Subatomic particles

Particles Charge Rest Mass Invention Diameter

Electron 1.6 × 10 −19 C 9.1 × 10 −31 kg J.J. Thomson, 1897 4 × 10 −12 m

Proton 1.6 × 10 −19 C 1.67261 × 10 −27 kg Ernst Rutherford, 1917 1.7 × 10 −15 m
Neutron 0 1.67492 × 10 −27 kg James Chadwick, 1932 1.7 × 10 −15 m

In modelling atoms, protons and neutrons are regarded as stationary, while electrons move about
in the space outside the nucleus like a cloud. The negatively charged electronic cloud indicates
the regions of the space where electrons are likely to be found.
The number of protons in an atom defines the identity of the element (an atom with 1 proton is
hydrogen, for example, and an atom with two protons is helium) Protons are relatively stable; their
number rarely changes, except during radioactive decay.
Ions
In the ground state, an atom will have an equal number of protons and electrons, and thus will
have a net charge of 0. However, because electrons can be transferred from one atom to another,
so it is possible for atoms to become charged. Atoms in such a state are known as ions. If a
neutral atom gains an electron, it becomes negative. This kind of ion is called an anion. If a neutral
atom loses an electron, it becomes positive. This kind of ion is called a cation.

Charge
Charge is a property that particles have and if you put enough particles together, objects have that
property as well. So, it's just a property and no one fundamentally knows what it is. But charge is a
property of particles and objects just like mass, density or temperature. It is not an entity or
substance; it is an intrinsic (means most basic thing/most fundamental, it cannot be defined by any
other thing as there is no constituents within it) or, fundamental property of matter like mass,
volume. What creates mass is not known (although we now know something about origin of
mass). Similarly how or what creates charge is not known. So, mass and charge are intrinsic
property of matter.

Although to some degree mass seems a little bit more real than charge because in our brains are
wired to in some way comprehend what mass is but we're probably more comprehending weight
and volume more than mass. Charge is a little bit more abstract because before we started
rubbing amber into our hair we really didn't experience much charge unless we got struck by
lightning.
Lightning is also caused by static electricity. As rain clouds move through the sky, ice crystals
inside them sink to the bottom, while water droplets rise to the top. The crystals have one kind of
charge (negative) while the water droplets have the other kind (positive). It's the separation of
these charges that allows a cloud to build up its power. Eventually, when the charge is big enough,
it leaps to Earth as a bolt of lightning.
Technically, we should always say something like, “Suppose we have a particle that carries a
charge of μC.” However, it is very common to say instead, “Suppose we have a μC charge.”
Similarly, we often say something like, “Six charges are located at the vertices of a regular
hexagon.” A charge is not a particle; rather, it is a property of a particle. Nevertheless, this
terminology is extremely common. So, keep in the back of your mind what we really mean when
we refer to a “charge.
A number of simple experiments demonstrate the existence of electric forces and charges. For
example, after running a comb through your hair on a dry day, you will find that the comb attracts
bits of paper. The attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper. The same effect
occurs when materials such as glass or rubber are rubbed with silk or fur. Another simple
experiment is to rub an inflated balloon with wool. The balloon then adheres to a wall, often for
hours. When materials behave in this way, they are said to be electrified, or to have become
electrically charged. You can easily electrify your body by vigorously rubbing your shoes on a wool
rug. The electric charge on your body can be felt and removed by lightly touching (and startling) a
friend. Under the right conditions, you will see a spark when you touch, and both of you will feel a
slight tingle. (Experiments such as these, work best on a dry day because an excessive amount of
moisture in the air can cause any charge you build up to “leak” from your body to the Earth.)

To verify that this is true, consider a hard rubber rod that has been rubbed with fur and then
suspended by a non-metallic thread, as shown in Figure 23.1. When a glass rod that has been
rubbed with silk is brought near the rubber rod, the two attract each other (Fig. 23.1a). On the
other hand, if two charged rubber rods (or two charged glass rods) are brought near each other,
as shown in Figure 23.1b, the two repel each other. This observation shows that the rubber and
glass are in two different states of electrification. On the basis of these observations, we conclude
that like charges repel one another and unlike charges attract one another.

Using the convention suggested by Franklin, the electric charge on the glass rod is called positive
and that on the rubber rod is called negative. So, there are two kinds of electric charges - positive
and negative given by Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790). Charge names were chosen arbitrarily.
Instead of positive and negative any names could be chosen. But reason of choosing such name
is that in mathematics equal value of + ve and –ve cancel out. Hence these names are chosen
because in atoms net charge is zero although there are charged particles inside. So, they must
have cancelled out their effects. Hence such names are given.
Therefore, any charged object attracted to a charged rubber rod (or repelled by a charged glass
rod) must have a positive charge, and any charged object repelled by a charged rubber rod (or
attracted to a charged glass rod) must have a negative charge. Attractive electric forces are
responsible for the behaviour of a wide variety of commercial products. For example, the plastic in
many contact lenses, etafilcon, is made up of molecules that electrically attract the protein
molecules in human tears. These protein molecules are absorbed and held by the plastic so that
the lens ends up being primarily composed of the wearer’s tears. Because of this, the wearer’s
eye does not treat the lens as a foreign object, and it can be worn comfortably. Many cosmetics
also take advantage of electric forces by incorporating materials that are electrically attracted to
skin or hair, causing the pigments or other chemicals to stay put once they are applied.

Figure 23.1 (a) A negatively charged rubber rod suspended by a thread is attracted to a positively
charged glass rod. (b) A negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another negatively charged
rubber rod.
Unit of charge is called the Coulomb. The charge in an electron or proton has the exact same
charge and that elementary charge is denoted by E. Actually E is equal to the charge of a proton,
so it probably stands for elementary charge of a proton and the charge of an electron is the
negative of this. So, negative E is the charge of an electron. The magnitude of elementary charge,
E = 1.6 × 10 −19 C. So, Coulomb is a bunch of the fundamental charge because 1C = 6.242 × 1018E.

This number is very small when compared with the number of free electrons2 in 1 cm3 of copper, which is
of the order of 1023. Still, 1 C is a substantial amount of charge. In typical experiments in which a
rubber or glass rod is charged by friction, a net charge of the order of 10−6 C is obtained. In other
words, only a very small fraction of the total available charge is transferred between the rod and
the rubbing material.
Charge vs mass:

Electric charge is a property that creates field which produces forces that can attract or repel other
charges. Mass is similar, although it can only attract other masses, not repel it.
The mass of a particle will rise exponentially as its speed approaches that of light, its charge,
however, will remain constant.
Still, the formula describing the interactions between charges is remarkably similar to that which
characterizes the interactions between masses.
Conservation of charge
Another important aspect of Franklin’s model of electricity is the implication that electric charge is
always conserved. That is, when one object is rubbed against another, charge is not created in the
process. The electrified state is due to a transfer of charge from one object to the other. One
object gains some amount of negative charge while the other gains an equal amount of positive
charge. For example, when a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the silk obtains a negative charge that
is equal in magnitude to the positive charge on the glass rod. We now know from our
understanding of atomic structure that negatively charged electrons are transferred from the glass
to the silk in the rubbing process. Similarly, when rubber is rubbed with fur, electrons are
transferred from the fur to the rubber, giving the rubber a net negative charge and the fur a net
positive charge. This process is consistent with the fact that neutral, uncharged matter contains as
many positive charges (protons within atomic nuclei) as negative charges (electrons).

The statement that ‘charge in an isolated system is conserved’, is experimentally found. There is
no proof of this statement.
Isolated system means there is no flow of charge in and out of system. An isolated system is
shown above having three charged bodies 3C, 1C and − 2C. Net charge = 2C. If whole system is shaken
then they will touch one another and transfer of charge will take place. But since the system is
isolated, hence no charge will come or go out of system. So, net charge will remain same before
and after shaking.
If any two particles are collided then these things don't have to maintain their identity. They might
end up with eight particles at some later point in time. But if all their charges are added up, it still
gives 2C. That's the key idea here.

Application of conservation of charge:

One application of conservation of charge is seen in radio activity nuclear equation.

(The weak nuclear force (or just the weak force, or weak interaction) acts inside of
individual nucleons, which means that it is even shorter ranged than the strong force. It is the force
that allows protons to turn into neutrons and vice versa through beta decay. This keeps the right
balance of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. The weak force is very important in the
nuclear fusion that happens in the sun. Nuclear fusion has also been created in laboratories, and
that process requires the weak force to work too. See size of the universe for a list of visuals
demonstrating how short ranged the weak force is.
As the name implies, the weak force is much weaker than the strong force, or the electromagnetic
force, but it is quite a bit stronger than the gravitational force.

Modern physics has unified the electromagnetic and weak forces into the electroweak force. There
is a continued effort to try to unify all of the forces in a grand unified theory. See video in
reference.)

It is seen that above reaction is not possible because net energy is not same before and after
reaction. Law of conservation of charge is a powerful tool in analyzing these reactions in terms of
what's possible and what's not possible.
Quantisation of charge
Quantization is the concept that a physical quantity can have only certain discrete values.
Electrical charge, energy, light, angular momentum, and matter are all quantized on the
microscopic level. They do not seem quantized on the macroscopic scale because the size of the
steps between each possible value is so small. For example, the matter is quantized because it is
composed of individual particles that cannot be subdivided; it is not possible to have half an
electron. Also, the energy levels of electrons in atoms are quantized. The electron's energy can
have only certain values, and all intermediate values are prohibited.
Pens in market are quantized. It means pens are available in fixed (or, discreet) number. U can
get 1 pen or 2 or 3 pen. But you cannot get ½ pen.
Foods are not quantized. You can get ½ plate rice or 1 handful of rice or even lesser than that.
In 1909, Robert Millikan (1868–1953) discovered that electric charge always occurs as some
integral multiple of a fundamental amount of charge e. In modern terms, the electric charge q is
said to be quantized, where q is the standard symbol used for charge. That is, electric charge
exists as discrete “packets,” and we can write q = n × e. Here n is an integer and e is the charge ( − for
electron and + for proton). The magnitude of e = 1.602192 × 10−19. This is called quantization of charge. SI
unit of charge is Coulomb (C). In other words, it says that the charge can only exist in nature in the
form of the integral multiple of charge on one electron or proton.
You can find value of charge such as 1e, − 1e, 2e, − 2e, ....so on. But you cannot find charges such as 2.5 e
or 1.6 e or − 3.1 e...so on. Thus charges can only have discreet values, not continuous values. The
reason is – electron is one of the fundamental particle in nature. Any material body can only be
charged by exchange of electrons – a + ve charged body means electron is removed and –ve
charged body means electron is added. Since electron is a fundamental particle so it cannot be
split in any other parts. So, ½ electron or any other fractional value of electron is not possible. So,
charge of any material body in nature having fractional value also is not possible. Because charge
is a conserved quantity, the net charge in a closed region remains the same. If charged particles
are created in some process, they are always created in pairs whose members have equal-
magnitude charges of opposite sign.

The electron seems to have no substructure; in contrast, when the substructure of protons is
explored by scattering extremely energetic electrons from them, it appears that there are point-like
particles inside the proton. These sub-particles, named quarks, have never been directly
observed, but they are believed to carry fractional charges as seen in Figure. Protons consist of
two up quarks and one down quark, whereas a neutron is made up of two down quarks and one
up quark. Quarks cannot exist independently but as a constituent part of the matter (because they
exist only inside proton). Each up quark has a charge of + 2 / 3e. Each down quark has a charge of
− 1 / 3e. So, they have non integer multiple of e.

If value of n comes out fraction then transferring given amount of charge is not possible. n = 50. It
means 50 electrons have to be taken out from the body so that it attains net charge of 8 × 10−18C.
Conductor, Insulator, Semi conductor, Super conductor
Atomic number of copper is 29. Its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1.

Atomic number of Aluminium is 13. Its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p63s23p1.

Some substances, such as metals and salty water, allow charges to move through them with
relative ease. Some of the electrons in metals and similar conductors are not bound to individual
atoms or sites in the material. These free electrons can move through the material much as air
moves through loose sand. Any substance that has free electrons and allows charge to move
relatively freely through it is called a conductor. The moving electrons may collide with fixed atoms
and molecules, losing some energy, but they can move in a conductor. Superconductors allow the
movement of charge without any loss of energy. Salty water and other similar conducting materials
contain free ions that can move through them. An ion is an atom or molecule having a positive or
negative (nonzero) total charge. In other words, the total number of electrons is not equal to the
total number of protons.

Other substances, such as glass, do not allow charges to move through them. These are called
insulators. Electrons and ions in insulators are bound in the structure and cannot move easily—as
much as 1023 times more slowly than in conductors. Pure water and dry table salt are insulators, for
example, whereas salty water and molten salt are conductors.
When conductors are charged in some small region, the charge readily distributes itself over the
entire surface of the material. If you hold a copper rod in your hand and rub it with wool or fur, it
will not attract a small piece of paper. This might suggest that a metal cannot be charged.
However, if you attach a wooden handle to the rod and then hold it by that handle as you rub the
rod, the rod will remain charged and attract the piece of paper. The explanation for this is as
follows: Without the insulating wood, the electric charges produced by rubbing readily move from
the copper through your body and into the Earth. The insulating wooden handle prevents the flow
of charge into your hand.

There are two solid cylinders of an insulating material and a conducting material. One similarity is
that both insulators and conductors are composed of a huge number of atoms and molecules and
these atoms and molecules, whether it be insulator or conductor, are composed of a positively
charged nucleus and a negatively charged swarm of electrons that surround that nucleus.
Another similarity is that for both conductors and insulators, the positively charge nucleus cannot
move. They can wiggle around and jiggle just from thermal vibrations, but it can't travel freely
throughout the material for either an insulator or a conductor as long as it's a solid.
If it was a fluid, these things can move and migrate around (in liquid they slide past each other and
in gas they fly away from one another), but for a solid the positively charge nucleus is fixed in
place. The thing that might be able to move is the negatively charged electrons, and here's the
difference. There are electrons in a conductor that can move about relatively freely. These can
move around with almost no resistance, whereas for insulators a key difference is that these
electrons cannot move around freely. These don't have the right energy levels and bands in order
to make these electrons move around freely. They are also stuck. These electrons might be able
to jump around in their own atoms or get shared in a neighbouring atom, but it can't jump around
freely from atom to atom and travel throughout the insulator. For the conductors, the electrons can
do this. That's the key difference.
Now the electrons don’t do this on their own, they have to be compelled to start moving by hooking
this up to a battery or setting up some sort of electric field or force. If this happens, the electrons in
a conductor start migrating down the line but in an insulator, the electrons are stuck.
While that is somewhat true, it is not completely true. Because if I set this insulator up to a battery
or set up some sort of electric field or force, even though the electrons in an insulator can't jump
from atom to atom, what it can do is it can shift. This nucleus and the cloud of electrons shifts a
little bit as shown in fig.

So, left side of atom is more positive than right side. If all atoms are considered then left side part
of insulator is little more positively charged than right side part. So, even though the electron
doesn't move from atom to atom this shifting makes an overall electrical effect where this insulator
can interact with other charges nearby and exert forces on them. So, it is seen that, even though
the charges can't flow through an insulator, they can still interact electrically.
Effect of adding extra charge to these insulators or conductors: We know there are as many
positives in the nucleus (as Protons) as there are negatives surrounding them and that's true for
the conductors and insulators.
Let's say extra negative charges are added to the insulator. We know these negatives can't move
throughout the insulator. They will stuck to different atoms. So, we could charge the whole thing
uniformly if we want to and the charge will spread out throughout the whole thing. Or, we could
make them bunch up on one side if we want to and they'd be stuck there. So, the main point is that
they will stuck.

For a conductor, if extra negatives are put, since they can move freely inside conductor so, they
will repel each other and tend to go as far as possible. But they would not go out of material
because that needs extra energy. So, they will accumulate at the very edge. That's what charges
do for conductors. If extra charges are put in a solid conducting material then all that charge is
going to reside on the outside edge whether you've added extra negative or positive.
What it means to add +ve charge? Taking away electrons means adding positive charge to the
material. Here also positive charges (ions) tend to reside on the outside edge of the conductor.
Whenever electrons are taken out of atoms then atoms become + ve ions and they start to repel
each other and shift towards the edge of the material.
Glass, wood, plastics are insulators where you can distribute charge and the charge can't flow
through it. You can stick charge on it. In fact, you can stick charge on the outside edge and it will
stay there.
Gold, silver, aluminium, copper are good conductors.
Separation of Charge in Atoms
Charges in atoms and molecules can be separated—for example, by rubbing materials together.
Some atoms and molecules have a greater affinity for electrons than others and will become
negatively charged by close contact in rubbing, leaving the other material positively charged.
(Figure 7.2.6) Positive charge can similarly be induced by rubbing. Methods other than rubbing
can also separate charges. Batteries, for example, use combinations of substances that interact in
such a way as to separate charges. Chemical interactions may transfer negative charge from one
substance to the other, making one battery terminal negative and leaving the first one positive.

Electrostatics
We are talking about electrostatics. This means that the charges present are in a state of static
equilibrium – they are not moving, nor are they accelerating. But we know that conductors allow
for charges to flow freely, so how can these two things be reconciled? If a conductor suddenly
finds itself in the presence of an electric field, then the charges on that conductor will start to move
as a result of the new force. As the charges move, the fields (which are affected by the placement
of these charges) also change. The charges continue accelerating until the field contributions of
the displaced charges cancel the external field. With zero net field, the charges no longer
accelerate, and we will assume that their kinetic energy dissipates such that they also come to
rest. The conclusions we will draw here do not apply to the period of time when the charges are
still moving around – we will only be considering the case when the charges finally reach an
equilibrium electrostatic state.

Ways to charge
1) Charging by conduction:
One of the ball has a net amount of negative charge on it which is going to reside on the outside
edge because that's what net charge does on a conductor, but this other ball, this other metal
conducting ball, does not have any net charge on it.
Like charges want to get as far away from each other as possible. So they spread out even
farther away from each other and in doing so some electrons move to second ball. If these balls
were the same size, there would be equal amounts on each. If the second ball was bigger, more of
them would go on to this second one because that would allow them to spread out even more.
Some would stay on the smaller one. That is charging by just touching.
If shape or size or material itself is different, then charges will be unevenly distributed. Here one
body had –Q charge and another had 0 charge. After touching both of them have –Q / 2 charge as
they are identical bodies.
2) Charging by induction:
Let’s examine in more detail what happens in a conductor when an electrically charged object
is brought close to it. As mentioned, the conduction electrons in the conductor are able to move
with nearly complete freedom. As a result, when a charged insulator (such as a positively charged
glass rod) is brought close to the conductor, the (total) charge on the insulator exerts an electric
force on the conduction electrons. Since the rod is positively charged, the conduction electrons
(which themselves are negatively charged) are attracted, flowing toward the insulator to the near
side of the conductor (Figure 1.3.2).

Now, the conductor is still overall electrically neutral; the conduction electrons have changed
position, but they are still in the conducting material. However, the conductor now has a charge
distribution; the near end (the portion of the conductor closest to the insulator) now has more
negative charge than positive charge, and the reverse is true of the end farthest from the insulator.
The relocation of negative charges to the near side of the conductor results in an overall positive
charge in the part of the conductor farthest from the insulator. We have thus created an electric
charge distribution that did not exist before. This process is referred to as inducing polarization—in
this case, polarizing the conductor. The resulting separation of positive and negative charge is
called polarization, and a material, or even a molecule, that exhibits polarization is said to be
polarized. A similar situation occurs with a negatively charged insulator, but the resulting
polarization is in the opposite direction.
The result is the formation of what is called an electric dipole, from a Latin phrase meaning
“two ends.” The presence of electric charges on the insulator—and the electric forces they apply to
the conduction electrons—creates, or “induces,” the dipole in the conductor.
Neutral objects can be attracted to any charged object. The pieces of straw attracted to
polished amber are neutral, for example. If you run a plastic comb through your hair, the charged
comb can pick up neutral pieces of paper. Figure 1.3.3 shows how the polarization of atoms and
molecules in neutral objects results in their attraction to a charged object.
 When a charged rod is brought near a neutral substance, an insulator in this case, the
distribution of charge in atoms and molecules is shifted slightly. Opposite charge is attracted
nearer the external charged rod, while like charge is repelled. Since the electrostatic force
decreases with distance, the repulsion of like charges is weaker than the attraction of unlike
charges, and so there is a net attraction. Thus, a positively charged glass rod attracts neutral
pieces of paper, as will a negatively charged rubber rod. Some molecules, like water, are polar
molecules. Polar molecules have a natural or inherent separation of charge, although they are
neutral overall. Polar molecules are particularly affected by other charged objects and show
greater polarization effects than molecules with naturally uniform charge distributions.
When the two ends of a dipole can be separated, this method of charging by induction may
be used to create charged objects without transferring charge. In Figure 1.3.4, we see two neutral
metal spheres in contact with one another but insulated from the rest of the world. A positively
charged rod is brought near one of them, attracting negative charge to that side, leaving the other
sphere positively charged.

Another method of charging by induction is shown in Figure 1.3.5. The neutral metal sphere
is polarized when a charged rod is brought near it. The sphere is then grounded, meaning that a
conducting wire is run from the sphere to the ground. Since Earth is large and most of the ground
is a good conductor, it can supply or accept excess charge easily. In this case, electrons are
attracted to the sphere through a wire called the ground wire, because it supplies a conducting
path to the ground. The ground connection is broken before the charged rod is removed, leaving
the sphere with an excess charge opposite to that of the rod. Again, an opposite charge is
achieved when charging by induction, and the charged rod loses none of its excess charge.
3) Charging by friction (Polarisation in insulator by shifting of nucleus):

when a balloon is rubbed against hair, due to higher electronegativity of rubber than hair some
electrons of hair moves to balloon which becomes negatively charged. Now if the balloon is put
near a wall or a ceiling it may sticks there.
Rubber and ceiling both are insulating materials. So, electrons aren't getting transferred. But even
in an insulating material, the atom can reorient or polarize by shifting. The negatives in the atom
can shift to one side within atom and the other side becomes a little more positive. Because these
positives are a little closer so these positives of ceiling are attracting negatives of balloons with
greater force than these negatives of ceiling are repelling the other negatives in the balloon. This
causes a net force between the ceiling and the balloon. So, even if it's an insulator, sometimes it
can interact with electric force because the atom can shift and polarize.

During rubbing of two bodies depending on electronegativity electrons of one body moves to other
body making both of them charged. Ex: When a plastic comb is rubbed with hair, there is a
transfer of charge between two objects by means of friction. In this particular case, the plastic
comb (more electronegative than hair) acquires negative charge due to its tendency to acquire
electrons.
 Although mass of electron is very small but it has mass. So transfer of charge always
accompanied with transfer of mass.
Coulomb’s law
Through the work of scientists in the late 18th century, the main features of the electrostatic force
—the existence of two types of charge, the observation that like charges repel, unlike charges
attract, and the decrease of force with distance—were eventually refined, and expressed as a
mathematical formula. The mathematical formula for the electrostatic force is called Coulomb’s law
after the French physicist Charles Coulomb (1736–1806), who performed experiments and first
proposed a formula to calculate it.

The electrostatic force is a vector quantity and is expressed in units of newtons. The force is
understood to be along the line joining the two charges and is dictated by the signs of the charges
involved. (Figure 7.4.2)
The Coulomb constant k can be written in the form
1
k=
4πε0

where the constant ε0 (lowercase Greek epsilon) is known as the permittivity of free space and has
2
the value 8.8542 × 10−12N.Cm2.

Although the formula for Coulomb’s law is simple, it was no mean task to prove it. The
experiments Coulomb did, with the primitive equipment then available, were difficult. Modern
experiments have verified Coulomb’s law to great precision. For example, it has been shown that
the force is inversely proportional to distance between two objects squared to an
accuracy of 1 part in 1016. No exceptions have ever been found, even at the small distances within
the atom.
Relation between electrostatic force FE and gravitational force FG

Since K is much higher than G so FE much higher than FG. also G is called universal constant
because it is independent of medium whereas K depends on medium.
As the example implies, gravitational force is completely negligible on a small scale, where the
interactions of individual charged particles are important. On a large scale, such as between the
Earth and a person, the reverse is true. Most objects are nearly electrically neutral, and so
attractive and repulsive Coulomb forces nearly cancel. Gravitational force on a large scale
dominates interactions between large objects because it is always attractive, while Coulomb
forces tend to cancel.

Point charge is an electric charge considered to exist at a single point, and thus having neither
area nor volume. When the linear sizes of charged bodies are much smaller than the distance
between them, their sizes may be ignored and the charged bodies are called point charges.
Q: Can you explain the attraction of water to the charged rod in the figure below?
Solution:
Water molecules are polarized, giving them slightly positive and slightly negative sides. This
makes water even more susceptible to a charged rod’s attraction. As the water flows downward,
due to the force of gravity, the charged conductor exerts a net attraction to the opposite charges in
the stream of water, pulling it closer.

This Coulomb force is extremely basic, since most charges are due to point-like particles. It is
responsible for all electrostatic effects and underlies most macroscopic forces.
Principle of superposition
The force between any two charges is unaffected by the presence of any third charge. Only net
force on these two charges will change.
Permittivity and relative permittivity

So, permittivity permits its own field but decreases field between charges. More permittivity of
medium means less force between charges. Vacuum has least permittivity. So, force between two
charges is maximum in vacuum.

Here εm is the permittivity of any medium and Fm is the force between two charges in that medium. If
distance between two charges remains same then in any medium other than vacuum or free
space (or, air, although air has slightly higher permittivity than vacuum because of molecules it
contains) the force between them will always be less than that of in vacuum.
In order to remember permittivity of any medium relative permittivity, εr is used.

If relative permittivity of any medium is known then multiplying that value with ε0 gives permittivity,
εm of that medium.

Electric field
While one can describe the details of forces between charges mathematically, it still is very
unsatisfying – how do the charges affect each other from a distance? Newton discovered law of
gravitation. But how this force acts even at a huge distance he could not answer. Similar case now
comes out in case of electrostatic force.

This question troubled physicists for a long time, and the “solution” (really it is just a model that
works) is quite ingenious. It goes like this:

The source of the electric (or even gravitational) force doesn’t know anything about the existence
of another charge “out there.” All it knows is its own charge. The source then sends out a “signal”
that radiates away from it radially, and this signal carries with it the information of how much
charge the source has and how far the signal travels – the signal gets weaker as it gets farther
from the source, because it spreads out on the surface of an ever-growing sphere. Now if another
charge happens to be in the space near where this source is, it “receives” the signal, and it takes
from it the information about the amount of charge of the source, as well as the signal strength
itself (which includes the inverse square-law separation information), and the direction from which
the signal is coming. The affected charge puts all this information together with its own charge to
determine the electric force it feels.
Another trouble is that, the net electric force on a test charge is the vector sum of all the electric
forces acting on it, from all of the various source charges, located at their various positions. But
what if we use a different test charge, one with a different magnitude, or sign, or both? Or suppose
we have a dozen different test charges we wish to try at the same location? We would have to
calculate the sum of the forces from scratch. Fortunately, it is possible to define a quantity, called
the electric field, which is independent of the test charge. It only depends on the configuration of
the source charges, and once found, allows us to calculate the force on any test charge.
Faraday said if a positive charge is placed in space then it creates an electric field everywhere
around it at all times whether there are other charges nearby or not. The electric field gets weaker
and weaker the farther out you go. So near the charge you've got a big electric field and then the
farther away you go, the weaker the electric field is. So this is kind of like a spider web surrounding
a spider except the spider is like the charge and the web is like the electric field.

He said there's a mediator basically that this first charge, Q1 creates a field everywhere including at
this point and then that field is creating a force on this charge Q2 that wanders into that zone. But Q2
also creates its own field and Q1 feels the force. So, we may say that charges talk to each other via
field.

The ratio of the force to the charge is called the intensity of the electric field, or, more usually,
simply the electric field. Thus I have used the words “electric field” to mean either the region of
space around a charged body, or, quantitatively, to mean its intensity. Usually it is clear from the
context which is meant, but, if you wish, you may elect to use the longer phrase “intensity of the
electric field” if you want to remove all doubt.

Note that E is the field produced by some charge external to the test charge—it is not the field
produced by the test charge itself. Also, note that the existence of an electric field is a property of
its source. For example, every electron comes with its own electric field.

The vector E has the SI units of newtons per coulomb (N / C), and, as Figure 23.10 shows, its direction is the
direction of the force a positive test charge experiences when placed in the field. We say that an
electric field exists at a point if a test charge at rest at that point experiences an electric force.
Once the magnitude and direction of the electric field are known at some point, the electric force
exerted on any charged particle placed at that point can be calculated from Equation 23.3.
Furthermore, the electric field is said to exist at some point (even empty space) regardless of
whether a test charge is located at that point. (This is analogous to the gravitational field set up by
any object, which is said to exist at a given point regardless of whether some other object is
present at that point to “feel” the field.) The electric field magnitudes for various field sources are
given in Table 23.2.
When using Equation 23.3, we must assume that the test charge q0 is small enough that it does not
disturb the charge distribution responsible for the electric field. If a vanishingly small test charge q0
is placed near a uniformly charged metallic sphere, as shown in Figure 23.11a, the charge on the
metallic sphere, which produces the electric field, remains uniformly distributed. If the test charge
is great enough , as shown in Figure 23.11b, the charge on the metallic sphere is
redistributed and the ratio of the force to the test charge is different: . That is,
because of this redistribution of charge on the metallic sphere, the electric field it sets up is
different from the field it sets up in the presence of the much smaller q0.

(See video 1 in reference).

But electric field is not electric force. Although they are much related but they are not forces.
Electric field is a vector quantity like force. But these field vectors shown above are not forces.
Even though the electric field is not a force, it can cause an electric force on other charges. So if
we have a positive charge creating its electric field in the region surrounding it, there would be no
electric force. You need two charges to have an electrical force. This charge can’t exert a force on
itself. So, a field is always accompanied a charge. But to exert force there must be at least one
charge within the field. It means, if there is an electric force there must be a field. But if there is a
field that does not necessarily mean a force is also there.
Since the electric field is a vector quantity, the electric field is referred to as a vector field. (The
gravitational field is also a vector field.) In contrast, a field that has only a magnitude at every point
is a scalar field. The temperature in a room is an example of a scalar field. It is a field because the
temperature, in general, is different at different locations in the room, and it is a scalar field
because temperature is a scalar quantity.
Also, as you did with the gravitational field of an object with mass, you should picture the electric
field of a charge-bearing object (the source charge) as a continuous, immaterial substance that
surrounds the source charge, filling all of space — in principle, to in all directions. The field
exists at every physical point in space. To put it another way, the electric charge on an object
alters the space around the charged object in such a way that all other electrically charged objects
in space experience an electric force as a result of being in that field. The electric field, then, is the
mechanism by which the electric properties of the source charge are transmitted to and through
the rest of the universe. (Again, the range of the electric force is infinite.)
The speed at which electrical phenomena travel is the same as the speed of light. There is a deep
connection between the electric field and light.
Test charge is so small that it does not create any field. It is always + ve. If the charge producing
field is + ve i.e., say, +Q then the field will repel the test charge and field lines will be radially
outwards. For –ve charge the field will attract the test charge and the field lines will be radially
inwards.
The definition of electric field is the amount of force per charge at a point in space.

⃗
⃗
So, the electric field is the amount of electric force per charge (E = F) and the electric force on a
q

charge at some point in space is the amount of charge times the electric field at that point in space
(F⃗ = qE⃗ ).

Visualizing electric field

The “signal” from source charge is constantly emitted, so it is always everywhere in the space
around the source charge, and it is called the electric field of that source charge. Since the signal
carries information about both a magnitude (source charge and distance) and a direction (coming
from the source charge's position), it essentially associates a vector with every point in space.
Defining (as usual) the origin to be at the position of the source charge, the electric field vector at a
specific point (defined by the position vector ) due to the source charge is:
To visualize what the complete field looks like, imagine all of space filled with vectors. For a
positive point charge, the vectors all point directly away from it, and the magnitudes of the vectors
drop-off in length as they get farther from the source:

Comparing our Coulomb field equation with Coulomb force equation, , we see
that indeed all of information needed to compute the electric force, except for the amount of
charge that is affected, is contained within the electric field vector. So if we know the electric field
vectors everywhere in space (or, more succinctly, we "know the electric field"), then we can
compute the force on a point charge placed at any position, simply by multiplying the affected
charge by the electric field vector:

A convenient way of visualizing electric field patterns is to draw lines that follow the same direction
as the electric field vector at any point. These lines, called electric field lines, are related to the
electric field in any region of space in the following manner:
• The electric field vector E is tangent to the electric field line at each point.
• The number of lines per unit area through a surface perpendicular to the lines is proportional to
the magnitude of the electric field in that region. Thus, E is great when the field lines are close
together and small when they are far apart.
These properties are illustrated in Figure 23.19. The density of lines through surface A is greater
than the density of lines through surface B. Therefore, the electric field is more intense on surface
A than on surface B. Furthermore, the fact that the lines at different locations point in different
directions indicates that the field is non-uniform.

Representative electric field lines for the field due to a single positive point charge are shown in
Figure 23.20a. Note that in this two-dimensional drawing we show only the field lines that lie in the
plane containing the point charge. The lines are actually directed radially outward from the charge
in all directions; thus, instead of the flat “wheel” of lines shown, you should picture an entire sphere
of lines. Because a positive test charge placed in this field would be repelled by the positive point
charge, the lines are directed radially away from the positive point charge. The electric field lines
representing the field due to a single negative point charge are directed toward the charge (Fig.
23.20b). In either case, the lines are along the radial direction and extend all the way to infinity.
Note that the lines become closer together as they approach the charge; this indicates that the
strength of the field increases as we move toward the source charge.

Figure 23.20 The electric field lines for a point charge. (a) For a positive point charge, the lines are
directed radially outward. (b) For a negative point charge, the lines are directed radially inward.
Note that the figures show only those field lines that lie in the plane containing the charge. (c) The
dark areas are small pieces of thread suspended in oil, which align with the electric field produced
by a small charged conductor at the center.
We use electric field lines to qualitatively describe the electric field. One problem with this model is
that we always draw a finite number of lines from (or to) each charge. Thus, it appears as if the
field acts only in certain directions; this is not true. Instead, the field is continuous—that is, it exists
at every point. Another problem associated with this model is the danger of gaining the wrong
impression from a two-dimensional drawing of field lines being used to describe a three-
dimensional situation. Be aware of these shortcomings every time you either draw or look at a
diagram showing electric field lines.
The electric field lines for two point charges of equal magnitude but opposite signs (an electric
dipole) are shown in Figure 23.21. Because the charges are of equal magnitude, the number of
lines that begin at the positive charge must equal the number that terminate at the negative
charge. At points very near the charges, the lines are nearly radial. The high density of lines
between the charges indicates a region of strong electric field.

Figure 23.21 (a) The electric field lines for two point charges of
equal magnitude and opposite sign (an electric dipole). The number of lines leaving the positive
charge equals the number terminating at the negative charge. (b) The dark lines are small pieces
of thread suspended in oil, which align with the electric field of a dipole.
Figure 23.22 shows the electric field lines in the vicinity of two equal positive point charges. Again,
the lines are nearly radial at points close to either charge, and the same number of lines emerge
from each charge because the charges are equal in magnitude. At great distances from the
charges, the field is approximately equal to that of a single point charge of magnitude 2q.

Figure 23.22 (a) The electric field lines for two positive point charges. (The locations A, B, and C
are discussed in Quick Quiz 23.5.) (b) Pieces of thread suspended in oil, which align with the
electric field created by two equal-magnitude positive charges.
Finally, in Figure 23.23 we sketch the electric field lines associated with a positive charge + 2q and
a negative charge − q. In this case, the number of lines leaving + 2q is twice the number terminating
at − q. Hence, only half of the lines that leave the positive charge reach the negative charge. The
remaining half terminate on a negative charge we assume to be at infinity. At distances that are
much greater than the charge separation, the electric field lines are equivalent to those of a single
charge + q.

The Meaning of “Field”

Recall from your studies of gravity that the word “field” in this context has a precise meaning. A
field, in physics, is a physical quantity whose value depends on (is a function of) position, relative
to the source of the field. In the case of the electric field, Equation 1.5.6 shows that the value of E⃗

(both the magnitude and the direction) depends on where in space the point P is located,
measured from the locations r⃗ of the source charges qi .
i

In addition, since the electric field is a vector quantity, the electric field is referred to as a vector
field. (The gravitational field is also a vector field.) In contrast, a field that has only a magnitude at
every point is a scalar field. The temperature in a room is an example of a scalar field. It is a field
because the temperature, in general, is different at different locations in the room, and it is a scalar
field because temperature is a scalar quantity.
Also, as you did with the gravitational field of an object with mass, you should picture the electric
field of a charge-bearing object (the source charge) as a continuous, immaterial substance that
surrounds the source charge, filling all of space—in principle, to in all directions. The field
exists at every physical point in space. To put it another way, the electric charge on an object
alters the space around the charged object in such a way that all other electrically charged objects
in space experience an electric force as a result of being in that field. The electric field, then, is the
mechanism by which the electric properties of the source charge are transmitted to and through
the rest of the universe. (Again, the range of the electric force is infinite.)
The Direction of the Field
Equation 1.5.6 enables us to determine the magnitude of the electric field, but we need the
direction also. We use the convention that the direction of any electric field vector is the same as
the direction of the electric force vector that the field would apply to a positive test charge placed in
that field. Such a charge would be repelled by positive source charges (the force on it would point
away from the positive source charge) but attracted to negative charges (the force points toward
the negative source).
Electric potential and potential difference or voltage (video 2, 2A, 3, 3A & 4 in reference)
The concept of potential energy is connected with conservative forces such as the force of gravity
and the elastic force exerted by a spring. By using the law of conservation of energy, we were able
to avoid working directly with forces when solving various problems in mechanics. The concept of
potential energy is also of great value in the study of electricity. Because the electrostatic force
given by Coulomb’s law is conservative, electrostatic phenomena can be conveniently described
in terms of an electric potential energy. This idea enables us to define a scalar quantity known as
electric potential. Because the electric potential at any point in an electric field is a scalar function,
we can use it to describe electrostatic phenomena more simply than if we were to rely only on the
concepts of the electric field and electric forces. In later chapters we shall see that the concept of
electric potential is of great practical value.
We defined that electric field is a quantity independent of the test charge in a given system, which
would nonetheless allow us to calculate the force that would result on an arbitrary test charge.
(The default assumption in the absence of other information is that the test charge is positive.) We
also know about field for gravity, but gravity is always attractive, whereas the electric force can be
either attractive or repulsive. Therefore, although potential energy is perfectly adequate in a
gravitational system, it is convenient to define a quantity that allows us to calculate the work on a
charge independent of the magnitude of the charge. Calculating the work directly may be difficult,
since W = F.⃗ D⃗ and the direction and magnitude of F⃗ can be complex for multiple charges, for odd-

shaped objects, and along arbitrary paths. But we do know that because F⃗ = qE⃗ the work, and hence

ΔU, is proportional to the test charge q. To have a physical quantity that is independent of test
charge, we define electric potential V (or simply potential, since electric is understood) to be the
potential energy per unit charge:
Since U is proportional to q, the dependence on q cancels. Thus, V does not depend on q. The
change in potential energy ΔU is crucial, so we are concerned with the difference in potential or
potential difference ΔV between two points, where

Potential energy is associated with a particle that has some mass (gravitational potential energy)
or charge (electric potential energy). Only that particle can have energy. Potential is a number
associated with a point in space.
Potential can be defined in terms of potential energy or work done.

If we held a 5 kg ball above ground we say the ball has Potential energy. It means it has potential
to do work after transforming into kinetic energy. An object has potential energy by virtue of its
position or configuration. Let say, the ball has PE 55 J at that point. Then if we ask how much
potential energy a one kilogram ball held at this same point have? We know PE = mgh. So, 1 kg ball
would have PE = 11J.

Now i can get rid of this ball and instead i could put a indicator i mean i can label that point and
say let's call it point A and i could say at this point the potential energy is 11 joules per kilogram
that's how we can write and what this means is if i were to keep one kilogram over here it would
have 11 joules of potential energy and this number how much potential energy you get per
kilogram is what we call gravitational potential and we will write a over here because now we say
potential at point A (11J/kg) and potential energy at point A (55J). So, potential is just potential
energy that one kilogram would have. It's an indicator. (Note: We can also say 5 J/C is the
property of that point in the gravitational field created by earth).
Now in case of electricity say we have now a bowling ball which is charged because you want
electricity and let's say it has 20 coulombs of positive charge and let's say we have another huge
charge which is negatively charged at the bottom. Now we have a situation which is very similar to
that of gravity. If i were to let go of my hand then assume the big ball is fixed, the small ball is
going to get attracted towards big ball. So, the ball gets KE say 100 joules. From where did the
ball get this? This was the PE stored in the ball by virtue of its position in an electrostatic field.
So all the 100 joules was stored as potential energy and i could now ask the same question as i
did before if 20 coulombs of charge at this point has 100 joules of potential energy how much
would one coulomb have at this point? It is 5J / C. So, now we can get rid of that small ball and we
can put a label over there at that point mentioning 5 joules/coulomb and this number has now
becomes property of that point in space. (Note: We can also say 5 J/C is the property of that point
in the electric field created by the big charge.)
Electric potential is a property of space. A location has electric potential even if there is no charged
particle there. It is like rate of items in grocery shop. Say rice is Rs. 50 /kg. It is just an indicator. It
is a fixed value. Now if you buy 5 kg rice then you have to pay Rs. 250.

The familiar term voltage is the common name for electric potential difference. Keep in mind that
whenever a voltage is quoted, it is understood to be the potential difference between two points.
For example, every battery has two terminals, and its voltage is the potential difference between
them. More fundamentally, the point you choose to be zero volts is arbitrary. This is analogous to
the fact that gravitational potential energy has an arbitrary zero, such as sea level or perhaps a
lecture hall floor. It is worthwhile to emphasize the distinction between potential difference and
electrical potential energy.

Electric potential at any point P, VP can now be defined as potential energy that a +1C of charge
would have (here positive charge is taken as standard). It is calculated by VP = UqP where UP = potential

energy at point P. It’s unit is Joules / Coulomb or J / C, also called Volt, named after physicist Alessandro
Volta who invented the very first battery.
So, what does the statement ‘electric potential at any point c is 20 V’ mean? First of all, volt is joules
per coulomb. So, 20 V means 20 joules per coulomb. Hence this statement says that if one
coulomb of charge is placed at this point c, it would have 20 joules of potential energy. Also
potential is an indicator. So if 10 coulombs of charge is kept at this point c then it would have 200
joules of potential energy.
So potentials are just indicators that we can add to any point in space. It's an indicator of how
much potential energy the charge would have per coulomb.
Potential energy is always measured with some reference. In a number line to know position of
any point a reference is taken. If reference is changed then although position of point is
unchanged so its co-ordinate of position will be changed.
In a number line shown below if the position of point is just asked then it is impossible to say until
any reference is assumed. Let point B is assumed as reference. Then it can be said that this point
is 5 cm right to B. Now, generally reference is taken as zero, so, position of point is 5 cm. If
reference is assumed 10 cm then position is will be 15 cm. If another point T is taken as reference
then co-ordinates of point will change.

Similarly in finding PE, a reference must be chosen with respect of which PE of a point can be
measured. In case of gravitational PE, earth is taken as reference unless otherwise stated. If PE of
a 1 kg stone is 11 J means by the time it reaches the ground all its 11 J energy will be converted
to KE. That’s why PE is called stored energy which is ready to be converted to KE and then will be
enable to do work. If the point at ground, where the stone hits, is called B then we can say that
potential at A is 11 joules per kilogram more than potential at B.
Now a table is placed in between stone and earth. When stone falls, then upon reaching at point T
on table, some of its PE say, 3J will be converted to KE. So, rest 8J remains, which is potential at T.
So, we may say that potential at A is 3 J/kg more than potential T. This is because VA − VT = 11 − 8 = 3J.
This 3 J has been converted to KE. Similarly T has PE 8 J more than B. So, VT − VB = 8 − 0 = 8 J.

Similarly, in case of electric PE a reference must be chosen. In Gravitational PE reference is

usually the lowest point i.e., ground unless otherwise stated. In electric PE reference is infinity
because at infinity, interaction between two objects is negligible (there is no effect of any field at
infinity. In other words infinity is that point from a source where the presence of field due to that
charge can't be felt.), therefore the potential energy is considered to be 0 there.
If it is said that potential at A is 5 V with reference to some other point B then VA − VB = 5V.
If it is said that potential at some point p is − 30 volt without mentioning any reference point then it just
means that the charge at P has 30 J / C less potential energy than it would have at infinity. So, a
charge has positive potential then it means it has more potential energy compared to that charge
at infinity and if it's a negative potential then it has less potential energy compared to that at
infinity. Most of the time we like to choose this to be infinity but it doesn't have to be. It's just a
convenience.
The standard way of writing is VAB = 5V i.e., potential at A w.r.t B is 5V or, potential difference between
A and B is 5V. This means if a charge of 1 C is brought from B to A then it would gain 5 J PE.

Voltage
Whenever we are talking about potentials always we are talking about the difference between the
values of potentials between two points. And that's why we can also call this potential difference.
So whether you call it potential at a point or potential difference between two points (Although if
potential at a point is only given then it is implied that other point is at infinity) it's actually the same
thing.
(Note: since ‘potential’ term is associated with potential energy and potential energy is always
accompanied with some reference point, so ‘potential’ and ‘potential difference’ are same thing.
When we say potential then it means reference point is at infinity and when we say potential
difference then it means more general, where reference point is any other point.)
The term voltage is used for potential difference i.e., change in potential energy per unit charge
∆ PE
(∆V=
q
). So, voltage is not the same as energy. Voltage is the energy per unit charge* (because

potential difference means difference between potential energy per unit charge). Thus a
motorcycle battery and a car battery can both have the same voltage (more precisely, the same
potential difference between battery terminals), yet one stores much more energy than the other
since ( ∆ PE = q ∆ V). The car battery can move more charge than the motorcycle battery, although both
are 12 V batteries.

(Note: A12 V battery means potential difference between two terminals is 12 V. This means it can
impart 12J energy to -1C charge while moving from cathode to anode. But energy value of a
battery means total energy that battery has. The energy rating, or battery capacity, of the battery
system is measured in kilowatt-hours and provides an estimate of the amount of energy that can
be stored. The energy rating is the measure of how much electricity the system can deliver or
absorb over the course of an hour.
It means two batteries can have same potential difference i.e., both of them can impart same 12J
energy to each unit charge passing from cathode to anode. But the battery having more energy
can move more charges from cathode to anode than another battery having less energy.)
* Energy means total energy content in a point charge due to its position in a field. Whereas
voltage is total energy per unit charge placed at that point. So, it is just an indicator.
Problem 1:

Electric field can be created by either + ve charge or − ve charge. So, position of fixed + ve charge and
fixed − ve charge are shown here. Another + ve charge to be moved slowly from p to q under their
influence in both cases.
See video 4 in reference.
Potential at a point in terms of work done:

When a free positive charge q is accelerated by an electric field, it is given kinetic energy (Figure
7.2). The process is analogous to an object being accelerated by a gravitational field, as if the
charge were going down an electrical hill where its electric potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy, although of course the sources of the forces are very different.
Let us explore the work done on a charge q by the electric field in this process, so that we may
develop a definition of electric potential energy.
The electrostatic or Coulomb force is conservative, which means that the work done on q is
independent of the path taken, as we will demonstrate later. This is exactly analogous to the
gravitational force. When a force is conservative, it is possible to define a potential energy
associated with the force. It is usually easier to work with the potential energy (because it depends
only on position) than to calculate the work directly.
To show this explicitly, consider an electric charge +q fixed at the origin and move another charge
+Q toward q in such a manner that, at each instant, the applied force F⃗ exactly balances the electric

force F⃗ on Q (Figure 7.3). The work done by the applied force F⃗ on the charge Q changes the
e

potential energy of Q. We call this potential energy the electrical potential energy of Q.

where we have defined positive to be pointing away from the origin and r is the distance from the
origin. The directions of both the displacement and the applied force in the system in Figure 7.3
are parallel, and thus the work done on the system is positive.
We use the letter U to denote electric potential energy, which has units of joules (J). When a
conservative force does negative work, the system gains potential energy. When a conservative
force does positive work, the system loses potential energy, ΔU = − W. In the system in Figure 7.3,
the Coulomb force acts in the opposite direction to the displacement; therefore, the work is
negative. However, we have increased the potential energy in the two-charge system.
Gravitational potential energy and electric potential energy are quite analogous. Potential energy
accounts for work done by a conservative force and gives added insight regarding energy and
energy transformation without the necessity of dealing with the force directly. It is much more
common, for example, to use the concept of electric potential energy than to deal with the
Coulomb force directly in real-world applications.

A convenient choice of reference that relies on our common sense is that when the two charges
are infinitely far apart, there is no interaction between them. (Recall the discussion of reference
potential energy in Potential Energy and Conservation of Energy
(http://cnx.org/content/m58311/latest/) .) Taking the potential energy of this state to be zero
removes the term Uref from the equation (just like when we say the ground is zero potential energy
in a gravitational potential energy problem), and the potential energy of Q when it is separated from
q by a distance r assumes the form

This formula is symmetrical with respect to q and Q, so it is best described as the potential energy
of the two-charge system.
Due to Coulomb’s law, the forces due to multiple charges on a test charge Q superimpose; they
may be calculated individually and then added. This implies that the work integrals and hence the
resulting potential energies exhibit the same behaviour.
Note that the electrical potential energy is positive if the two charges are of the same type, either
positive or negative, and negative if the two charges are of opposite types. This makes sense if
you think of the change in the potential energy ΔU as you bring the two charges closer or move
them farther apart. Depending on the relative types of charges, you may have to work on the
system or the system would do work on you, that is, your work is either positive or negative. If you
have to do positive work on the system (actually push the charges closer), then the energy of the
system should increase. If you bring two positive charges or two negative charges closer, you
have to do positive work on the system, which raises their potential energy. Since potential energy
is proportional to 1 / r, the potential energy goes up when r goes down between two positive or two
negative charges.
On the other hand, if you bring a positive and a negative charge nearer, you have to do negative
work on the system (the charges are pulling you)*, which means that you take energy away from
the system. This reduces the potential energy. Since potential energy is negative in the case of a
positive and a negative charge pair, the increase in 1 / r makes the potential energy more negative,
which is the same as a reduction in potential energy.
* In order to move two opposite charges nearer, external force must be applied in opposite
direction. This is analogous to bringing a ball downward without acceleration by holding in hand. In
this case hand applies upward force which equals to downward force by gravity. So, net force
applied on ball is zero. So, there is no acceleration. Hence ball maintains its journey in same
direction. Similarly two opposite charges attract each other with much higher force. So, if they are
to bring nearer by external force then force in opposite direction must be applied. so, external work
is negative here.
Thus potential energy can be defined as work done in moving the charges from infinite separation
to their current proximity. That gives us the following potential energy of two point charges
separated by a distance r:
(since force changes with distance between charges, so calculus is used to find net work done).
It should be noted that this potential energy is positive if the two charges have the same sign, and
negative if they have different signs. This makes sense, since we have to add external work to the
system to push the repelling charges together, while attracting charges "want" to come together,
which is a characteristic of decreasing potential energy (because the force causes them to speed
up, so the loss of potential energy results in a increase of kinetic energy).
The potentials at all points in space surrounding a charge produce scalar field*, since at every
point in space is associated a number (not a vector, like in the case of electric field), and all these
numbers are referenced to an arbitrarily-chosen value of zero at infinity. Just as electric field
vectors are not the same as force vectors, the values in this scalar field (potential of point in
space) are not potential energies (electrical field vectors and potentials are indicators, whereas
force caused by field vectors and potential energy caused by potentials are properties of a charge
at that point under consideration) – indeed, this can be seen even in the units of these numbers,
which are joules divided by coulombs. The ratio of joules per coulomb is given its own name: volts.
The scalar field we have invented this way is called electrostatic potential. Like an electric field
vector, this is a quantity that is defined at every point in space in the vicinity of some electric
charge. Unlike electric field vectors, these quantities are scalars – they have no direction.
* Potential means energy at a point in space per unit charge. Energy is itself a scalar quantity. It is
just a number. Hence potential is also a scalar quantity.

See Video 5 in reference.

Relation between uniform electric field & voltage
Electric field can be calculated by taking derivatives of the potential, although going from a scalar
to a vector quantity introduces some interesting wrinkles. We frequently need E⃗ to calculate the

force in a system; since it is often simpler to calculate the potential directly, there are systems in
which it is useful to calculate V and then derive E⃗ from it. In general, regardless of whether the

electric field is uniform, it points in the direction of decreasing potential, because the force on a
positive charge is in the direction of E⃗ and also in the direction of lower potential V. Furthermore,

the magnitude of E⃗ equals the rate of decrease of V with distance. The faster V decreases over

distance, the greater the electric field. This gives us the following result.

For continually changing potentials, ΔV and Δs become infinitesimals, and we need differential
calculus to determine the electric field.
** See Video 10 in reference about ‘Relation between electric field & potential‘.
Note that the energies calculated in the previous example are absolute values. The change in
potential energy for the battery is negative, since it loses energy. These batteries, like many
electrical systems, actually move negative charge—electrons in particular. The batteries repel
electrons from their negative terminals (A) through whatever circuitry is involved and attract them
to their positive terminals (B), as shown in Figure 7.12. The change in potential is
ΔV = VB − VA = + 12 V and the charge q is negative, so that ΔU = qΔV is negative, meaning the potential

energy of the battery has decreased when q has moved from A to B.

Figure 7.12 A battery moves negative charge from its negative terminal
through a headlight to its positive terminal. Appropriate combinations of
chemicals in the battery separate charges so that the negative terminal
has an excess of negative charge, which is repelled by it and attracted to
the excess positive charge on the other terminal. In terms of potential,
the positive terminal is at a higher voltage than the negative terminal.
Inside the battery, both positive and negative charges move.

Q: How Many Electrons Move through a Headlight Each Second?

Problem:
If you forget to turn off your car lights, they slowly dim as the battery runs down. Why don’t they
suddenly blink off when the battery’s energy is gone?
Their gradual dimming implies that the battery output voltage decreases as the battery is depleted.
The reason for the decrease in output voltage for depleted batteries is that all voltage sources
have two fundamental parts—a source of electrical energy and an internal resistance.
Introduction to Electromotive Force
Voltage has many sources, a few of which are shown in Figure 10.2. All such devices create a
potential difference and can supply current if connected to a circuit. A special type of potential
difference is known as electromotive force (emf). The emf is not a force at all, but the term
‘electromotive force’ is used for historical reasons. It was coined by Alessandro Volta in the 1800s,
when he invented the first battery, also known as the voltaic pile. Because the electromotive force
is not a force, it is common to refer to these sources simply as sources of emf (pronounced as the
letters “ee-em-eff”), instead of sources of electromotive force.

If the electromotive force is not a force at all, then what is the emf and what is a source of emf? To
answer these questions, consider a simple circuit of a 12-V lamp attached to a 12-V battery, as
shown in Figure 10.3. The battery can be modeled as a two-terminal device that keeps one
terminal at a higher electric potential than the second terminal. The higher electric potential is
sometimes called the positive terminal and is labeled with a plus sign. The lower-potential terminal
is sometimes called the negative terminal and labeled with a minus sign. This is the source of the
emf.

When the emf source is not connected to the lamp, there is no net flow of charge within the emf
source. Once the battery is connected to the lamp, charges flow from one terminal of the battery,
through the lamp (causing the lamp to light), and back to the other terminal of the battery. If we
consider positive (conventional) current flow, positive charges leave the positive terminal, travel
through the lamp, and enter the negative terminal.
Positive current flow is useful for most of the circuit analysis in this chapter, but in metallic wires
and resistors, electrons contribute the most current, flowing in the opposite direction of positive
current flow. Therefore, it is more realistic to consider the movement of electrons for the analysis
of the circuit in Figure 10.3. The electrons leave the negative terminal, travel through the lamp,
and return to the positive terminal. In order for the emf source to maintain the potential difference
between the two terminals, negative charges (electrons) must be moved from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal. The emf source acts as a charge pump, moving negative charges from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal to maintain the potential difference. This increases
the potential energy of the charges and, therefore, the electric potential of the charges.
The force on the negative charge from the electric field is in the opposite direction of the electric
field, as shown in Figure 10.3. In order for the negative charges to be moved to the negative
terminal, work must be done on the negative charges. This requires energy, which comes from
chemical reactions in the battery. The potential is kept high on the positive terminal and low on the
negative terminal to maintain the potential difference between the two terminals. The emf is equal
to the work done on the charge per unit charge (ε = dW
dq
) when there is no current flowing. Since the

unit for work is the joule and the unit for charge is the coulomb, the unit for emf is the volt (1 V = 1 J / C).

The terminal voltage Vterminal of a battery is voltage measured across the terminals of the battery
when there is no load connected to the terminal. An ideal battery is an emf source that maintains a
constant terminal voltage, independent of the current between the two terminals. An ideal battery
has no internal resistance, and the terminal voltage is equal to the emf of the battery. In the next
section, we will show that a real battery does have internal resistance and the terminal voltage is
always less than the emf of the battery.
The Origin of Battery Potential
The combination of chemicals and the makeup of the terminals in a battery determine its emf. The
lead acid battery used in cars and other vehicles is one of the most common combinations of
chemicals. Figure 10.4 shows a single cell (one of six) of this battery. The cathode (positive)
terminal of the cell is connected to a lead oxide plate, whereas the anode (negative) terminal is
connected to a lead plate. Both plates are immersed in sulfuric acid, the electrolyte for the system.
Knowing a little about how the chemicals in a lead-acid battery interact helps in understanding the
potential created by the battery. Figure 10.5 shows the result of a single chemical reaction. Two
electrons are placed on the anode, making it negative, provided that the cathode supplies two
electrons. This leaves the cathode positively charged, because it has lost two electrons. In short, a
separation of charge has been driven by a chemical reaction.
Note that the reaction does not take place unless there is a complete circuit to allow two electrons
to be supplied to the cathode. Under many circumstances, these electrons come from the anode,
flow through a resistance, and return to the cathode. Note also that since the chemical reactions
involve substances with resistance, it is not possible to create the emf without an internal
resistance.

Internal Resistance and Terminal Voltage

The amount of resistance to the flow of current within the voltage source is called the internal
resistance. The internal resistance r of a battery can behave in complex ways. It generally
increases as a battery is depleted, due to the oxidation of the plates or the reduction of the acidity
of the electrolyte. However, internal resistance may also depend on the magnitude and direction of
the current through a voltage source, its temperature, and even its history. The internal resistance
of rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells, for example, depends on how many times and how deeply
they have been depleted. A simple model for a battery consists of an idealized emf source ε and
an internal resistance r (Figure 10.6).
Suppose an external resistor, known as the load resistance R, is connected to a voltage source
such as a battery, as in Figure 10.7. The figure shows a model of a battery with an emf , an
internal resistance r, and a load resistor R connected across its terminals. Using conventional
current flow, positive charges leave the positive terminal of the battery, travel through the resistor,
and return to the negative terminal of the battery. The terminal voltage of the battery depends on
the emf, the internal resistance, and the current, and is equal to

For a given emf and internal resistance, the terminal voltage decreases as the current increases
due to the potential drop Ir of the internal resistance.

A graph of the potential difference across each element the circuit is shown in Figure 10.8. A
current I runs through the circuit, and the potential drop across the internal resistor is equal to Ir.
The terminal voltage is equal to − Ir , which is equal to the potential drop across the load resistor
IR = ε − Ir . As with potential energy, it is the change in voltage that is important. When the term
“voltage” is used, we assume that it is actually the change in the potential, or . However, Δ is often
omitted for convenience.
The current through the load resistor is I = r +ε R . We see from this expression that the smaller the

internal resistance r, the greater the current the voltage source supplies to its load R. As batteries
are depleted, r increases. If r becomes a significant fraction of the load resistance, then the current
is significantly reduced, as the following example illustrates.

Problem: If you place a wire directly across the two terminal of a battery, effectively shorting out
the terminals, the battery will begin to get hot. Why do you suppose this happens?
When the two terminals of a battery are connected directly with a wire there will be a low
resistance path for the current to flow. The wire will get heated a little bit (depends on the
diameter of the wire less the diameter more heat) and the battery will be quickly discharged.
Resistors in Series and Parallel
In Current and Resistance, we described the term ‘resistance’ and explained the basic design of a
resistor. Basically, a resistor limits the flow of charge in a circuit and is an ohmic device where V =
IR. Most circuits have more than one resistor. If several resistors are connected together and
connected to a battery, the current supplied by the battery depends on the equivalent resistance of
the circuit.

The equivalent resistance of a combination of resistors depends on both their individual values
and how they are connected. The simplest combinations of resistors are series and parallel
connections (Figure 10.11). In a series circuit, the output current of the first resistor flows into the
input of the second resistor; therefore, the current is the same in each resistor. In a parallel circuit,
all of the resistor leads on one side of the resistors are connected together and all the leads on the
other side are connected together. In the case of a parallel configuration, each resistor has the
same potential drop across it, and the currents through each resistor may be different, depending
on the resistor. The sum of the individual currents equals the current that flows into the parallel
connections.

Resistors in Series
Resistors are said to be in series whenever the current flows through the resistors sequentially.
Consider Figure 10.12, which shows three resistors in series with an applied voltage equal to Vab.
Since there is only one path for the charges to flow through, the current is the same through each
resistor. The equivalent resistance of a set of resistors in a series connection is equal to the
algebraic sum of the individual resistances.

In Figure 10.12, the current coming from the voltage source flows through each resistor, so the
current through each resistor is the same. The current through the circuit depends on the voltage
supplied by the voltage source and the resistance of the resistors. For each resistor, a potential
drop occurs that is equal to the loss of electric potential energy as a current travels through each
resistor. According to Ohm’s law, the potential drop V across a resistor when a current flows
through it is calculated using the equation V = IR, where I is the current in amps (A) and R is the
resistance in ohms (Ω). Since energy is conserved, and the voltage is equal to the potential energy
per charge, the sum of the voltage applied to the circuit by the source and the potential drops
across the individual resistors around a loop should be equal to zero:
This equation is often referred to as Kirchhoff’s loop law, which we will look at in more detail later
in this chapter. For Figure 10.12, the sum of the potential drop of each resistor and the voltage
supplied by the voltage source should equal zero:

Since the current through each component is the same, the equality can be simplified to an
equivalent resistance, which is just the sum of the resistances of the individual resistors. Any
number of resistors can be connected in series. If N resistors are connected in series, the
equivalent resistance is

One result of components connected in a series circuit is that if something happens to one
component, it affects all the other components. For example, if several lamps are connected in
series and one bulb burns out, all the other lamps go dark.
Problem: Some strings of miniature holiday lights are made to short out when a bulb burns out.
The device that causes the short is called a shunt, which allows current to flow around the open
circuit. A “short” is like putting a piece of wire across the component. The bulbs are usually
grouped in series of nine bulbs. If too many bulbs burn out, the shunts eventually open. What
causes this?
The equivalent resistance of nine bulbs connected in series is 9 R. The current is I=V/9R. If one
bulb burns out, the equivalent resistance is 8 R, and the voltage does not change, but the current
increases (I=V/8R). As more bulbs burn out, the current becomes even higher. Eventually, the
current becomes too high, burning out the shunt.
Resistors in Parallel
Figure 10.14 shows resistors in parallel, wired to a voltage source. Resistors are in parallel when
one end of all the resistors are connected by a continuous wire of negligible resistance and the
other end of all the resistors are also connected to one another through a continuous wire of
negligible resistance. The potential drop across each resistor is the same. Current through each
resistor can be found using Ohm’s law I = V/R, where the voltage is constant across each resistor.
For example, an automobile’s headlights, radio, and other systems are wired in parallel, so that
each subsystem utilizes the full voltage of the source and can operate completely independently.
The same is true of the wiring in your house or any building.

The current flowing from the voltage source in Figure 10.14 depends on the voltage supplied by
the voltage source and the equivalent resistance of the circuit. In this case, the current flows from
the voltage source and enters a junction, or node, where the circuit splits flowing through resistors
R1and R2 . As the charges flow from the battery, some go through resistor R1 and some flow through

resistor R2 . The sum of the currents flowing into a junction must be equal to the sum of the currents
flowing out of the junction:
Conservation of Energy
The total energy of a system is conserved if there is no net addition (or subtraction) due to work or
heat transfer. For conservative forces, such as the electrostatic force, conservation of energy
states that mechanical energy is a constant. Mechanical energy is the sum of the kinetic energy
and potential energy of a system; that is, K + U = constant. A loss of U for a charged particle becomes an
increase in its K. Conservation of energy is stated in equation form as
K + U = constant

Or, Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf

where i and f stand for initial and final conditions. As we have found many times before,
considering energy can give us insights and facilitate problem solving.
The Electron Volt
The energy per electron is very small in macroscopic situations like that in the previous example—
a tiny fraction of a joule. But on a sub microscopic scale, such energy per particle (electron,
proton, or ion) can be of great importance. For example, even a tiny fraction of a joule can be
great enough for these particles to destroy organic molecules and harm living tissue. The particle
may do its damage by direct collision, or it may create harmful x rays, which can also inflict
damage. It is useful to have an energy unit related to sub microscopic effects. Figure 7.6.3 shows
a situation related to the definition of such an energy unit. An electron is accelerated between two
charged metal plates as it might be in an old model television tube or oscilloscope. The electron is
given kinetic energy that is later converted to another form—light in the television tube, for
example. (Note that downhill for the electron is uphill for a positive charge.) Since energy is related
to voltage by we can think of the joule as a coulomb-volt.

An electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 V is given an energy of 1 eV. It follows

that an electron accelerated through 50 V is given 50 eV. A potential difference of 100,000 V (100
kV) will give an electron an energy of 100,000 eV (100 keV), and so on. Similarly, an ion with a
double positive charge accelerated through 100 V will be given 200 eV of energy. These simple
relationships between accelerating voltage and particle charges make the electron volt a simple
and convenient energy unit in such circumstances.
The electron volt is commonly employed in submicroscopic processes—chemical valence
energies and molecular and nuclear binding energies are among the quantities often expressed in
electron volts. For example, about 5 eV of energy is required to break up certain organic molecules.
If a proton is accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 30 kV, it is given an energy of
30 keV (30,000 eV) and it can break up as many as 6000 of these molecules (30,000 eV ÷ 5eV per molecule = 6000
molecules). Nuclear decay energies are on the order of 1 MeV (1,000,000 eV) per event and can, thus,
produce significant biological damage.
Volt vs Voltage:
We use V for Electric Potential and we also use V for Voltage, what's the difference? Voltage is the
difference in Electric Potential between two points in space, so it's got the same units as electric
potential i.e., volt = J / C. It's just, when it's a change in potential a new title, voltage, is given. So
Joules per Coulomb are Volts. But the word Voltage specifically refers to a difference in Electric
Potential whose unit is also volt.
Potential energy and kinetic energy:

See video 2A in reference.

Battery
History

The electrolyte is what permits the ions in a battery. The electrolyte permits the flow of lithium ions
in a lithium ion battery. So it's ionically conducting but electronically insulating (no electron can
flow from anode to cathode).
If more bulbs connected in parallel to the battery then each bulb glows dimmer. But as more bulbs
are attached then current drawn from the battery will increase. This is because when you attach
more bulbs in, more resistors in parallel, that effectual resistance decreases. So, more currents
get drawn. It turns out, because of that, the voltage provided by the battery starts reducing.
(brightness = VI. In series circuit, current is same but voltage dereases so bulb becomes dimmer.
Whereas in parallel circuit current increases, as effective resistance decreases but voltage
remains same so bulb brighter. But as current increases, this will increase the internal voltage
voltage in battery, and as a result terminal voltage across battery will decrease. So, the voltage
across each bulb which are all parallel to battery will also decrease. So, the bulbs would not glow
with full brightness as compared to the case when they were connected separately.
Actually if the battery is ideal voltage source having zero internal resistance then adding more
bulbs in parallel does not decrease their brightness. But in practical batteries there are internal
resistance so, as you draw more current, the voltage across the battery drops.)
So, if more bulbs are connected in parallel then current drawn from battery increases but voltage
provided by the battery starts reducing.

But why does this happen?

To answer this question we need to understand exactly what EMF, terminal voltage, and internal
resistance are.
Battery pushes charges by providing required potential energy. This potential energy gives kinetic
energy to charges, which eventually converts to heat energy.
EMF (electromotive force) is a number that is written on the battery, like 1.5V or 9V. Its name is
misnomer. It is not really a measure of force. It's a measure of energy.
For convenience let us imagine there are positive charges that flow. Let’s pick one positive charge.

When that charge is at here it is repelled by cathode terminal of battery and

attracted by anode terminal so it goes there via external circuit. When it reaches inside battery it
cannot got to anode terminal again due to repulsive force. But now unique action of battery comes
into play. With the help of chemical, battery pushes the charge against the electrical repulsion
force to the cathode from where it goes again to anode via external circuit.

While pushing the charge inside battery, the battery is doing work on it. Work done means transfer
of kinetic energy which is further converted to PE in the charges. This is similar to the person who
was pushing child upwards and thus transferring energy to child. That was KE which was
converted to PE as height of child increases. When child reached at top it came at rest. So, its KE
became zero because all KE transformed to PE. Here also when the charge reached at cathode
all its KE (transferred via work done by chemical) will be transformed to PE. Now it rests there and
ready to be converted to other forms of energy while going through the external circuit.
So, while pushing the charge battery is transferring energy to the charge. And the EMF is a
measure of that. Hence, EMF of battery 9V means that the battery transfers 9 joules of energy per
coulomb to the charge. If this was a one coulomb charge, when it goes from anode to cathode
(inside the battery) the battery transfers 9 joules of energy to it. It means the charge must have
gained 9J of energy. But this is not the case.
Inside the battery, there is a lot of chemical. And as a result, as the charge moves through that
chemical, the chemicals offer some resistance to it. Just like when you move your hand through
water, it causes resistance. Just like when you move through air, there is some resistance.
Similarly the chemical inside the battery themselves resist the flow of charges. And by the way,
this resistance is called internal resistance. There will be collisions between the charge and the
chemical particles and as a result some of the energy will be dissipated as heat. The charge got
9J of energy from battery and if say 2J is dissipated via heat then actually only 7 joules per
coulomb gets transferred to the charge. Therefore, every coulomb, when it comes from anode to
cathode it only gains 7 joules. And therefore, we now say that the voltage across the battery is 7
volt. And this is what we call the terminal voltage. It's how much energy the coulomb finally gains.
So, EMF is the energy transferred to charge by battery and terminal voltage is the energy actually
available to the charge.
Now if charge moves faster through the medium. Then more heat generated so, terminal voltage
reduced. This is the reason, when more bulbs are connected in parallel, effective resistance of
external circuit is reduced, so voltage across bulbs reduced. Hence the bulbs would not glow with
full brightness as compared to the case when they were connected separately. When current is
zero, EMF and terminal voltage becomes equal.

We know brightness = VI. When one bulb was connected say, terminal voltage was V1 and current
I1. If another bulb is connected in parallel then voltege would be lesser than V1. Net current drawn
must increase due to decrease in effective resistance but since voltage across bulb decreases,
current drawn by it also decreases (I = V / R, since R is constant so, decrease in V means decrease in I
). Due to decrease in both V and I, bulb will become dimmer. But this reduction is brightness is
much lesser than that in series circuit where drop in voltage would be much more and current also
decrease much more. For ideal battery having zero internal resistance there would be no change
in terminal volage and in that case EMF = terminal voltage. So, adding more bulbs would not reduce either
voltage or current. So, brightness of bulbs would remain same.
Summary: EMF is the work done by the cell in moving a coulomb of charge across its terminals. It
represents the energy transferred per coulomb to the charges. Some of this energy is lost as heat
due to internal energy. Hence the net energy gained by the charge = the emf - heat lost. This net
energy gained per coulomb is called the terminal voltage. This is the voltage across the ends of
the battery.
See video 5 in reference.