cosπ   − cos θ  π  
⇒ U (θ ) = − pE cos 2θ  θ = is
 2the
 reference level, U   = 0
Hence, it can be concluded that the potential energy 2
 of a dipole that makes an angle of  2θwith the
   π π  
uniform external electric field ⇒is, U (θ ) ⇒=−Up(⋅θE) =
= − pE cos θ , θ=
provided is the
the reference level, U  is =
position 0
π  2 2 
θ = .  
2 ⇒ U (θ ) =− p ⋅ E
01

NOTE
P H Y S I C S

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

What you already know What you will learn

• Electric field and field lines • Electrical potential

• Electric field strength due to a point charge • Electric potential due to a point
• Electric dipole charge
• Electric field due to a continuous charged body • Electric potential due to an electric
• Electric potential energy dipole
• Potential energy of an electric dipole in a • Relation between electric field and
­uniform external electric field electric potential

Electric Potential

The electric field in a region of space is described by a­ ssigning a vector quantity E at each point.
­Pictorially, the uniform electric field can be described as ­equispaced, parallel electric lines of force,
and the direction of the electric field is denoted by the arrowheads as shown in the figure.
The same field can also be described by assigning a s­ calar quantity V at each point known as
­electric ­potential.
 V
E = Ax iˆ

Assume that a particle of charge +q is moving from point A to point B in a non-uniform electric
field and the ­potential energy at point A and point B is UA and UB, ­respectively, with respect to the
­reference position fixed at any point in space.
If VA and VB are the electric potentials at points A and B,
respectively, then the change in the ­electric potential is 
E = Ax iˆ UB
defined as,
U −U A B
VB − VA =B
q
Therefore, the change in potential is defined as the q
change in potential energy per unit charge. U A
A
Hence, the change in potential energy is,
UB – UA = q(VB – VA) = –Wel
02

Now, suppose that we choose some point (P) at infinity where the electric potential is, VP = 0
It means that we chose the datum of the electric field at infinity. However, there are no restrictions
to choose the datum of the electric potential at infinity. Rather, it can be chosen at any point in
space, depending on the given scenario. This is also true for the electric potential energy.
If a particle of charge +q is brought from point P (at infinity) to point A, then the change in electric
potential is,
U A −UP
VA − VP = VA =
q

(1) If a particle of charge +q is moving from point A to point B in an electric field and the
potential energy at point A and point B is UA and UB, respectively, then the change in
potential energy is, UB – UA = q(VB – VA) = – Wel.
(2) If a particle of charge +q is moving from point A to point B in an electric field under the
action of an external force and the potential energy at point A and point B is UA and UB,
respectively, then the change in potential energy is UB – UA = q(VB – VA) = Wext, provided
that Δ(K.E.) = 0


E = Ax iˆ UB
The kinetic energy of a charged particle B
decreases by 10 J as it moves from a point at
potential 100 V to a point at potential 200 V. Find
the charge of the particle. q
UA
A

Solution

It is given that the kinetic energy decreases by 10 J as the charged particle moves from point B to
point A. Therefore, Δ(K.E.) = Kf – Ki = –10
Since the potential energy is a scalar quantity, path-independent, and a state function, it
depends only on the initial and final positions. Similarly, electric potential is a scalar quantity and
path-independent.
Given,
The electric potential at point A is, VA = 100 V.
The electric potential at point B is, VB = 200 V.
By applying the work-energy theorem, we get,
Wext + Wel = Δ(K.E.)
⇒ 0 + (– ΔU) = –10 {Since there is no external agent, the external work done is zero.}
⇒ ΔU = 10
⇒ Uf – Ui = 10
⇒ q(Vf – Vi) = 10
03

⇒ q(VA – VB) = 10
⇒ q(200 – 100) = 10
⇒ q = +0.1 C
Therefore, the charge of the particle is +0.1 C.

Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge

The purpose of studying electric potential is to know the Qq

UP = U∞ = 0
electrical effect of a system using the scalar q ­ uantity. 4πε 0r
q
We can use the concept of electric field to know the Q r
P ∞
electrical effect of a system but since it is a vector
­
­quantity, it ­becomes difficult sometimes.
Consider that a source charge Q is fixed at a point in space and there is a test charge q at point P
which is r distance away from the source charge as shown in the figure.
Therefore, by assuming the reference point to be at infinity, the potential energy of the test charge
Qq
q is, U ( r ) = U P − U ∞ = .
4πε 0r
Since we know that the change in electric potential is defined as the change in potential energy per
unit charge, the electric potential at a distance r for a point charge Q is,
VP = VP − V∞ = VP [ We assume that V∞ = 0]
UP − U∞
⇒ VP =
q
Q
⇒ VP =
4πε 0r

Charge Electric field at a distance r Electric potential at a distance r

q q
Point charge +q rˆ
4πε 0r 2
4πε 0r

( −q ) ( −q )
Point charge –q rˆ
4πε 0r 2
4πε 0r

BOARDS MAIN
Electric Potential Due to an Electric Dipole

Case 1: At a point on the equatorial line

Consider point M on the equatorial line of a dipole as shown in the figure. M
The net electric potential at point M is,
r r
Veq
= V+ + V−
–q +q
⇒ Veq=
( +q ) +
( −q )
4πε 0r 4πε 0r a a
⇒ Veq =
0
04

Therefore, at any point on the equatorial line of the dipole, the net electric potential is zero. Not
only on the equatorial line, if we assume that a plane is passing through the equatorial line or along
the perpendicular bisector of the dipole, then the electric potential will be zero at any point on
the plane. This is why the equatorial line is also known as the equipotential line, and the plane is
known as the equipotential plane or surface.

Case 2: At a point on the axis of dipole

Suppose that we want to find the electric potential
at point M on the axis of the dipole. The distance –q +q M
of point M from the +q charge and the –q charge is
(r – a) and (r + a), respectively. a a
Therefore, the net electric potential at point M is,
r
Vaxis
= V+ + V−

⇒
= Vaxis
( +q ) + ( −q )
4πε 0 ( r − a ) 4πε 0 ( r + a )
q  1 1 
⇒ Vaxis
=  − 
4πε 0  ( r − a ) ( r + a ) 

q  (r + a) − (r − a) 
⇒ Vaxis =  
4πε 0  ( r − a )( r + a ) 

q  2a 
⇒ Vaxis =  2 
(
4πε 0  r − a2 
  )
p
⇒ Vaxis =  The dipole moment is, p q ( 2a ) 
(
4πε 0 r 2 − a2 )
a
If r >> a, then << 1. Therefore,
r
p
Vaxis =
 a2 
4πε 0r 2  1 − 2 
 r 
p
⇒ Vaxis = 2
4πε 0r

Case 3: At a general point

M (r, θ)
Suppose that we want to find the electric potential at point
M, which makes an angle of θ with the dipole of the dipole r
­moment p and is r distance away from the centre of the dipole
θ
(O) as shown in the figure. Let us divide the dipole moment –q +q
vector componentwise. As a consequence, point M becomes O p
a a
the axial point of p cos θ and the equatorial point of p sin θ.
 05

Therefore, the electric potential at point M due to p cos θ is,

p cos θ
V ( M )  axis = (For r >> a )
4πε 0r 2
The electric potential at point M due to p sin θ is,
V ( M )  eq = 0
Hence, the net electric potential at point M due to the dipole with dipole moment p is,
V ( M ) V ( M )  axis + V ( M )  eq
=
p cos θ
⇒ V ( M ) =2 ......... ( i )
4πε 0r
This can also written as follows:
p cos θ
V (M ) =
4πε 0r 2
pr cos θ
⇒ V (M ) = 3
4πε 0r
 
p ⋅r
⇒ V ( M ) =3
4πε 0r

Position At the axis At the equatorial line At the general point

  1

Electric field at r (>> a)


E=
2p 
E= −
p 
E =
(
p 1 + 3 cos2 θ ) 2

4πε 0r 3 4πε 0r 3
4πε 0r 3

 
Electric potential at p p⋅r
V= V=0 V=
r (>> a) 4πε 0r 2 4πε 0r 3

Relation between Electric Field and Potential

Consider a charge +q in the region of a non-uniform

electric field as shown in the figure. 
E = Ax iˆ
Force on the charged particle due to the electric
   
field, F = qE F = qE

Now, if the particle is moved from a point with r

­position vector r to an another point with position  
  r + dr
vector r + dr , then the work done by the electric
O A
field is,
 
dWel= F ⋅ dr
 
⇒ dWel = qE ⋅ dr
Now we know that,
dU dWel
dV = = −
q q
Therefore,
 
dV =− E ⋅ dr ................. ( i )
 
 dWel= F ⋅ dr
 
⇒
06 dW el = qE ⋅ dr
Now we know that,
dU dWel
dV = = −
q q
Therefore,
 
dV =− E ⋅ dr ................. ( i )
 
If the charged particle is moved from r1 to r2 , the change in electric potential will be,
V2 r2
 
∫
V1
dV =
− ∫ ⋅dr
E
r1

r2
 
− ∫ E ⋅ dr
⇒ V2 − V1 = ................. ( ii )

r1

Therefore, mathematically, the electric potential is negative of the line integral of the electric field.

In the Cartesian coordinate system

y
From equation (i), we get the relationship between the electric
 
field and the electric potential as, dV = − E · dr .

Let the electric field in the 3D space be E = E x iˆ + E y ˆj + E z kˆ and

the elementary ­displacement ­vector be dr = dx iˆ + dy ˆj + dz kˆ .
Therefore, the small change in electric potential will be, x
 
dV =− E ⋅dr
z
( )(
− E x iˆ + E y ˆj + E z kˆ ⋅ dx iˆ + dy ˆj + dz kˆ
⇒ dV = )
⇒ dV =
− E x dx − E y dy − E z dz
Therefore, if dy= 0= dz, then,
dV
Ex = −
dx
And if dy ≠ 0 and dz ≠ 0, then,
∂V
Ex = −
∂x
[Partial differentiation]
∂V ∂V
Similarly, E y = − and E z = −
∂y ∂z
It means if the electric potential in 3D space is given as, V = V ( x , y , z ) , then,
∂V
The electric field along the x -direction is, E x = −
∂x
∂V
The electric field along the y -direction is, E y = −
∂y
∂V
The electric field along the z -direction is, E z = −
∂z
Therefore, the electric field is given by,
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ 
E= − i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∇ is known as "Nabla" or "gradient" and is 
   
⇒ E = − ∇V   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
defined as: =∇ iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 ∂V
The electric field along the z -direction is, E z = −
07 ∂z
Therefore, the electric field is given by,
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ 
E= − i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 

∇ is known as "Nabla" or "gradient" and is 
   
⇒ E = − ∇V   ∂ ∂ ∂ 
defined as: =∇ iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Therefore, the electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential.

The electric potential existing in space is V(x, y, z) = A(xy + yz + zx).

(a) Find the expression for the electric field.
(b) If A is 10 SI units, then find the magnitude of the electric field at (1 m, 1 m, 1 m).

Solution ADVANCED

(a) Given,
The expression for the electric potential is,
V(x, y, z) = A(xy + yz + zx)
Therefore, the x-component of the electric field is,
∂V
Ex = −
∂x
∂
⇒ Ex = −  A ( xy + yz + zx ) 
∂x 
⇒ E x =− A (1) y + 0 + z (1) 
− A[ y + z ]
⇒ Ex =
The electric field along the y -direction is,
∂V
Ey = −
∂y
∂
⇒ Ey = −  A ( xy + yz + zx ) 
∂y
− A  x (1) + (1) z + 0
⇒ Ey =
− A[ x + z ]
⇒ Ey =
The electric field along the z -direction is,
∂V
Ez = −
∂z
∂
⇒ Ez = −  A ( xy + yz + zx ) 
∂z
⇒ Ez = − A 0 + y (1) + (1) x 
− A[ x + y ]
⇒ Ez =
Therefore, the expression of the electric field is,

E= − A ( y + z ) iˆ + ( x + z ) ˆj + ( x + y ) kˆ 
 
08

(b) From part (a), we get the expression for the electric field as,

E= − A ( y + z ) iˆ + ( x + z ) ˆj + ( x + y ) kˆ 
 
Given,
A = 10 SI unit
( x , y , z ) = ( 1 m, 1 m, 1 m )
Therefore, the electric field becomes,

E= − 10 (1 + 1) iˆ + (1 + 1) ˆj + (1 + 1) kˆ 
 

E =− 20 iˆ + ˆj + kˆ 
 
Hence, the magnitude of the electric field is,
E 20 12 + 12 + 12
=
⇒E =
20 3 NC − 1

y (m) 
 P iˆ
E = Ax
An electric field,= E ( 20 iˆ + 30 ˆj ) NC − 1, exists in space. If (2, 2)
the potential at the origin is taken to be zero, then find the
potential at (2 m, 2 m). 
r2
r2 
 
V −V
V22 − − ∫∫ E
V11 =
−
= E ⋅⋅ dr
dr O x (m)
r1
r1
  P
P

Solution MAIN ⇒ V − V − ∫∫ E ⋅⋅ dr
=
−
⇒ VPP − VOO = E dr
O
O
Given,  P
P

E ( 20 iˆ + 30 ˆj ) NC − 1 ⇒V
⇒ − ∫∫ E
VPP =
−
=

E ⋅⋅ dr
dr [[
V 0]]
VOO =
0
=
The electric field,= O
O
The electric potential at the origin O, VO = 0 ((22 ,, 22))
Let the electric potential at point P be VP.
Therefore,
⇒V
⇒ VPP =
−
=
− ∫∫ ((20 ˆ 30 ˆˆj ) ⋅ ( dx iˆˆ + dy ˆˆj )
+ 30 j ) ⋅ ( dx i + dy j )
20 iiˆ +
( )
0, 0
( 0 , 0)

r2
  ((22 ,, 22))
V2 − V1 = − ∫ E ⋅ dr

r1
⇒V
⇒ VPP =
−
=
− ∫∫ ((20
20 dx
((00 ,, 00))
dx +
+ 30 dy ))
30 dy
P
 
20[[ xx ]]00 − 30[[ yy ]]00
2 2
− ∫ E ⋅ dr
⇒ VP − VO = ⇒V
⇒ =
−
− 20 − 30
2 2
VPP =
O

  P ⇒V
⇒ VP P
=
−
= 40 −
− 40 − 60 60
− ∫ E ⋅ dr
⇒ VP = [ VO =
0] ⇒V
⇒ VPP =
− 100 V
− 100
= V
O
( 2 , 2) Therefore, the potential at P (2 m, 2 m) is –100 V.
⇒ VP =
− ∫( )(
20 iˆ + 30 ˆj ⋅ dx iˆ + dy ˆj )
( 0 , 0)
( 2 , 2)
⇒ VP =
− ∫ (20 dx + 30 dy )
( 0 , 0)

− 20[ x ]0 − 30[ y ]0
2 2
⇒ VP =
⇒ VP =
− 40 − 60
⇒ VP =
− 100 V
09

y (m) 
E = Ax iˆ
 V=0
An electric field exists in a space given by E = Ax iˆ NC − 1 , where (10, 20)
A = 10 Vm–2. Take the potential at (10 m, 20 m) to be zero. Find
the potential at the origin.
(0, 0) x (m)

Solution

Given, y (m) E = Ax iˆ
 V=0
E Ax = iˆ and A 10 Vm− 2 (10, 20)

⇒E = 10x iˆ
We know that,
  (0, 0) x (m)
dV =− E ⋅ dr
(
− 10x iˆ ⋅ dx iˆ + dy ˆj
⇒ dV = )( )
VP (10 , 20)
⇒ ∫ dV =
− ∫ (10x ) dx + 0 dy
VO ( 0 , 0)
(10 , 20)
⇒ VP − VO =
− ∫ (10x ) dx
( 0 , 0)
(10 , 20)
⇒ − VO = − 10 ∫ x dx [ VP = 0]
( 0 , 0)
10
 x2 
⇒ VO =
10  
 2 0
⇒= (
VO 5 102 − 02  )
⇒ VO = 500 V

If the electric field and the electric potential at a point are E and V, respectively, then which
of the following statements is/are incorrect?

(A) If E = 0, V must be zero. (B) If V = 0, E must be zero.

(C) If E ≠ 0, V cannot be zero. (D) If V ≠ 0, E cannot be zero.

Solution

Consider an equilateral triangle with three positive charges at the vertices as shown in the figure.
10

It is easily seen that the magnitude of all the three electric fields at point
O is equal, and the resultant of any two electric field vectors ­perfectly q
balances the third electric vector. Therefore, the net electric field is zero
E r0 E
at point O.
However, if we assume that the distance from the vertices to point O is r0 O
and try to ­calculate the electric potential at point O, then that would be,
3q q E q
VO =
4πε 0r0
Therefore, the statement ‘If E = 0, V must be zero’ is false.
Thus, option (A) is incorrect.
Now, consider a square with two equal positive charges and two equal
negative charges as shown in the figure. q q
In this case, the net electric potential at the centre of the square is
zero, but the net electric field is non-zero and its direction is vertically O
­downwards as shown in the figure.
Therefore, the statement ‘If V = 0, E must be zero’ is false.
–q –q
Thus, option (B) is incorrect.
Consider the statement given in option (C): if E ≠ 0, V cannot be zero.
From the case of the square, we get,
E ≠ 0, V = 0
Therefore, this statement is also false.
Thus, option (C) is also incorrect.

The discussion about the equilateral triangle also implies that the statement in option (D), ‘If V ≠ 0,
E cannot be zero’ is also incorrect.
Therefore, all the given options are incorrect.

Note
 
• We know that dV = − E · dr . So, we might assume that if E = 0, V = 0. We should be careful. In
 
the expression, dV = − E · dr , if we put E = 0, then we get dV = 0, which means that the change
in potential is zero and this in turn implies that the potential is constant.
 
The significance of the negative sign in the expression dV = − E · dr can be understood in the
following two ways:
1. Along the direction of the electric field, the value of the potential decreases.
2. The direction of the electric field is from a high potential to a low potential.
 
• For dV = 0, the electric field E need not always be zero. This is because if E ⊥ dr , then dV = 0
again. Hence, V becomes constant. This is the concept of equipotential surfaces.
11

Equipotential Surface

On the light of the discussion, the definition of the

equipotential surface is as follows:
'The locus of a point forming a surface, which C Equipotential
A D surface (V)
is ­perpendicular to the electric field, is an B
­equipotential surface'.

An equipotential surface can also be defined as a surface on which potential is the same at every
point.
Example: The equatorial plane of a dipole is an equipotential surface, i.e., the electric potential is
constant all along the equatorial axis (/plane) of the dipole.