Local Strains That Lead To The Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue of Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels

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Local Strains That Lead to the Thermo-mechanical Fatigue of Thick-walled

Pressure Vessels
Article in Materials Performance and Characterization · September 2014

DOI: 10.1520/MPC20130059
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Materials Performance and
Characterization
Jerzy Okrajni1 and Mariusz Twardawa2
DOI: 10.1520/MPC20130059
Local Strains That Lead

to the Thermo-
mechanical
Fatigue of Thick-walled
Pressure Vessels
VOL. 3 / NO. 2 / 2014
Materials Performance and Characterization
doi:10.1520/MPC20130059 / Vol. 3 / No. 2 / 2014 / available online at www.astm.org
Jerzy Okrajni1 and Mariusz Twardawa2
Local Strains That Lead

to the Thermo-mechanical
Fatigue of Thick-walled Pressure
Vessels
Reference
Okrajni, Jerzy and Twardawa, Mariusz, “Local Strains That Lead to the Thermo-mechanical
Fatigue of Thick-walled Pressure Vessels,” Materials Performance and Characterization,
Vol. 3, No. 2, 2014, pp. 245–261, doi:10.1520/MPC20130059. ISSN 2165-3992
ABSTRACT
Manuscript received September

This paper discusses the issue of the modeling of strains and stresses resulting
30, 2013; accepted for publication from the heating and cooling processes of components in power plants. The
January 9, 2014; published online
main purpose of this work was to determine the mechanical behavior of power
March 26, 2014.
plant components operating under mechanical and thermal loading. The finite
1
Faculty of Materials Engineering
element method has been used to evaluate the temperature and stress
and Metallurgy, Silesian University
of Technology, ul. Krasińskiego 8, changes in components as a function of time. The temperature fields in the
40-019 Katowice, Poland. components of power plants are dependent, apart from other relevant
2
RAFAKO S.A., ul. Ła˛kowa 33, parameters, on variable heat-transfer conditions between these components
47-400 Racibórz, Poland. and the fluid medium (which may change its state) flowing inside them. For
this reason an evaluation of the temperature field and the consequent stress
fields requires the consideration of heat-transfer coefficients as time-
dependent variables, which in turn calls for suitable techniques for the
determination of appropriate values for these coefficients. Methodology that
combines computer modeling of the temperature fields with temperature
measurements performed at selected points of the pipelines may be used in
this case. It is readily apparent from the stress-versus-time graphs that under
unsteady operating conditions the components analyzed in this study,
especially in the case of boiler restarts, may operate with transient thermal
stresses that sometimes reach values higher than a yield point. Consequently,
a thermo-mechanical fatigue process takes place in the materials of the
Copyright V
C 2014 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, P.O. Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959 245
OKRAJNI AND TWARDAWA ON LOCAL STRAINS AND FATIGUE 246
components in question. Local stress-strain diagrams for the selected points of

the plant components describe this kind of fatigue. These diagrams
characterize the intensity of the process and are necessary when the fatigue
life is predicted. Such diagrams are part of thermo-mechanical fatigue life
prediction methods. The problem of their description is important in the
development of a new design methodology for highly reliable pressure vessels.
Keywords
thermo-mechanical fatigue, power plant components, heat transfer, finite element method,
component temperature measurements, stress-strain curves
Introduction
The engineering design of the components of conventional power-generation equip-
ment working under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions is largely based
on methods that ensure that the equipment is durable in terms of creep in operating
conditions. This is specified by standards concerning the design of pressure equip-
ment, such as EN 12952-3 [1], which is binding in the European Union.
These standards also specify procedures for fatigue life assessment. Methods
applied in this case are based on fatigue diagrams (S-N curves), the courses of which
depend on the ultimate tensile strength. Stresses caused by the influence of variable
temperatures are determined on the basis of simple mathematical relationships that
take into consideration the temperature difference between the outer and inner
surfaces of the pressure vessel.
This difference is also estimated on the basis of data concerning the expected
warm-up and cooling rates in the conditions of the start-up and shut-down of the
boiler. At times, stresses calculated in such a way turn out to be significantly lower
than those found in operating conditions, as indicated by the effects of fatigue
observed in the form of cracking on the inner surfaces of the thick-walled compo-
nents of complex shapes [2–9]. The effects of fatigue might suggest that thermal
stresses in operating conditions exceed the values taken into account at the design
stage.
The accurate determination of the values of these stresses is of increased signifi-
cance with regard to both the safety of the equipment currently in operation and the
continuous attempts at increasing the operation parameters of new equipment. Eval-
uation of thermal stress values in pressure equipment exposed to mechanical and
thermal loading requires the combination of a number of research methods. It is
essential to incorporate experimental and service data, computer modeling methods,
and the material characteristics determined in conditions similar to those found in
operation [3,5,10,11].
Mechanical and Thermal Loads

During the start-up of a conventional power unit, pressure inside the plant grows.
This pressure changes in accordance with the characteristics of the power unit’s

FIG. 1
Sample temperature and
pressure measurement results
for the superheater outlet
obtained under industrial
conditions in a Polish power
plant.
start-up. The course of the changes in pressure contains periods of slower or faster
time-dependent growth. Steam temperature also exhibits fluctuations related to con-
current changes in the rate of flow. Figures 1 and 2 present diagrams of the time-
dependent temperature, pressure, and rate of steam flow. The measurements of these
parameters were conducted under industrial conditions on a boiler in a Polish power
plant. These measurements were performed near the steam superheater outlet head-
ers at the outlet of live steam from the top superheater.
The objective was to determine the conditions in which the chosen thick-walled
component (which in this case was the superheater outlet header) works during the
start-up and shut-down of the power unit. These characteristics illustrate only a
minor part of the loads during the steady-state operational conditions of the boiler,
as the main focus in this case was on the significance of transient states during which
the rapidly changing steam temperature leads to thermal stresses. Figures 1 and 2
present one of the many possible instances of start-up and shut-down of a power
unit. The example was selected in order to determine the nature of the changes of
the time-dependent stress fields and strains in plant components, as well as to assess
their local values.
FIG. 2
A sample of flow rate obtained
under industrial conditions for
the steam near the superheater
outlet header in a Polish power
plant.

The majority of power units use metal temperature-measuring systems at

selected points of components of complex shapes. The temperature is measured,
among other places, in the T-pipes, Y-junctions of the pipelines, and superheater
headers. Thermocouples are placed at different depths relative to the outer surfaces
of the components, close to the outer surface (shallow) and near the inner surface
(deep). The primary tasks of these sensors are to determine the rate of temperature
change and assess temperature gradients within the wall thickness. These values are
important during routine monitoring of the proper start-up and shut-down proc-
esses of a power unit.
The sensors can also be used to assess the values of time-variable stress in the
components in question. The outcomes of measurements are then presented as
time-dependent temperature profiles at a given point, or as the difference between
the indications of the thermocouples in deep and shallow locations. The differences
in temperatures determined in this way pertain to the outer and inner surfaces of
the components. When the dependences specified by the standards are applied, the
differences enable an assessment of the values of time-variable stresses. These
dependences are, however, mere approximations based on the application of a stress
concentration coefficient that takes into consideration the geometrical parameters of
the component in question.
Such an approach to the assessment of stress in components of complex shapes
sometimes leads to an overapproximation. Another method is necessary when we
want to analyze time-variable stress patterns and find the most intense damage accu-
mulation areas. Determining time-variable temperature field stresses and strains
calls for the application of computer technologies including, predominantly, finite
element methods. Temperature measurements at selected locations in the compo-
nents under analysis would seem to be, in this case, a useful tool for the validation of
computer models.
The Temperature Field in a Selected

Component of a Power Unit
Methods for the determination of time-variable temperature fields applied in the
strength calculation procedures of power unit components assume constant values
of the heat transfer coefficient dependent on the kind of medium flowing through
the piping. For pressure vessels the assumed heat transfer coefficient value for water
is 3000 W/m2 C [1], and for steam this coefficient equals 1000 W/m2 C. However,
a detailed analysis of the heat exchange process in thick-walled components of
power units demonstrates that, due to the change of state and the alternation of the
parameters of the flowing media, the assumption of a constant value of the coeffi-
cient in transient phases leads to significant discrepancies between the values calcu-
lated and the temperatures measured in these components [2–4,12]. With a view to
the precise mapping of a time-variable temperature field in components of power
units through computer modeling, it is necessary to take account of the time vari-
ability of the heat transfer coefficient. This issue is currently being investigated with
consideration of both the analysis of the operation of the equipment in industrial
conditions and computer modeling methods.

FIG. 3
Superheater outlet header of a
conventional steam power
plant (18 MPa nominal steam
pressure parameter and 540 C
temperature parameter).
In this paper the problem of the description of boundary conditions is presented

as essential for the analysis of a temperature field. Such a description is important in
the methodology of determining the characteristics of the thermo-mechanical fa-
tigue in components exposed to mechanical and thermal loads. This process has
been examined in a case study of a steam superheater header in a conventional
power unit with 18 MPa/540 C nominal steam parameters. The analyzed super-
heater header is an 8540-mm-long cylindrical thick-walled vessel. The axis of the
vessel is lined with seven stubs connected with the steam superheater pipes. Along
the chamber 43 peripheral rows of stubs are arrayed in planes perpendicular to its
axis. The distance between these rows is 178 mm. The arrangement of the stubs is
shown in Fig. 3.
Throughout the operation the temperature was monitored at selected points
throughout the chamber (Figs. 3 and 4).
FIG. 4
Thermocouple array for shallow
and deep measurements of
metal temperatures in the
superheater outlet header.

FIG. 5
Outlet superheater header
finite element model.
With a view to determining the temperature and stress distributions, a model of

the superheater was developed. A finite element method was used in this case.
Because of the symmetry of the unit with respect to the vertical plane, one half was
considered with the cross-section on the aforementioned plane. Additionally, a part
of the superheater model was isolated from its whole length with planes perpendicu-
lar to its axis. The model in question is presented in Fig. 5.
In the planes of the intersections, a zero value of heat flow was assumed. Such
an assumption is obvious for the plane of symmetry. For the planes of intersection
perpendicular to the axis, this assumption was connected with the length-to-diame-
ter ratio of the thick-walled header. For high values of this ratio and uniform flow
conditions along the axis, it might be assumed that the temperature distribution
inside the header in the vicinity of consecutive peripheral rows of nozzles is the
same.
For such a model, a time-variable temperature field was determined. A finite ele-
ment method was used for the construction of a model made up of 56|000 brick-
type elements. The characteristic of the heat transfer coefficient for the inner surface
of the superheater header was estimated at the beginning. The coefficient was
assumed to be dependent on the steam flow rate, steam pressure, and temperature
(Fig. 6). At the initial stage of the start-up of the power unit, in a short period during
which a change of state of the medium flowing through the header might take place
[6,7], a constant value of 10|000 W/m2 C was assumed for this coefficient.
Such a high value of the heat transfer coefficient can be accounted for by the
phenomenon of steam condensation when the steam comes into contact with the
cool surface of the header or the repeated phenomenon of evaporation of the
injected water in injection coolers located near the header.
On the outer surface of the header, the heat exchange is less intensive because of
differences in the steam flow rate between the inner and outer surfaces. The zero
value of this steam flow rate for the external surface of the header may be used.

FIG. 6
The characteristics of the heat
transfer coefficient for the inner
surface of the superheater
header.
Taking into consideration these conditions on the outer surface, a constant value of
50 W/m2 C for the heat transfer coefficient was assumed, whereas the values of
time-variable ambient temperature were assumed with characteristics as presented
in Fig. 7. For boundary conditions specified in this way, the time-variable tempera-
ture field was determined in the component in question. The course of temperature
determined on the basis of the model approach for the locations of the thermocou-
ples was compared with the results of the measurements in industrial conditions
(Fig. 8) for a selected period of operation of the power unit. This period is marked in
Figs. 1, 2, 6, and 7 by vertical dashed lines.
Stress Field in the Analyzed Component

A phenomenon that is frequently observed in superheater headers after long-term
operation is the formation of cracks on their inner surfaces. With the attested values
of stresses and small number of cycle impacts related to the number of start-ups and
shut-downs of the unit, these cracks cannot arise as a consequence of mechanical
loads caused by pressure. The most likely reason for the formation of these cracks is
FIG. 7
The values of superheater
header ambient temperature.

FIG. 8 The course of temperatures determined on the basis of the model approach for the selected locations in comparison
with the results of the measurements in industrial conditions for a selected period of operation of the power unit: (a)
point located deep (Fig. 4); (b) point located shallow (Fig. 4).
thermal impacts. For the determination of their intensity during operation, a strain
and thermal stress field was determined in the steam superheater header. The spe-
cific heat Cp, thermal conductivity k, and thermal expansion b coefficients were
assumed as temperature-dependent values [6,7,13] (Table 1).
Mechanical properties for selected temperatures are presented in the form of
cyclic stress-strain curves in Fig. 9. These stress-strain curves were determined in the
laboratory of the mechanics of materials at the Silesian University of Technology.
A thermo-elastic-plastic model of a kinematic hardening material was assumed.
The model for the calculations of thermal stress fields was exposed to pressures on
its inner surface according to the characteristics determined in operational condi-
tions. It was also assumed that mechanical load changes were concurrent with the
temperature field changes specified before. Another assumption was limited dis-
placement in the direction perpendicular to the plane of symmetry of the model. On
one of the planes of the cross-sections, perpendicular to the axis of the header, the li-
mitation of any possibility of displacement in its perpendicular direction was
assumed. On the parallel plane opposite, a uniformly distributed load balancing the
axial force caused by internal pressure was posited. The model also assumed elastic
supports at the ends of the stubs at the points of the finite element mesh, represent-
ing the flexibility of the pipes connecting the header with the steam superheater.
TABLE 1
Physical properties of X20CrMoV 12-1 steel.
Temperature, C
Property 20 100 200 300 400 500 600

k, W/m C 24 24.4 24.8 25.1 25.6 26.1 26.4
b 106, C1 10.2 10.5 10.9 11.3 11.6 12.0 12.2
(20 t)
Cp, kJ/kg C 0.439 0.500 0.534 0.571 0.625 0.704 0.831

FIG. 9
Cyclic stress-strain curves of
the header material, X20CrMoV
12-1 steel.
For the assumed boundary conditions described above and the temperature
fields, components of strain and stress fields, as well as their equivalent values, were
determined. Instances of the determined stress-strain distributions for selected
moments of time are presented in Figs. 10–13.
The presented stress distributions indicate areas of stress concentration in the
vicinity of the holes. It is in these areas that cracks appear in operational conditions.
In order to calculate the characteristics that determine the intensity of the damage
accumulation process, a local analysis of the relationships among temperature,
stress, and strain is necessary.
Local Characteristics of a Thermo-mechanical

Fatigue Process
The strain at each point of the component in question is the sum of mechanical and
thermal strains. With the processes of the accumulation of damage and the forma-
tion and development of cracks, special attention should be paid to the values of
FIG. 10
The equivalent stress (in
megapascals) distribution in
the volume of a superheater
header 801 320 s after start-up.

FIG. 11
Distributions of stress state
components rxx in
megapascals in the volume of a
superheater header 801 320 s
after start-up.
mechanical strains. An analysis of the time course of these strains indicates that cy-
clical plastic strains arise at certain points in the header. In the areas of stress con-
centrations, an example of which could be the close vicinity of points A and B (Fig.
14), stress and strain changes are accompanied by changes in temperature. The stress
and strain with index X will be the radial stress and strain. Index Y assigns the hoop
stress and strain, and Z is connected with axial components of the stress and strain
state.
Such a course of local strain is typical for thermo-mechanical fatigue (TMF).
Under uniaxial stress conditions TMF is described by, among others, characteristics
of the relationship between stress and mechanical strain, between stress and temper-
ature, and between mechanical strain and thermal strain [14–19]. In the case consid-
ered here, similar relations might be assigned for stress and strain components for
the points selected. Examples of such characteristics are shown in Figs. 15–20. Indi-
ces X, Y, and Z in the figures concern the stress component directions according to
Fig. 15.
FIG. 12
Distributions of hoop stress
state components ryy in
after start-up.

FIG. 13
Distributions of axial stress
state components ryy in
after start-up.
Discussion
At the present stage of our research, the main focus is determining the characteris-
tics of a local deformation process in the analyzed component of a power unit.
Another problem is the strength assessment of material operating under TMF. To
date, many criteria and methods for fatigue life prediction at fixed temperatures
have been developed. In the case of the simultaneous interaction of variable temper-
atures, stresses, and strains, with the variation of characteristics for the specified
FIG. 14
Location of points A and B.

FIG. 15
Characteristics of the
relationship between stress
components and mechanical
strain components rðeM Þ at
point A.
values, the development of a universal method for estimating the fatigue life assess-
ment of materials is a very complex issue.
The life-assessment methods applied so far refer to selected particular character-
istics of strain, stress, and temperature cycles. Considering the possibility of a review
of the existing criteria, coupled with the creation of the foundations for the develop-
ment of new fatigue life prediction methods, a precise characterization of the time-
varying physical fields affecting the phenomena of the accumulation of damage is an
extremely important issue. This study is devoted to this issue, with the main empha-
sis on the methodological aspects of the local processes of deformation in power
unit components. Another goal is to adjust research methodology by applying com-
plementary methods of temperature field analysis, studies conducted under indus-
trial conditions, and calculations of stress and strain fields as a basis for the
assessment of durability and life prediction in the equipment in question.
One of the main conclusions from the research concerns the necessity of using
time-dependent heat transfer coefficients in problems of heat transfer modeling.
Only in such a case can we obtain a correspondence between the temperature meas-
urements and modeling. Local temperature measurements offer us the possibility of
FIG. 16
components and temperature
rðTÞ at point A.

FIG. 17
relationship between
mechanical strain components
and thermal strain eM ðeT Þ at
point A.
validation of the models and should be used together with the modeling for the
assessment of actual damage conditions.
It has been shown that the local process of deformation in the analyzed compo-
nent has an elastic-plastic character, and the areas of high damage accumulation are
located close to the holes on the inner surface of the header. The stress-strain char-
acteristics of points A and B, calculated for some of the stress and strain compo-
nents, have the shape of hysteresis loops (Figs. 15 and 18). It is important that the
hysteresis loop rzz(ezz) for point A has a greater width, representing the plastic strain
range, than the loop ryy(eyy) for point B. This might suggest that more intensive
damage could accumulate near point A than near point B. This is in agreement with
the observations of the processes of internal surface cracking during the operation of
the components [5,20]. Cracks often appear between holes in planes perpendicular
to the chamber’s axis. In such circumstances a more destructive process could take
place not as a result of the hoop stresses near point B, but as a result of axial stresses
near point A. This phenomenon is quite unexpected when the mechanical loading
character is taken into consideration.
FIG. 18
components and mechanical
strain components rðeM Þ at
point B.

FIG. 19
components and temperature
rðTÞ at point B.
The analysis that has been performed for the component of a complicated shape
suggests the need for a more detailed analysis of the stress and strain fields in com-
ponents working under mechanical and thermal loading. Such an analysis is impor-
tant at the design stage in order to predict, for instance, the behavior of the high-
temperature components of the boiler. The parameters of operation as a function of
time are necessary for this purpose. For the designed plants, the prediction of such
parameters could be performed on the basis of measurements of temperature, pres-
sure, and fluid flow in existing boilers. One particularly important aspect seems to
be the instant changes of the temperature rate of steam, as well as the changes of its
state, which lead to the high temperature gradients in the volume of the
components.
The results of the modeling shown in this study can also provide information
about the parameters of the material fatigue process that could be used for material
testing in conditions close to those of actual operation. The relationships between
mechanical and thermal strain (Figs. 17 and 20) and between stress components and
FIG. 20
relationship between
mechanical strain components
and thermal strain eM ðeT Þ at
point B.

temperature (Figs. 16 and 19) have such a nature. This problem will be discussed in
detail in forthcoming analyses focused on TMF tests.
Among the characteristics that are decisive for the fatigue nature, special atten-
tion should be paid to the type of material of which components of complex shapes
are made, as well as to the thickness of the component in question, which is related
to the type of material used.
This finding is becoming particularly important in the case of power plants with
higher operating parameters, where materials with higher creep strengths are
applied, and these are usually characterized by higher values of the linear thermal
expansion coefficient and lower values of the thermal diffusivity coefficient. The si-
multaneous action of these two properties leads to an increase in thermal stresses.
Thus, in the case of new power units, for which higher operating parameters are
anticipated, including elevated pressures and temperatures, much more attention
should be paid to fatigue-like phenomena.
The fatigue processes occurring in plants of this type are of a special nature. Con-
nected with simultaneous changes in temperature and stresses, they should be approached
differently from fatigue under isothermal conditions, relative to both the analysis of the
thermo-mechanical load spectrum and the characteristics of the material [2–4].
The models used in this study enable the determination of the local mechanical
behavior of materials. This behavior can be represented, for instance, by graphs
showing the relationships between time and stress components, or equivalent stress
as a function of time. It is possible to determine in the same way the local strains
and local temperatures as a function of time to obtain the local stress-strain or
strain-temperature characteristics.
The main reason for material fatigue in the components under investigation is
the temperature, which fluctuates, particularly during the transient periods of a
plant’s operation. The high rates of temperature change lead to significantly high
thermal stress amplitudes, which should be taken into account in the analyses of sur-
face fracture processes.
This TMF may play a very important role in power plant damage. The number
of studies concerning TMF phenomena is still inadequate considering the impor-
tance of the problem, particularly when operational safety is a factor. Such a situa-
tion can be attributed to difficulties in determining the fatigue process parameters in
real operational conditions, which depend on mechanical as well as thermal loading.
For the derivation of these parameters, methods from mechanics of materials, heat
flow theory, and mechanics of fluids should be used in combination with computer
modeling. A precise description of heat transfer conditions is particularly important
when the model approach is used, and the study is an attempt at such a description
for the selected component.
Concluding Remarks
1. The main reason for material fatigue in the components under investigation is
the temperature, which fluctuates, particularly during transient periods of
plant operation.
2. Among the characteristics that are decisive for the nature and values of
changes in stress, special attention should be paid to the type of material of

which components of complex shapes are made and to the thickness of the
component in question, which is related to the type of material used.
3. An important feature that influences the fatigue behavior of the components
under investigation is the time-dependent heat transfer coefficient on their
inner surfaces.
4. Fatigue of a thermo-mechanical character may play a very important role in
power plant component damage.
5. Methods from mechanics of materials, heat flow theory, and mechanics of flu-
ids should be used in combination with computer modeling for the derivation
of component TMF parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The results presented in this paper were obtained in research work co-financed by
the National Centre of Research and Development in the framework of Contract SP/
E/1/67484/10, “Strategic Research Programme—Advanced Technologies for Obtain-
ing Energy: Development of a Technology for Highly Efficient Zero-emission Coal-
fired Power Units Integrated with CO2 Cap.”
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Local Strains That Lead To The Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue of Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels

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Local Strains That Lead to the Thermo-mechanical Fatigue of Thick-walled

Article in Materials Performance and Characterization · September 2014

Jerzy Okrajni Mariusz Twardawa

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Local Strains That Lead

doi:10.1520/MPC20130059 / Vol. 3 / No. 2 / 2014 / available online at www.astm.org

Jerzy Okrajni1 and Mariusz Twardawa2

Local Strains That Lead

Manuscript received September

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