Electricity at Rest

Electric Forces and

Electric Fields
Origin of Electricity
1. Electrification.
According to modern concepts, all matter is made up of atoms, there being
as many kinds of atoms as there are isotopes of all the elements.
Atoms are about 10-8 cm in diameter. Atoms are in turn made up of a heavy
central part, the nucleus, which has almost all the mass of the atom.
The nucleus, which has diameter of about 10-12 cm, consists of two basic
types of particles, the proton and neutron, except in the most common
isotope of hydrogen which has a single proton for its nucleus.
The nucleus is surrounded by electrons, the word being derived from the
Greek word for amber, elektron.
The electron has a unit negative (-) charge which is often called electronic
charge. It is the discrete unit of negative electricity. Electrons are all alike.
Each proton has a unit positive (+) charge while the neutron has no charge.
Generally the number of neutrons increases as the number of protons is
increased in the nucleus.
Origin of Electricity
1. Electrification.
The total number of protons in the nucleus, which is also the total number of
positive charges in the atom, is numerically equal to the atomic number of
the element.
This is the number which determines the position of the element in the
periodic table.
Ordinarily, the atom is neutral, which means that the number of electrons is
equal to the number of protons in the atom.
This implies that there are only two kinds of charges, the positive and the
negative charges.
The total positive charge of the atom resides in the nucleus while the total
negative charge is carried by the surrounding electrons.
Compared to the proton, which is about a massive as the neutron is about
1840 times as massive as the electron.
However, there is some evidence that the size of the electron is about of the
same order of magnitude as the size of the nucleus.
Origin of Electricity
1. Electrification. Charging by Rubbing.
Even if an atom is electrically neutral, it has a certain amount of affinity for
additional electrons. If a rod of hard rubber is rubbed with fur. There is a net
transfer of electrons from the fur to the rubber rod. Before rubbing, both
rubber and fur were electrically neutral. It seems that rubber has a greater
affinity for additional electrons than fur, hence the transfer of electrons from
fur to rubber.
A similar case is the process of vigorously passing a plastic com through the
hair. Electrons are transferred from the hair to the comb. Both the rubber
rod and the comb are left with a net negative charge, while the piece of fur
and hair are left with a net positive charge. Charges are not created nor
destroyed in the rubbing process; they are only separated.
If a piece of glass is rubbed with silk, electrons are transferred from the glass
to silk. The affinity for additional electrons is greater in silk than in glass, and
the glass rod is left with a net positive charge after the removal of some
electrons in the process of rubbing with silk.
Origin of Electricity
1. Electrification. Charging by Rubbing
When a body possesses an excess positive charge or an excess negative
charge, it is said to be charged or electrified.
The process of charging it is electrification.
In the examples we have mentioned, electrification is due to rubbing or
contact. The hard rubber rod is negatively charged while the glass rod is
positively charged.
Benjamin Franklin is credited with having suggested the words positive
(+) and negative (-) charges for the two types of charges.
Origin of Electricity
2. Attraction and Repulsion.
Let us consider the following simple experiments. (a) a hard rubber is
suspended by means of a string.
Another similar rod is charged in the same manner and is brought near the
first rod. The first rod swings in the direction for the arrow, which indicates a
repulsive force existing between the two similarity charge rods.
A glass rod which has a piece of silk cloth is brought near a suspended
negatively charged rubber rod. The rubber swings in the opposite direction
as it is being attracted by the glass rod.
A positively charged glass rod is brought near another positively charged
glass rod. The suspended rod swings in the direction of the arrow showing
that it is being repelled by the other glass rod.
We may state a basic law that: Like charges repel each other and unlike
charges attract each other.
Origin of Electricity
3. Insulators and conductors.
Although the behavior of electrified objects has been known since
antiquity, it was not until 1600, during the time of William Gilbert,
when substances were classified as to their electrified nature.
Gilbert, a court physician to Queen Elizabeth, published a book wherein
he systematically classified substances into electrics and non-electrics.
Electrics are those which could be electrified by rubbing. We now call
these substances insulators (instead of electrics) and conductors
(instead of non-electrics). It is also known now that conductors can also
be electrified provided, they are placed in an insulating stand.
Insulators which are nonconductors, are also called dielectrics.
Electric charges move more readily about conductors than in insulators.
In the best insulators, the charges are not free to move at all. Some
vigorous rubbing with some material is needed to electrify these
insulators.
Origin of Electricity
3. Insulators and conductors.
Metals are generally good conductors while non-metals are generally poor
conductors.
Different metals may also be arranged in the order of their excellence as
conductors. In metallic conductors, the positively charged nuclei are fixed
while some electrons are free to move about in the metal.
In liquid conductors, both positively charged particles, which are also called
ions, are free to move. Silver is one the best conductors, and other metals
like copper, nickel, iron, and aluminum are fairly good conductors.
Among the more familiar nonconductors are mica, glass rubber, porcelain,
amber, paraffin, silk and sulfur. A thin sheet of any mentioned nonconductors
is translucent, if not transparent, to light.
It appears that the electrons are tightly bound to the atom in a
nonconductor. When some electrons are removed from a certain region of
the insulator by rubbing, the remaining electrons do not redistribute
themselves.
Origin of Electricity
3. Insulators and conductors.
In a conductor, when some electrons are removed by any means, the
remaining electrons readily move about and respond to the influence of
attractive or repulsive electrical forces.
A light ball is coated with some metallic paint. Like aluminum paint, to make
it conducting, and is suspended using a very light string. An uncharged metal
rod mounted on an insulating stand is placed in contact with the ball.
When a glass rod is charged and placed in good contact with the other end
of the metal rod, the ball is repelled. If the metal rod is replaced with
another glass rod the ball is not repelled.
When the charged glass rod is placed in contact with the metal rod some of
the free electrons from the ball and from the metal rod easily move to the
glass rod to neutralize the positive charges on the latter.
Both metal rod and ball are left with a positive charge and the ball is
repelled. When the metal rod is replaced with another glass rod, the mere
contact of the two glass rods does not transfer the electrons from one rod to
the other.
Origin of Electricity
4. Charging by Induction.
After a body has been charged by rubbing, it may be used to charge another body
by a method which does not require any contact between the two bodies.
An uncharged metal is place on an insulating stand. When the charged rod is
brought near it, the electrons which are relatively free to move in the body are
drawn nearer the positively charged rod.
There is a greater concentration of negative charges at the left end and a greater
concentration of positive charges at the right end. When a wire which is connected
to the ground is touched to the right end of the body as the middle figure, there is
an almost instantaneous motion of electrons from the ground to the body.
The body is left with a net negative charge which is still concentrated at the left end
while it is still under the influence of the charged rod. After the wire used for
grounding the body is removed, there will be no change in the distribution of the
charge on the body until after the charged rod is removed.
There will be a redistribution of the charge on the body after the rod is withdrawn.
Thus, the body is charged negatively without putting it in contact with the charged
rod.
Origin of Electricity
4. Charging by Induction.
This method of charging or electrifying a body is called charging by
induction. If, instead of bringing a positively charged rod near the
conducting body, a negatively charged rod is brought near it and the
same procedure is followed, the body would be left with a positive
charge.
Another way of charging bodies by induction. Two conducting
bodies on insulating stands are placed in contact. When a charged body
is brought near the pair, the electrons which are relatively free to move
pass through the point of contact between the two bodies and the
concentration of charges in the conducting pair.
After the bodies are slightly separated, the charged rod is removed.
One body retains a positive charged and the other body retains a
negative charge. The net charge on the bodies will be redistributed.
Origin of Electricity
4. Charging by Induction.
Origin of Electricity
5. Electroscope.
An instrument which is very sensitive in detecting the presence of a
charge on a body is electroscope. Essentially, it consists of a thin
conducting leaf which is fastened to the side of another conducting
stem such that the leaf is free to swing about an axis. The stem is
mounted in a metal container with a transparent window. The stem is
passed through the metal case through an insulator. At the outer end
of the rod is a knob. When the electroscope is uncharged, the thin leaf
is vertical. Imagine that a charged body is brought near the knob of the
electroscope. Since the knob, stem, and the leaf of the device are all
conducting, the charged body attracts electrons from the leaf and stem
and piles them up on the knob. The leaf and the stem have similar (+)
charges and the leaf swings as it is repelled by the stem.
Origin of Electricity
5. Electroscope.
If the rod is now made to touch the knob, the charges on the knob and on
the rod neutralize each other, leaving the stem and leaf still positively
charged. After the withdrawal of the rod (see middle figure), the leaf is still
left with some positive charge and is repelled by the similarly charged stem.
The electroscope is said to be charged. Due to leakage of the charge in to the
air, the angle made by the leaf with the stem gradually decreases. The
electroscope may be charged negatively by bringing a negatively charged rod
towards the knob. The electroscope may also be used to determine the kind
of charge possessed by a charged body.
Suppose we know the charge possessed by the electroscope. Any with an
unknown charge is brought near the knob of the positively charged
electroscope and the magnitude of the angle between the leaf and the stem
is observed. If the angle is increased when the other body is brought near
the knob, the charge on the body is positive. If the angle decreases with the
approach of the other body, the unknown charge is negative or opposite to
the charge of the electroscope.
18.1 The Origin of Electricity

The electrical nature of matter is inherent

in atomic structure.

m p = 1.673 10 −27 kg

mn = 1.67510−27 kg

me = 9.1110−31 kg

e = 1.60 10 −19 C

coulombs
18.1 The Origin of Electricity

In nature, atoms are normally

found with equal numbers of protons
and electrons, so they are electrically
neutral.

By adding or removing electrons

from matter it will acquire a net
electric charge with magnitude equal
to e times the number of electrons
added or removed, N.

q = Ne
18.1 The Origin of Electricity

Example 1 A Lot of Electrons

How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?

q = Ne

q 1.00 C
N= = = 6.25 1018

e 1.60 10 C
-19
18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force

It is possible to transfer electric charge from one object to another.

The body that loses electrons has an excess of positive charge, while
the body that gains electrons has an excess of negative charge.
18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

During any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system remains
constant (is conserved).
18.2 Charged Objects and the Electric Force

Like charges repel and unlike

charges attract each other.
18.5 Coulomb’s Law

COULOMB’S LAW

The magnitude of the electrostatic force exerted by one point charge

on another point charge is directly proportional to the magnitude of the
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them.
q1 q2   = 8.85 10−12 C2 (N  m2 )
F =k 2
r
k = 1 (4 o ) = 8.99 109 N  m 2 C2
18.5 Coulomb’s Law

Example 3 A Model of the Hydrogen Atom

In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron is in orbit about the
nuclear proton at a radius of 5.29x10-11m. Determine the speed of the
electron, assuming the orbit to be circular.

q1 q2
F =k 2
r
18.5 Coulomb’s Law

q1 q2
F =k 2 =
( )(
8.99 109 N  m 2 C 2 1.60 10 −19 C )
2

= 8.22 10 −8 N
r (
5.29 10 −11 m
2
)

F = mac = mv2 r

v = Fr m =
(8.22 10 N)(5.29 10
−8 −11
m ) = 2.1810
6
ms
9.1110 kg -31
18.5 Coulomb’s Law

Example 4 Three Charges on a Line

Determine the magnitude and direction of the net force on q1.

18.5 Coulomb’s Law

q1 q2
F12 = k 2 =
( )( )(
8.99 109 N  m 2 C2 3.0 10−6 C 4.0 10−6 C ) = 2.7 N
r (0.20m)2

q1 q3
F13 = k 2 =
( )( )(
8.99 109 N  m 2 C2 3.0 10−6 C 7.0 10−6 C ) = 8.4 N
r (0.15m)2

  
F = F12 + F13 = −2.7 N + 8.4 N = +5.7N
18.6 The Electric Field

DEFINITION OF ELECRIC FIELD

The electric field that exists at a point is the electrostatic force experienced
by a small test charge placed at that point divided by the charge itself:


 F
E=
qo

SI Units of Electric Field: newton per coulomb (N/C)

18.6 The Electric Field

Example 7 An Electric Field Leads to a Force

The charges on the two metal spheres and the ebonite rod create an electric
field at the spot indicated. The field has a magnitude of 2.0 N/C. Determine
the force on the charges in (a) and (b)
18.6 The Electric Field

(a) ( )
F = qo E = (2.0 N C) 18.0 10 −8 C = 36 10 −8 N

(b) ( )
F = qo E = (2.0 N C) 24.0 10 −8 C = 48 10 −8 N
18.6 The Electric Field

Example 10 The Electric Field of a Point Charge

The isolated point charge of q=+15μC is

in a vacuum. The test charge is 0.20m
to the right and has a charge qo=+0.80μC.

Determine the electric field at point P.


 F
E=
qo

q1 q2
F =k 2
r
18.6 The Electric Field

q qo
F =k 2
r

=
(8.99 10 9
)( )(
N  m 2 C 2 0.80 10−6 C 15 10−6 C ) = 2.7 N
(0.20m)2

F 2.7 N
E= = = 3.4 106 N C
qo 0.80 10 C
-6
18.6 The Electric Field

F q qo 1
E= =k 2
qo r qo

The electric field does not depend on the test charge.

q
Point charge q: E=k 2
r
18.6 The Electric Field

Example 11 The Electric Fields from Separate Charges May Cancel

Two positive point charges, q1=+16μC and q2=+4.0μC are separated in a

vacuum by a distance of 3.0m. Find the spot on the line between the charges
where the net electric field is zero.

q
E=k 2
r
18.6 The Electric Field

q E1 = E 2
E=k 2
r
k
(
16 10 C)
−6
=k
(4.0 10 C ) −6

d2 (3.0m − d )2
2.0(3.0m − d ) = d 2
2

d = +2.0 m
18.6 The Electric Field

THE PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

charge density

q 
Parallel plate E= =
capacitor o A o

  = 8.85 10−12 C2 (N  m2 )
18.7 Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines or lines of force provide a map of the electric field
in the space surrounding electric charges.
18.7 Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are always directed away from positive charges and
toward negative charges.
18.7 Electric Field Lines
18.7 Electric Field Lines
18.7 Electric Field Lines
18.7 Electric Field Lines
18.7 Electric Field Lines
Electric Potential Energy and
the
Electric Potential
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

DEFINITION OF ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

The electric potential at a given point is the electric potential energy

of a small test charge divided by the charge itself:

EPE
V=
qo

SI Unit of Electric Potential: joule/coulomb = volt (V)

EPE B EPE A − WAB

VB − VA = − =
qo qo qo

(EPE ) − WAB
V = =
qo qo
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

Example 1 Work, Potential Energy, and

Electric Potential

The work done by the electric force as the

test charge (+2.0x10-6C) moves from A to
B is +5.0x10-5J.

(a) Find the difference in EPE between these

points.

(b) Determine the potential difference between

these points.

WAB = EPE A − EPE B

EPE B EPE A − WAB

VB − VA = − =
qo qo qo
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

(a) WAB = EPE A − EPE B

EPEB − EPE A = −WAB = −5.0 10−5 J

(b)

− WAB − 5.0 10 −5 J

VB − VA = = = −25 V
qo 2.0 10 C
-6
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

Example 4 The Conservation of Energy

A particle has a mass of 1.8x10-5kg and a charge of +3.0x10-5C. It is released from

point A and accelerates horizontally until it reaches point B. The only force acting
on the particle is the electric force, and the electric potential at A is 25V greater than
at B. (a) What is the speed of the particle at point B? (b) If the same particle had a
negative charge and were released from point B, what would be its speed at A?
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

1
2 mvB2 + EPEB = 12 mvA2 + EPEA

1
2 mvB2 = 12 mvA2 + EPEA − EPEB

1
2 mvB2 = 12 mvA2 + qo (VA − VB )
19.2 The Electric Potential Difference

(a) 1
2 mvB2 = qo (VA − VB )

vB = 2qo (VA − VB ) m

= 2(3.0 10 −5 C )(25 V ) (1.8 10 −5 kg ) = 9.1 m s

(b) v A = − 2qo (VA − VB ) m

= − 2(− 3.0 10 −5 C )(25 V ) (1.8 10 −5 kg ) = 9.1 m s

19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

kqqo kqqo
WAB = −
rA rB

− WAB kq kq
VB − VA = = −
qo rA rB

Potential of a kq
point charge V=
r
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

Example 5 The Potential of a Point Charge

Using a zero reference potential at infinity,

determine the amount by which a point charge
of 4.0x10-8C alters the electric potential at a
spot 1.2m away when the charge is
(a) positive and (b) negative.
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

(a)

kq
V= =
r
( )(
8.99 109 N  m 2 C 2 + 4.0 10 −8 C )
1.2 m
= +300 V

(b)

V = −300 V
19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

Example 6 The Total Electric Potential

At locations A and B, find the total electric potential.

19.3 The Electric Potential Difference Created by Point Charges

VA =
(8.9910 9
)( ) ( )(
N  m 2 C2 + 8.0 10−8 C 8.99 109 N  m 2 C2 − 8.0 10−8 C
+
)= +240 V
0.20 m 0.60 m

VB =
(8.9910 9
)( ) ( )(
N  m 2 C2 + 8.0 10−8 C 8.99 109 N  m 2 C2 − 8.0 10−8 C
+
)=0V
0.40 m 0.40 m
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two

metal plates, one carrying charge +q and
the other carrying charge –q.

It is common to fill the region between

the plates with an electrically insulating
substance called a dielectric.
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

THE RELATION BETWEEN CHARGE AND POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE FOR A CAPACITOR

The magnitude of the charge in each place of the

capacitor is directly proportional to the magnitude
of the potential difference between the plates.

q = CV
The capacitance C is the proportionality constant.

SI Unit of Capacitance: coulomb/volt = farad (F)

19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

If a dielectric is inserted between the plates of

a capacitor, the capacitance can increase markedly.

Eo
Dielectric constant =
E
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

THE CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR

Eo = q ( o A)

EoV
E= =
 d

  A 
q =  o V
 d 

 o A
Parallel plate capacitor
filled with a dielectric C=
d
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

q = q1 + q2 = C1V + C2V = (C1 + C2 )V

Parallel capacitors CP = C1 + C2 + C3 + 
20.12 Capacitors in Series and Parallel

q q 1 1 
V = V1 + V2 = + = q + 

C1 C2  C1 C2 

1 1 1 1
Series capacitors = + + +
CS C1 C2 C3
19.5 Capacitors and Dielectrics

ENERGY STORAGE IN A CAPACITOR

Energy = 12 CV 2

Volume = Ad

  o A 
Energy =  (Ed )
1 2
2
 d 

Energy density = Energy

Volume = 12  o E 2