PAPER Han Giroud 3parts Web Marked

FEBRUARY/MARCH 2016 GMA TECHLINE GEOCOMPOSITE GIROUD & HAN
VOLUME 34 NUMBER 1
SUBSCRIBE AT
Exposed GM? For landfill Geosynthetics and
GeosyntheticsMagazine.com
Deformations? drainage layer unpaved roads
Geosynthetics A PUBLICATION OF
Work platforms built

with geotextile tubes
at the Lach Huyen Bridge
$19 US | $25 CAN
0216GS_Cv1.indd 1 1/22/16 10:08 AM

Mechanically stabilized roadways over peat soils
at the Braes of Doune Wind Farm in Scotland.
Photo: Tensar International
2 Geosynthetics | February March 2016 Copyright © 2016 Industrial Fabrics Association International. May not be reproduced without permission.
UNPAVED ROADS
Part 1
Mechanisms governing the

performance of unpaved
roads incorporating
geosynthetics
By J.P. Giroud and Jie Han
Introduction
Unpaved road performance mechanisms are complex
T he mechanisms that govern the performance of unpaved roads are complex for
two reasons. First, the road structure is highly heterogeneous: the two materials
(granular in the base and cohesive in the subgrade) behave differently, which makes
AUTHORS’ NOTE
Road improvement is one of the

the mechanisms complex. Second, the road structure is progressively modified by major applications of geosynthetics.
load repetition due to traffic. If the road structure were not progressively modified by It is also one of the most complex
the traffic, the road performance would be simple: either the road would fail after one because of the variety of mechanisms
involved. This Part 1 article provides
vehicle pass or it would never fail. In contrast, it is complex to analyze the performance
a description of the mechanisms that
of a structure that evolves with vehicle passes. govern the performance of unpaved
When a geosynthetic is added, the road structure becomes even more heteroge- roads incorporating geosynthetics. It
neous and the mechanisms more complex. Furthermore, the wheel load is vertical and will be followed, in the next issue of
the geosynthetic is horizontal. This situation is more complex than, for example, the Geosynthetics magazine, by the Part 2
article that provides guidance for field
situation of a geosynthetic incorporated in a sloping soil layer (i.e., the veneer stabil-
tests used to evaluate the performance
ity situation) where the driving force and the geosynthetic are in the same direction. of roads incorporating geosynthetics.
As a result of these complexities, there are sometimes misunderstandings regarding
the mechanisms that govern the performance of unpaved roads, especially unpaved roads
incorporating geosynthetics. It is important to identify and clarify these mechanisms.
J.P. Giroud, Ph.D., is a consulting engineer,
Overview of unpaved road performance mechanisms a past president of the International
Roads (paved and unpaved) are subjected to traffic by vehicles on wheels. Traffic is Geosynthetics Society (IGS), and a member
a type of repeated loading characterized by axle load and number of axle passes. The of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering.
He has published unpaved road design
function of the road is to support the load for a certain minimum number of axle
methods since 1980.
passes. Clearly, there are two aspects in the function of a road: load support and service
life. Accordingly, a geosynthetic can improve a road in two ways: by contributing to Jie Han, Ph.D., is a professor at the
load support and by increasing the service life. University of Kansas and has academic
The geosynthetic contribution to the performance of an unpaved road is achieved and industrial experience in geosynthetic
through several mechanisms that take place in the road structure, which consists research and applications. In 2014, he
received an IGS award for his research on
of a base (made of granular material) resting on subgrade soil (typically a cohesive
design of unpaved and paved roads using
soil), with a geosynthetic included between the base and the subgrade. Mechanisms geosynthetics.
Copyright © 2016 Industrial Fabrics Association International. May not be reproduced without permission. www.GeosyntheticsMagazine.com 3
UNPAVED ROADS
Unpaved roads incorporating geosynthetics
related to the base will be presented layer. Thus, a high-modulus granular

first, followed by mechanisms related to base (i.e., a stiff base) drastically reduces
the subgrade; finally the mechanism of the maximum vertical stress on the sub-
separation between base and subgrade grade compared to the maximum verti-
will be presented. cal stress at the same depth in a uniform
The focus of this article is on mecha- soil. Therefore, the stress distribution
nisms that govern the performance of effectiveness of the upper layer of a two-
unpaved road structures under repeated layer system can be increased by increas-
Thanks to the presence of traffic loads. This article does not address ing the modulus of the upper layer, which
an adequate geosynthetic, mechanisms that are not directly related is achieved by adding tensile stiffness to
to traffic, such as subgrade swelling the upper layer, hence the use of a geo-
the performance of the (due, for example, to frost or presence of synthetic at the bottom of the granular
expansive soil). base. A granular material is strain-depen-
base of an unpaved road dent and stiffness is increased by reduc-
is improved through ing strain. Therefore, increasing tensile
Road improvement stiffness is linked to the lateral restraint
two closely related mechanisms related mechanism discussed in the next section.
mechanisms. to the base While “modulus” is the property generi-
Thanks to the presence of an adequate cally mentioned in two-layer systems, the
geosynthetic, the performance of the base modulus involved in roads is the resilient
of an unpaved road is improved through modulus (i.e., the modulus value based
two closely-related mechanisms. on recoverable strain).
Just adding a geosynthetic at the bot-
Improvement of wheel load distribution tom of the base is not sufficient (espe-
The role of the granular base is to distrib- cially with repeated loading). It is essen-
ute the wheel loads so that, if the base is tial that the geosynthetic and the granular
sufficiently thick and stiff, the maximum material closely interact to form a com-
vertical stress applied to the subgrade is posite system characterized by high ten-
below the stress level that causes excessive sile stiffness. This interaction is achieved
deformation of the subgrade soil. The by interlocking in the case of geogrids
total load on the subgrade is the same and confinement in the case of geocells.
as the total load applied by the vehicle In the case of geotextiles, the interaction
(plus the weight of the granular base), is based on friction, which is less effective
but, thanks to load distribution by the than interlocking or confinement.
base, the load is applied over a much
wider area than the contact area between Lateral restraint of base course material
the wheels and the road surface, which The theory of elasticity, which explains
reduces the maximum vertical stress on load distribution (as indicated above),
the subgrade. The mechanism through shows that there are tensile stresses at
which the granular base distributes the the bottom of the upper layer of a two-
load is explained below. layer system. In a road, tensile stresses
From a mechanical standpoint, the are repeated at each axle pass. In the
granular base and the subgrade soil form absence of an appropriate geosynthetic,
a two-layer system. It is known from these tensile stresses progressively cause
the theory of elasticity that, in a two- displacement of particles of the granular
layer system, the stress distribution on base material, mostly in the horizontal
the lower layer depends on the relative direction, which is referred to as lateral
moduli of the upper layer and the lower spreading of the base material.
Lateral spreading of granular particles While both geogrids (through interlock-
because of repeated traffic loads is one ing) and geocells (through confinement)
of the three dominant mechanisms of prevent lateral spreading of the base mate-
road base deterioration, along with the rial, geogrids are easier to install and less
base-subgrade intermixing mechanism expensive than geocells; as a result, geogrids
(discussed in a subsequent section) and are most commonly used in unpaved roads.
particle breakage (especially in the case As indicated above, geotextile/base material
of angular aggregate). The lateral spread- interaction relies on friction, which is less
ing of granular particles makes the base effective than interlocking or confinement. Geogrids used in
thinner and the base material less stiff. Geogrids and geocells are also effective
road structures are
The decrease in base thickness contrib- in preventing shear failure of the base.
utes to the rutting observed at the road essentially expected to
surface and the decrease in base thick- Conclusion on mechanisms
ness and stiffness progressively decreases related to the base
perform a mechanical
the ability of the base to distribute the The two mechanisms related to the base function.
load transferred from the wheels to the (improvement of load distribution and
subgrade soil. This increases the maxi- lateral restraint of base material) are closely
mum vertical stress on the subgrade and, linked. Both rely on geosynthetic/granu-
consequently, the deformation of the lar material interaction, which prevents
subgrade soil. Clearly, lateral spreading of lateral spreading of the base material and
granular particles of the base has signifi- imparts tensile stiffness to the base. Fur-
cant detrimental consequences on both thermore, it will be seen in the next section
the base and the subgrade. that load distribution is also beneficial to
Lateral spreading of granular particles the mechanical behavior of the subgrade.
of the base is reduced and slowed thanks
to lateral restraint provided by a geocell
filled with granular material or a geogrid Road improvement
located within the base or at the bottom of mechanisms related
the base. Evidence of lateral restraint has to the subgrade
been provided by an increase of horizontal Thanks to the presence of an adequate
stress measured in a base incorporating geosynthetic, the performance of the sub-
a geogrid (Wayne et al. 2013). Indeed, a grade of an unpaved road is improved
granular material is strain-dependent, as through three mechanisms.
mentioned above; therefore, it is stress-
dependent and lateral restraint is associ- Impact of load distribution on
ated with an increase in horizontal stress. subgrade soil resilient modulus
The geogrid provides lateral restraint If the maximum vertical stress on the
by interlocking with granular particles. subgrade is reduced because of the pres-
Geogrid-granular particle interlocking ence of a geosynthetic at the bottom of the
depends on several factors including: base, the vertical stress on the subgrade
• geogrid aperture size relative to is more uniformly distributed than in the
granular particle size and grading, absence of a geosynthetic. Consequently,
• geogrid aperture shape, the deviator stress (the difference between
• shape and stiffness of the geogrid ribs, vertical and horizontal stress) in the sub-
• stiffness (more than strength) and grade material is decreased compared to
integrity of junctions between ribs. the case without geosynthetic, as shown
A detailed discussion of interlocking by Wayne et al. (2013). In the case of very
is in a paper by Giroud (2009). small subgrade rutting—rutting on top of
UNPAVED ROADS
the subgrade (e.g., <13mm [0.5in.])—and ing capacity of the subgrade soil would
firm subgrade (California Bearing Ratio cause excessive subgrade deformation
[CBR] greater than about 3%), i.e., in and immediate failure.
situations where base and subgrade are Based on the above discussion,
stable, the reduction of deviator stress unpaved roads without geosynthetic
results in an increase of the resilient mod- must be designed to avoid loading
ulus of the subgrade, as shown by Elliott the subgrade to its ultimate bearing
and Thomson (1985). The increase in capacity. They must be designed for
The use of adequate resilient modulus of the subgrade reduces the maximum vertical stress on the
the deformation of the subgrade under subgrade to be equal to the elastic limit
geosynthetics in
load compared to the case where there is of the subgrade soil, which is 3.14 c u
unpaved roads results no geosynthetic. (cu being the undrained cohesion of the
subgrade soil). Accordingly, as shown by
in comprehensive Subgrade soil vertical restraint Giroud and Noiray (1981) with further
improvement. In the case of unpaved roads without geo- refinements by Giroud and Han (2004),
synthetic, stress distribution on the sub- the allowable stress on the subgrade soil is
Geosynthetics improve grade is not uniform. The subgrade soil, 3.14 cu without geosynthetic, 5.14 cu with
being more loaded under the wheels, tends a geotextile, and 5.71 cu with a geogrid.
unpaved roads through to move upward in zones located between The difference between the geotextile
several mechanisms. and outside the wheel load areas. In these case and the geogrid case is due to the
zones, in particular between the wheels, difference in stress orientation at the base/
the geosynthetic, after some deformation subgrade interface, which results from the
under traffic load, has a convex shape and difference between geotextile/granular
applies a vertical stress on the subgrade material interface friction and geogrid/
soil. The weight of the base, which is uni- granular material interlocking (i.e., the
formly distributed, and the fact that the classical difference between smooth and
wheel load is almost uniformly distrib- rough base in foundation design).
uted (thanks to the geosynthetic in the
base) contribute to applying a quasi-uni- Load transfer by the tensioned
form vertical stress on the subgrade soil membrane effect
between and outside the wheel load areas. Under specific conditions, a geosynthetic
The presence of a relatively uniform located between the base and the subgrade
vertical stress on each side of the wheel can contribute to load support through a
load areas at the surface of the subgrade mechanism called “tensioned membrane
is similar to the lateral surcharge that is effect.” This effect has been extensively
known to increase bearing capacity in discussed in the literature because, in early
foundation design. Also, the joint action attempts at explaining the performance
of geosynthetic tension and geosynthetic- of unpaved roads, it was thought that the
improved load distribution results in tensioned membrane effect was the main
vertical restraint of the subgrade. As a mechanism governing the performance
result of lateral surcharge combined with of geosynthetics in unpaved roads. It is
vertical restraint, the subgrade soil may known today that this is not the case.
be loaded near its ultimate bearing capac- The tensioned membrane effect
ity without excessive deformation, as decreases the vertical load induced in
demonstrated by Giroud and Han (2004). the subgrade soil under the wheels by
In contrast, without vertical restraint transferring part of the vertical load later-
of the subgrade, a wheel load causing a ally (i.e., away from the wheels).
vertical stress equal to the ultimate bear- The mechanism is the following:
• If the subgrade soil undergoes large tensile modulus are used in unpaved roads dominant mechanism of subgrade improve-
deformation because of traffic, the that exhibit very deep ruts (Giroud and ment. If rutting increases, the bearing capac-
geosynthetic follows the shape of the Noiray 1981, Giroud et al. 1984). ity increase that results from the vertical
subgrade and exhibits a concave shape While the tensioned membrane effect restraint mechanism becomes progressively
under the wheels. does improve the performance of unpaved effective; it becomes fully effective if rutting
• The geosynthetic thus deformed is sub- roads (such as some construction site access is of the order of 50 to 75mm (2 to 3in.). At
jected to tension. roads and lumber extraction roads) where deep rutting (more than 100mm [4in.]), the
• The resultant of the geosynthetic tension deep ruts are acceptable, it is not really a tensioned membrane effect becomes effec-
on the two sides of the concave shape is soil improvement mechanism. The ben- tive without eliminating the two preceding
an upward vertical force that contributes eficial effect of this mechanism is applied mechanisms.
to wheel support. directly to the load, not to the soil. In other
• The tension of the geosynthetic on words, the tensioned membrane effect
each side of the concave shape laterally is beneficial to the subgrade because it Road improvement mechanism
transfers the portion of the wheel load decreases the maximum vertical stress related to base-subgrade
supported through the tensioned mem- on the subgrade, but it does not directly interaction
brane effect. As a result, smaller verti- improve the subgrade. However, it may Intermixing of base and subgrade material
cal stresses are applied to the subgrade be considered that the tensioned mem- Intermixing of subgrade soil and granu-
beneath the wheels and greater vertical brane effect results in long-term subgrade lar particles from the base results from
stresses are applied to the subgrade away improvement because the repeated maxi- repeated loading. It manifests itself in two
from the wheels compared to the case mum vertical stress on the subgrade, which ways: downward movement of granular
without geosynthetic. Thus, thanks to causes progressive deterioration of the particles (loss of granular particles into
the tensioned membrane effect, the ver- subgrade, is reduced compared with the the subgrade) and upward movement of
tical stress distribution on the subgrade case without geosynthetic. The magnitude fine particles from the subgrade soil (intru-
is more uniform. of the tensioned membrane effect tends sion of fine subgrade soil particles into the
From this analysis, it is clear that the to increase as the geosynthetic deflection base).
tensioned membrane effect requires a increases at each vehicle pass, which fur- The loss of granular particles into the
high-strength geosynthetic and deep rut- ther reduces the repeated maximum verti- subgrade decreases the thickness of the
ting. Calculations show that, for typical rut cal stress on the subgrade, provided that: base, which decreases its ability to dis-
depths (less than 100mm), the tensioned (i) the deterioration of the base due to tribute the traffic loads. The intrusion
membrane effect is generally negligible. the large deformation associated with the of fine subgrade soil particles into the
Also, the tensioned membrane effect works tensioned membrane effect is compen- base alters the mechanical properties of
only with channelized traffic (traffic that sated by placing additional base material in the base material, which makes the base
keeps deepening the same ruts), which may the ruts (a standard practice); and (ii) the more likely to deform and less able to
not exist in the case of wide unpaved roads geosynthetic is able to resist the resulting distribute the traffic loads. Only a small
where traffic may wander. Another limita- additional tension. amount of fine soil particles is sufficient
tion of the tensioned membrane effect is to significantly alter the base mechanical
the need for sufficient anchor length for Conclusion on mechanisms properties.
the geosynthetic on each side of the axle. related to the subgrade
Thus, the tensioned membrane effect Three improvement mechanisms are related Use of geosynthetics for separation
is not the main mechanism governing the to the subgrade: increase of subgrade soil of base and subgrade
performance of unpaved roads. In usual resilient modulus, subgrade soil vertical Intermixing of two materials squeezed
service conditions, the tensioned mem- restraint, and tensioned membrane effect. together by applied loads is prevented or
brane effect is almost always negligible in Contrary to the case of the two mechanisms delayed by a geosynthetic that performs
unpaved roads incorporating geogrids and related to the base, the three mechanisms the function of separation. This is an
geocells because such unpaved roads do related to the subgrade are not related. In important function because intermixing
not generally exhibit large deformations the case of very small subgrade rutting (e.g., is a major cause of distress of paved and
and the tensioned membrane effect carries <13mm [0.5in.]) and a rather firm subgrade unpaved roads. The need for separation
a fraction of the wheel load when geogrids (CBR greater than about 3%), increase in depends on several parameters (e.g., sub-
and geotextiles with high strength and high resilient modulus of the subgrade is the grade properties, amount of moisture,
UNPAVED ROADS
base material gradation, stress level at Discussion of mechanisms

base/subgrade interface, construction The mechanisms described in this article
method). Generally, but not always, sepa- are complex and some discussion is useful.
ration is needed with soft subgrade.
Geotextiles are typically used to per- Reinforcement and stabilization
form the separation function. Indeed, a Should roads incorporating geosynthetics
geotextile with adequate puncture and tear be called “geosynthetic-reinforced roads”
strength prevents the loss of granular mate- or “geosynthetic-stabilized roads”? Good
Intermixing is a major rial into the subgrade and, with adequate terminology can result only from analy-
opening size, prevents intrusion of fine par- sis. Accordingly, the words reinforcement
cause of distress of
ticles from the subgrade soil into the base. and stabilization were not used so far in
paved and unpaved However, a geogrid can also pro- this article. At this point, it is possible to
vide some degree of separation through have a rational approach to terminology
roads. individual action of each aperture and based on the foregoing discussions.
global action resulting from its continuity: The term reinforcement implies “add-
• A geogrid with adequate aperture size ing force.” This function is obviously
prevents the loss of individual granular performed by a geosynthetic involved
particles into the subgrade. in the tensioned membrane effect. This
• A geogrid that keeps the base material mechanism is effective if the forces are
together reduces the opportunities for large, which requires a high-strength geo-
intrusion of the base by fine particles synthetic, typically a high-strength woven
from the subgrade soil (in particular if geotextile. The large forces are typically
the base material has a proper gradation associated with relatively large strains in
relative to the size of subgrade particles). the geotextile (e.g., 5% or more) as shown
However, if fine particles from the by Giroud and Noiray (1981). Such large
subgrade soil intrude into the base, the strains are associated with deep ruts and
effectiveness of the interlocking between generally happen with a soft subgrade soil
geogrid and base material is likely to be (e.g., a CBR less than 1%), high wheel load,
reduced, which can be very detrimental and/or a large number of vehicle passes.
to the performance of the road structure In contrast, the geosynthetic strains
because interlocking is the main mecha- associated with the mechanism of base
nism of improvement of a road structure lateral restraint are low, typically less than
by a geogrid, as discussed earlier in this 1% (Giroud and Han 2006) or even 0.5%.
article. Even though geogrids can provide Rather than using the term reinforcement
some degree of separation, geogrids used for the function performed by the
in road structures are essentially expected geosynthetic in this mechanism, the term
to perform a mechanical function. In fact, stabilization is increasingly accepted.
in some cases of very soft subgrade and/ This terminology is appropriate because,
or open graded base material, a geotex- according to dictionaries, “to stabilize”
tile and a geogrid are used together: the means “to keep unchanged,” (i.e., keeping
geotextile to provide separation and the in its initial stage). Indeed, lateral restraint
geogrid (overlying the geotextile) to per- is a mechanism aimed at keeping the road
form a mechanical function through the base as close as possible to its initial stage
other mechanisms described in this article. for as long as possible, which is consistent
Similarly, a geotextile is generally used with low strains, hence small road
between a geocell and the subgrade soil. deformation and limited rutting. Rather
than stabilization, it is preferable to use
mechanical stabilization to differentiate
from chemical stabilization (which road (in green boxes in Figure 1) have geocells because the displacement required
refers to addition of chemical products a beneficial impact on both load reduc- to mobilize interlocking between a geogrid
to soil) and physical stabilization, which tion and subgrade improvement. There- and granular material or confinement of base
characterizes the separation function of fore, the mechanisms described in this material in a geocell is small and less than the
geosynthetics. article (and summarized in Figure 1) relative displacement required to mobilize
Herein, the terminology mechanical address the two aspects of the function interface friction between geotextile and gran-
stabilization (used above for base lat- of an unpaved road defined in the intro- ular material. Therefore, for the same loading,
eral restraint) is extended to the case of duction: load support and service life. unpaved roads incorporating geogrids or
vertical restraint of subgrade because in • Subgrade stabilization, which is often geocells can be expected to deform less than
this case the role of the geosynthetic also used to encompass the action of geo- unpaved roads incorporating geotextiles.
consists in restraining displacement. In synthetics in unpaved roads, appears to Relationships between mechanisms of
the case of vertical restraint of subgrade, be restrictive because it does not include unpaved road improvement and road structure
the geosynthetic strain may not be as low base mechanical and physical stabiliza- deformation can be summarized as follows,
as in the case of lateral restraint of base. A tion. Subgrade improvement appears to based on foregoing discussions:
geosynthetic strain of perhaps 1% or less better encompass the beneficial effects • Lateral restraint of granular material pro-
for geogrids and up to 2% for geotextiles of geosynthetics in unpaved roads. vided by geogrid (i.e., reduction of granular
may be considered for vertical restraint, As mentioned in the above discussions, material lateral movement) is a mechanism
but no experimental data are available to the amount of road deformation required that is effective as soon as the road struc-
support this estimate. to activate a mechanism varies depending ture exhibits little deformation (e.g., rutting
The mechanisms of unpaved road on the mechanism. This is discussed in much less than 25mm [1in.]), and conse-
improvement, along with the associated more detail in the following section. quently very small geosynthetic strain (e.g.,
subgrade conditions, rut depths, and less than 1% or even 0.5%). Lateral restraint
geosynthetic strains are summarized in Road deformation and mechanisms of granular material and the resulting load
Figure 1. Inspection of Figure 1 leads to of road improvement distribution are still effective, but to a lesser
the following comments: There is no mechanical action, such as degree, if rutting increases.
• In contrast with the stabilization mecha- mechanical stabilization, without defor- • Increase of the resilient modulus of the
nisms, the tensioned membrane effect mation. Therefore, there is always some subgrade soil that results from load dis-
is not a mechanism of base or subgrade deformation of the road structure associ- tribution is essentially effective if the road
improvement. It simply consists in add- ated with the performance improvement deformation is small (e.g., rutting less than
ing a force that reduces the load. There- resulting from the use of geosynthetics. 13mm [0.5in.]). If rutting increases, the
fore, it may be called “load reduction However, except in rare cases where benefit regarding resilient modulus of sub-
due to reinforcement.” deep ruts are acceptable and the ten- grade becomes less marked and the main
• Subgrade improvement is used to sioned membrane effect is effective, it beneficial effect on subgrade becomes the
encompass the improvement of is beneficial to keep the road structure vertical restraint.
the subgrade that results from base deformations as small as possible: • Vertical restraint of subgrade (which
mechanical stabilization, subgrade • Small deformations mean less rutting increases subgrade bearing capacity) is a
mechanical stabilization, and even base and, therefore, better trafficability. mechanism that requires some deforma-
physical stabilization (i.e., separation • If a granular layer that is temporarily tion of the subgrade (e.g., rutting of 25 to
between base and subgrade). used as an unpaved road is eventu- 75mm [1 to 3in.]), and consequently some
• The end results are subgrade loading ally incorporated in the structure of a geosynthetic strain (e.g., 1 to 2%).
improvement and subgrade proper- paved road, it is important to minimize • The tensioned membrane effect requires
ties improvement. These are the two deformations during the service life large deformation of the subgrade to allow
aspects of load support: decreasing or of the unpaved road to preserve the the geosynthetic to take a deep concave
redistributing the load on the subgrade integrity of the base and the subgrade shape. Therefore, deep rutting is required for
and increasing the ability of the sub- to ensure long-term performance of the tensioned membrane effect to be effective
grade to bear the load. the paved road. (e.g., rutting greater than 100mm [4in.]).
• The mechanisms that contribute to The requirement for small deforma-
increasing the service life of the unpaved tion is achieved by using geogrids or
UNPAVED ROADS
MECHANISMS OF UNPAVED ROAD IMPROVEMENT
Basic Deep rutting (>100mm= 4in.)

Type of
contribution of generally due to
mechanism
geosynthetic very soft subgrade (CBR<1%)
Concave shape
of deformed Large required
geosynthetic geosynthetic strain
under wheel e.g. >5%
Upward
Load reduction Tension Tensioned
resultant
due to in membrane
carrying part
reinforcement geosynthetic effect
of the load
Generally,
but not always, No required
soft subgrade geosynthetic strain
Reduces
Base Separation Base/subgrade Subgrade
maximum
physical provided by intermixing loading
stress on
stabilization geosynthetic prevention improvement
subgrade
Very small required Very small required

geosynthetic strain geosynthetic strain
<1%, even <0.5% e.g. <0.5%
Base
Long-term
Lateral restraint lateral
modulus
of base material spreading
retention
prevention
Increases
Base Interaction Long-term Reduces
resilient
mechanical geosynthetic/ load deviator stress
modulus of
stabilization base material distribution in subgrade soil
subgrade soil
Base modulus
Wider load distribution
enhancement
Effective with Vertical stress on subgrade

any subgrade away from the wheels
and any rutting Subgrade
Firm subgrade (CBR>3%) and properties
very small subgrade rutting (<13mm= 0.5in.) improvement
Downward
resultant Downward surcharge of subgrade Increases
Subgrade Tension
applied on away from and between the wheels, subgrade
mechanical in
subgrade combined with bearing
stabilization geosynthetic
between the vertical restraint of the subgrade capacity
Convex shape wheels Small required
of deformed geosynthetic strain
geosynthetic e.g. 1% to 2%
between
wheels
Soft subgrade (CBR<3%) and

medium rutting (25 to 75mm= 1 to 3in.)
It can be concluded that: subgrade resilient modulus compared zation is justified for paved roads because it
• In most unpaved roads, the tensioned to the case without geosynthetic; and is essentially the base that benefits from the
membrane effect is not effective. The (ii) along with the downward stress stabilization of paved roads.
only exception is where subgrade applied by geosynthetic tension, it
strength is low (e.g., CBR < 1%) and increases the bearing capacity of the Conclusion on performance evaluation
deep rutting can be tolerated. subgrade by applying vertical restraint The mechanisms that govern road perfor-
• In unpaved roads over firm subgrade to the subgrade. mance are complex. It is legitimate to try to
(and in paved roads), where deforma- • In rare cases where deep ruts are accept- get quantitative data from laboratory and
tions are limited, only lateral restraint, able, the geosynthetic under tension field tests, but test interpretation can be cor-
improved load distribution, and supports part of the wheel load because rect only if there is a good understanding of
increase in subgrade resilient modulus of the tensioned membrane effect. the mechanisms (the purpose of Part 1 of
are effective. In addition to the above mechanisms, this series) and rigorous planning of the tests
which are purely mechanical, the mecha- (which is the purpose of Part 2 in the April/
Geosynthetic strain level nism of prevention of intermixing of base May issue of Geosynthetics).
With the exception of the rare cases and subgrade provided by a geosynthetic
where the tensioned membrane effect performing the function of separation is References
is effective, the geosynthetic strain is a mechanism of physical improvement, Elliott, R. P., and Thompson, M. R., 1985, “Mechanistic Design
Concepts for Conventional Flexible Pavements”, University of
very small compared to the strain that which benefits the long-term perfor- Illinois, Urbana, 120 p.
causes the rupture of the geosynthetic in mance of the base and the subgrade. Giroud, J.P., and Noiray, L., 1981, “Geotextile-Reinforced
a tensile test. Therefore, in most unpaved It was also shown in this article that Unpaved Road Design”, Journal of the Geotechnical Division,
roads, the ultimate tensile strength of the the mechanisms described address the ASCE, Vol. 107, No. GT 9, September 1981,
pp. 1233-1254.
geosynthetic is not a relevant property. two aspects of the function of an unpaved
Giroud, J.P., Ah-Line, C., and Bonaparte, R., 1984, “Design
The discussions presented in this article road: load support and service life. There- of Unpaved Roads and Trafficked Areas with Geogrids”,
show that the relevant properties of the fore, the use of adequate geosynthetics in Proceedings of the Conference on Polymer
Grid Reinforcement, 4.1, London, pp. 116-127.
geosynthetic are the ability to interact unpaved roads results in comprehensive
with the base granular material and the improvement. Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2004, “Design Method for Geogrid-
Reinforced Unpaved Roads. I Development of Design
load/strain response at low strain values. Method”, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Conclusion on terminology Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 8, August 2004, pp. 775-786.
(Discussion and closure, Vol. 132,
As indicated above, the analyses presented No. 4, pp. 547-551)
Conclusions in this article show that it is appropriate
Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2006, “Closure to Design method for
Conclusion on mechanisms to designate unpaved roads incorporating geogrid-reinforced unpaved roads. I. Development of design
As shown in this article, geosynthetics geosynthetics as mechanically stabilized method”, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering,
improve unpaved roads through several unpaved roads because both the base Vol. 132, No. 4, pp. 549-551.
mechanisms that can be summarized and the subgrade are mechanically Giroud, J.P., 2009, “An assessment of the use of
as follows: stabilized. Strictly speaking, mechanically geogrids in unpaved roads and unpaved areas”, Proceedings
of the Jubilee Symposium on Polymer Geogrid Reinforcement,
• The inclusion of an adequate geosyn- stabilized does not include unpaved roads
Institution of Civil Engineers,
thetic provides lateral restraint to the where the tensioned membrane effect London, UK, pp. 23-36.
base granular material, which min- plays a role. However, this is generally Wayne, M., Fraser, I. Reall, B., and Kwon, J., 2013, “Performance
imizes lateral spreading of the base not a terminology problem because this verification of geogrid mechanically stabilised layer”,
Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Soil
while the association of the geosyn- mechanism is rarely effective because Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Paris, 4 p. G
thetic and the granular material of the it requires deep rutting, which is rarely
base creates a high-stiffness composite acceptable.
material, resulting in load distribution Furthermore, it was shown in this
improvement. This mechanism takes article that subgrade improvement is an
place at low strain, hence low rutting. appropriate terminology while subgrade
• Geosynthetic-enhanced load distri- stabilization does not encompass all the
bution has two beneficial effects on benefits that result from using a geosyn-
the subgrade soil: (i) it increases the thetic in unpaved roads. But base stabili-
Mechanically stabilized turbine access road,
St Fergus Moss peat fuel extraction area,
Scotland. Photo: Tensar International
APRIL/MAY 2016 HEAVE PREVENTION GEOSYNTHETICS HAN & GIROUD
VOLUME 34 NUMBER 2
SUBSCRIBE AT
Mountain road fixed 2016 State of Part 2–Geosynthetics
with geosynthetics the industry and unpaved roads
Bridge building in Maine

First GRS bridge
in a marine setting
$19 US | $25 CAN
0416GS_Cv1.indd 1 3/22/16 8:11 AM

Four Mile Road subgrade stabilization
project, Clearfield County, Pa.
Photo: Tensar International Corp.
14 Geosynthetics | April May 2016 Copyright © 2016 Industrial Fabrics Association International. May not be reproduced without permission.
ROADS & BRIDGES
Part 2
Field evaluation of the

roads incorporating
geosynthetics—Planning
By Jie Han and J.P. Giroud
Introduction AUTHORS’ NOTE

Scope and terminology
T he mechanisms that govern unpaved road performance are complex. Therefore, it The use of geosynthetics in unpaved roads
involves several mechanisms that govern
is legitimate to try to get quantitative data from laboratory and field tests, but test
the performance of these roads. The Part
interpretation can be correct only if there is a good understanding of the mechanisms 1 article published in the preceding issue
(which was the purpose of the Part 1 article), rigorous planning of the tests (which is provides a concise description of these
the purpose of this Part 2 article), and appropriate implementation of the tests (which mechanisms. This Part 2 article provides
will be the purpose of the Part 3 article). guidance for planning field evaluation
A field test may include one or more test sections. In accordance with the terminol- of the performance of unpaved roads
incorporating geosynthetics. Proper
ogy used in the Part 1 article (Giroud and Han, 2016), unpaved road test sections incor-
planning includes proper selection of
porating geosynthetics can be referred to as mechanically-stabilized test sections while test methods and proper design of the
unpaved road test sections without geosynthetic can be referred to as non-stabilized test sections. Improper planning of field
test sections. More specifically, a mechanically-stabilized test section may be referred tests may result in misrepresentation of
to as geosynthetic-stabilized test section to indicate that stabilization results from the the performance of unpaved roads with
geosynthetics, which should be avoided.
use of a geosynthetic; furthermore, the type of geosynthetic may be indicated, as in
geogrid-stabilized test section. Non-stabilized test sections are often used as control
sections for benefit evaluation of mechanically-stabilized test sections.
Jie Han, Ph.D., is a professor at the
Unpaved road performance University of Kansas and has academic and
Unpaved roads include haul roads, working platforms, and aggregate-surfaced roads, industrial experience in geosynthetic research
on which fewer vehicles travel at slower speed than those on paved roads. AASHTO and applications. In 2014, he received an IGS
award for his research on design of unpaved
(1993) allows aggregate-surfaced roads to be designed for up to 100,000 equivalent
and paved roads using geosynthetics.
single axle loads (ESALs). The most relevant deformation related to unpaved road per-
formance is rutting. Rutting is permanent deformation that accumulates as the num- J.P. Giroud, Ph.D., is a consulting engineer,
ber of axle loads increases. Large rutting may cause discomfort to drivers, damage to a past president of the International
vehicles, and instability of the vehicles; therefore, excessive rutting should be avoided. Geosynthetics Society (IGS), and a member
of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering.
In the literature, rut depth is defined in two ways: apparent rut depth and elevation rut
He has published unpaved road design
depth (Cuelho et al., 2014). The apparent rut depth is defined as the maximum vertical methods since 1980.
ROADS & BRIDGES
Unpaved roads incorporating geosynthetics—Planning
distance between the peak and the valley of Measured data reported by Cuelho et al.
a wheel path cross section. The elevation rut (2014) show that: (i) the geosynthetic at
depth is defined as the maximum vertical the edge of the wheel first moved outward
distance between the original elevation of due to lateral spreading of the base course
the road surface and the valley of the wheel and then inward due to the accumulated
path cross section. When the subgrade soil rutting; and (ii) this displacement transi-
is saturated or nearly saturated, it is incom- tion happened at the elevation rut depth of
pressible or nearly incompressible; in this 50mm (2in.). Cuelho et al. (2014) attributed
The tensioned case, the subgrade soil moves down under this transition to the start of the tensioned
membrane effect the wheel and moves up around the wheel. membrane effect. Indeed, an elevation rut
As a result, the apparent rut depth is larger depth of 50mm (2in.) may be equivalent to
becomes important only than the elevation rut depth. In field tests an apparent rut depth of 75 to 100mm (3
reported by Cuelho et al. (2014), the appar- to 4in.), at which the tensioned membrane
when large deformations ent rut depth was about 1.5 to 2.0 times effect starts to become important, as shown
occur in soft subgrade. the elevation rut depth. Most agencies or by Giroud and Noiray (1981). This example
projects adopt the apparent rut depth as a illustrates that using appropriate parameters
way to quantify road deformation and they (such as apparent rut depth) is necessary to
allow its magnitude to be up to 50-100mm make correct interpretation of the mecha-
(2-4in.) for unpaved roads. Giroud and Han nism involved.
(2004) used an apparent rut depth of 75mm
(3in.) as the serviceability limit for their Objectives of field evaluation
unpaved road design method. AASHTO Field evaluation of unpaved road perfor-
(1993) limits apparent rut depths to a typi- mance may be conducted with different
cal value of 25-50mm (1-2in.) for aggregate objectives: (1) quality assurance, (2) benefit
surfaced roads. Since the rut depth generally evaluation, and (3) comparative study.
used is the apparent rut depth, it is recom- Field evaluation is often performed as
mended to use this parameter for the evalu- part of road construction quality assur-
ation of trafficking tests. ance. Such field evaluation, being done
for actual projects, is often performed
EDITOR’S NOTE Mechanisms that improve unpaved using non-destructive methods in a fast
road performance manner.
This article (Part 2 article) is the second
Giroud and Han (2016) indicate that the The evaluation of the benefit provided
of a series of three articles devoted
to unpaved roads. The Part 1 article,
mechanisms through which geosynthet- by mechanical stabilization of unpaved
authored by Giroud and Han and titled ics improve the performance of unpaved roads is often done by constructing
“Mechanisms governing the performance roads include separation between base and mechanically-stabilized test sections and
of unpaved roads incorporating subgrade, lateral restraint of the base mate- comparing their performance to that of a
geosynthetics”, was published in rial, vertical restraint of the subgrade soil, control section, which consists of a non-
the February/March 2016 issue of
and tensioned membrane effect. Among stabilized test section. For easy evaluation,
Geosynthetics. The final article (Part 3),
authored by Han and Giroud and titled the mechanisms other than separation, the mechanically-stabilized test sections and
“Field evaluation of the performance dominant mechanisms improving unpaved control sections should be constructed on
of unpaved roads incorporating road performance within tolerable deforma- the same subgrade soil at the same mois-
geosynthetics—Implementation”, will tions (i.e., apparent rut depth smaller than ture content and state of compaction, with
be published in the June/July 2016
100mm [4in.]) are lateral restraint of the a base layer of the same thickness, grading
issue of Geosynthetics.
base material and vertical restraint of the and moisture content, and using the same
subgrade soil. The tensioned membrane construction method.
effect becomes important only when large A comparative study may be used to
deformations occur in soft subgrade (i.e., evaluate the relative performance of geo-
subgrade deformation that results in appar- synthetic-stabilized unpaved roads with
ent rut depth larger than 100mm [4in.]). different base thicknesses or different geo-
synthetic products. For a fair comparison, the plate can be back-calculated. There
the parameter being evaluated should vary are several types of FWD devices, which
from one section to another, while other have falling weights ranging from 445 to
parameters should be kept constant. 6675 N (100 to 1,500 lbs). The LWD is
Test sections for benefit evaluation and a portable falling weight deflectometer
comparative study may be evaluated by that has a typical falling weight of 100
non-destructive methods and/or destruc- N (22 lbs). Since the LWD test has a
tive methods. light falling weight, it is mainly used to
evaluate subgrade and base; since the Both falling weight
FWD test has a heavy falling weight, it
deflectometer (FWD)
Test methods can be used to evaluate subgrade, base,
Test methods used to evaluate and asphalt layer. Both FWD and LWD and light weight
soil properties tests are considered non-destructive tests
In addition to density tests (e.g., nuclear because they induce small deformations. deflectometer (LWD)
gauge test, sand cone test, etc.), vane shear Research showed that the FWD and tests are considered
and dynamic cone penetrometer tests LWD tests are not effective in detecting
can be used to evaluate soil properties. the improved performance immediately non-destructive tests
The vane shear test consists in applying after the construction of test sections
a torque to a metal vane inserted in soil incorporating geosynthetics because
because they induce
to generate shear failure of the soil. As a their induced deformations are too small small deformations.
result, the undrained shear strength of the to mobilize the contribution of geosyn-
soil is estimated. The dynamic cone pen- thetics. However, after test sections are
etrometer (DCP) test uses a falling weight trafficked by wheels, geosynthetics can
to apply an impact load that forces a steel minimize the deterioration of granular
rod with a cone tip to penetrate into the bases so that the modulus of the base
soil. The amount of penetration under each is retained for a longer performance
blow can be used to estimate strength and period. Then, the FWD test can detect
modulus of the soil. The vane shear test is the higher retained composite modu-
mainly used to evaluate the subgrade soil, lus of the test section with geosynthetic
while the DCP test can be used to evaluate compared to the composite modulus of
subgrade soil and base course material. the test section without geosynthetic, as
The vane shear test and the DCP test evalu- demonstrated by Jersey et al. (2012).
ate soil properties at specific depth. They The plate loading test consists in apply-
have been mostly used for site investiga- ing a load on a loading plate seated on a
tion, quality control before construction, road surface. The road surface deforms
and quality assurance after construction, with an increase of load magnitude, with
but they cannot be used to evaluate the time under a constant load, and/or with
performance of a test section. the number of load repetitions. Static and
repetitive plate loading tests are used, as
Test methods used to evaluate discussed below.
road performance In the case of the static plate loading test,
Deflectometers (falling weight deflec- the load is maintained after each load incre-
tometer [FWD] or light weight deflec- ment and the deformation increase with
tometer [LWD]) generate a load pulse time is measured. The initial deformation
by dropping a weight on a circular plate, within the elastic limit is used to calculate
which induces a deflection basin at the the composite elastic modulus of the test
road surface. Based on the load pulse and section while the additional deformation
the road surface deflection with known close to failure is used to estimate its ulti-
layer thicknesses, moduli of layers under mate bearing capacity. Static plate loading
ROADS & BRIDGES
tests can be used to evaluate the benefits tory is to have better control of moisture,
of geosynthetics in stabilizing base courses temperature, and wind. APT sections
over soft subgrade, which include increased in the laboratory closely simulate road
section composite modulus and bearing sections in the field; therefore, they can
capacity. be considered equivalent to field evalu-
In the case of the repetitive plate load- ation. The trafficking can be conducted
ing test, the load on the loading plate is with reciprocating wheel action or single
repeatedly increased and reduced, and direction wheel travel. This detail should
Accelerated pavement the total deformation and the rebound be documented. The APT method can
(or “recovery deformation”) are measured generate small to large deformations and
test sections in the
for each loading cycle. The difference even failure of a road.
laboratory closely between the total deformation and the The FWD and LWD tests are the fast-
total rebound is the permanent defor- est and least expensive among all the
simulate road mation, which is often related to the rut tests discussed above, while the traffick-
sections in the field. depth of a road. During this loading pro- ing test is the slowest and most expen-
cess, the load intensity may be increased. sive, and the plate loading test is in the
The cyclic plate loading test is a special middle between FWD/LWD and traffick-
repetitive plate loading test, where a cyclic ing tests. All of these test methods have
load is automatically and continuously been successfully used to evaluate the
applied at a fixed frequency by an actuator performance of unpaved roads without
or air cylinder. White (2015) conducted geosynthetics. The effectiveness of these
cyclic plate loading tests including a sen- test methods to evaluate the performance
sor kit to measure ground deflections at of geosynthetic-stabilized unpaved roads
selected radial distances from the plate will be discussed in a later section.
center. Repetitive plate loading tests can
induce elastic rebound and permanent
deformations; therefore, these tests are Selection of test methods
effective in evaluating the benefit of for field evaluation
geosynthetics in stabilizing base courses Depending on the objective of field evalu-
over subgrade under repeated loading, ation, different test methods and their pro-
which includes increased section com- cedures may be adopted.
posite resilient modulus (related to the
rebound). These tests can be conducted Quality assurance
to large deformations, even up to failure For quality assurance, field tests are per-
of test sections. formed to evaluate whether a geosyn-
The trafficking test consists in repeat- thetic-stabilized unpaved road meets the
edly applying axle loads on a road surface design requirements. FWD, LWD, and
via moving wheel(s) and measuring rut static and repetitive plate loading tests
depths as a function of the number of may be performed. Static plate loading
vehicle or axle passes. This is typically tests can assess the composite elastic
achieved by driving a loaded truck on modulus increase of a test section by geo-
the road. To reduce the time needed for synthetic while repetitive plate loading
evaluation, an accelerated pavement test tests can evaluate the composite resilient
(APT) facility can be used to run loaded modulus increase of a test section by
wheels on the road surface in the field geosynthetic.
or laboratory in an accelerated manner.
The APT is more commonly done in a Benefit evaluation
laboratory than in the field. The main To verify the benefit of geosynthetic
advantage of an APT done in the labora- stabilization, a control section should
be constructed on the same subgrade Here, the discussion is limited to factors
soil with the same granular layer of the related to the geosynthetics.
same thickness using the same construc- Factors related to geosynthetics
tion method as for the geosynthetic- include, for example, type of geosyn-
stabilized section. FWD and LWD tests thetic, type of polymer, type of manu-
are not able to evaluate the benefit of facturing process, and geometry and
geosynthetic immediately after the con- mechanical properties of the geosyn-
struction of the road because, then, the thetics. Even if a comparative study is
geosynthetics are not mobilized; but limited to a certain type of geosynthetic, Comparing the
FWD and LWD tests can detect the the number of parameters can be large.
performance of two or
improved performance after the road For example, for geogrids, the relevant
has been trafficked for a certain time properties include, but are not limited more test sections with
period because, then, geosynthetics are to, aperture stability modulus, junction
mobilized as a result of accumulated strength, aperture shape, aperture size different geosynthetics
deformation of the road structure. In and aspect ratio, rib thickness and pro- or different base
particular, FWD and LWD tests may be file, and tensile stiffness. It is hard to
used to assess the benefit of geosynthetic identify which parameters have the most thicknesses in a
on the retained composite modulus of important effect on the performance of
the test section over time as shown by unpaved road sections stabilized with
comparative study
Jersey et al. (2012). Static and cyclic different geosynthetics. The field study is difficult.
plate loading tests can be performed to conducted by Cuelho et al. (2014) con-
evaluate the benefit of geosynthetic in firmed such difficulties. A comparative
increasing the composite elastic modu- study is more feasible and reliable if the
lus and composite resilient modulus of number of variables is limited, such as
the test section, respectively. The benefit a study conducted for different geosyn-
of geosynthetic in increasing the road thetic products made with the same poly-
life can be evaluated by trafficking tests. mer, the same manufacturing process,
If test sections allow for tests to be run and even the same manufacturer. In this
to failure, the increased bearing capacity case, the different geosynthetics of the
can be evaluated by static plate loading same group are described using the term
tests or the prolonged road life can be grade, which depends on basic param-
evaluated by trafficking tests to large eters such as thickness and stiffness. The
rut depths. geosynthetic with a large thickness and
high stiffness is considered as a high-
Comparative study grade product. For example, Qian et al.
Comparing the performance of two or (2013) used three punched-drawn trian-
more test sections with different geo- gular aperture polypropylene geogrids of
synthetics or different base thicknesses different grades and equivalent aperture
in a comparative study is difficult, and size in cyclic plate loading tests in a large
it may be misleading to generalize the box and clearly demonstrated the effect
results obtained from a comparative of the geogrid grade on the performance
study done by performing field tests of geogrid-stabilized bases over soft sub-
under specific conditions because the grade.
performance of a road incorporating When different types of geosynthet-
a geosynthetic depends on many fac- ics are used for a comparative study, an
tors, such as those related to the soil effort should be made to investigate and
material and its variability, the con- quantify the mechanisms that govern per-
struction method, the geosynthetic, formance to ensure better interpretation
and the soil/geosynthetic interaction. and possible generalization. To that end,
ROADS & BRIDGES
instrumentation of the field test sections Design of test sections

should be undertaken. For example, White Selection of test sections
et al. (2010) installed earth pressure cells The design of test sections depends on the
vertically in the base and the subgrade to objective of field evaluation:
measure horizontal stresses and evalu- • When testing for quality assurance pur-
ate the lateral restraint mechanism for poses, test sections should be randomly
woven geotextile, biaxial geogrid, and selected along the road.
triangular aperture geogrid. They found • To evaluate the benefit of a geosyn-
The typical number of that the triangular aperture geogrid was thetic, at least two test sections should
most effective in increasing the horizon- be designed with same base material and
vehicle passes used in
tal stress in the base as well as reducing thickness on the same subgrade, which
field trafficking tests of the horizontal stress in the subgrade. To include one control section without any
evaluate the benefit of geosynthetics for the geosynthetic and another section with a
unpaved roads is 1,000. tensioned membrane mechanism, a large geosynthetic.
rut depth (e.g., apparent rut depth greater • For a comparative study, the number of
than 100mm [4in.]) must be allowed to test sections to be designed depends on
develop. As a general rule, a compara- the number of geosynthetics, subgrade
tive study should be conducted by varying conditions, and/or base thicknesses to
one influence factor of interest and fixing be evaluated (at least two geosynthetic
other influence factors. For example, to products or two base thicknesses should
investigate the effect of base thickness on be used).
performance of geosynthetic-stabilized The size and the number of test sections
unpaved roads, the base thickness should are an important consideration. They will be
be varied for a specific subgrade condition addressed in the Part 3 article.
with a specific geosynthetic product.
When a thick granular base without Design methods
any geosynthetic is compared with a Design methods available in the literature
thin granular base with a geosynthetic may be used for the design of unpaved
in a comparative study for equivalent test sections, for example, those included
performance of two unpaved test sec- in the FHWA “Geosynthetic Design and
tions, it involves two variables: base Construction Guidelines” (Holtz et al.,
thickness and geosynthetic. The equiva- 2008). The outcome of the design of test
lent performance is contributed by the sections is the thickness of base course.
combined effect of these two variables. To achieve meaningful results, field
Different base thicknesses of two test tests should be designed in accordance
sections with equivalent performance with the mechanisms that govern the
may be designed using available design performance of unpaved roads (see the
methods and evaluated by plate loading Part 1 article, Giroud and Han, 2016).
tests and/or trafficking tests. To ensure Since the performance of unpaved roads
true equivalency in the mechanisms, with or without a geosynthetic depends
mechanical action on the subgrade on several influence factors, these influ-
should be the same in the two test sec- ence factors should be considered during
tions. Instrumentation is then needed to the design of test sections. These fac-
check that the surface deformation and tors, which include performance criteria,
the vertical stress on top of the subgrade loading, and parameters related to the
under the same loading condition are materials used in the tested unpaved
equivalent. roads, are discussed below.
Performance criteria However, for a specific subgrade soil, it is
Performance criteria include rut depth preferable to develop a site-specific cor-
and number of vehicle passes. An appar- relation. There is also a common correla-
ent rut depth of 75mm (3in.) has been tion between CBR and DCP penetration
commonly used as a serviceability limit index (e.g., Webster et al., 1994). If rainfall
for design of unpaved roads, which may is expected during field tests, the soaked
also be used for the design of test sec- subgrade shear strength should be used
tions. For benefit evaluation, the number for design.
of vehicle passes should be limited by a A sensitive subgrade, the strength of If the aggregate is open
tolerable apparent rut depth (typically which decreases after disturbance by traf-
graded, a nonwoven
smaller than 25mm [1in.]) if test sections ficking, should be avoided because it will
will be used as a service road or be paved introduce complexities in interpretation of geotextile may be placed
later, or limited by time and/or budget. test results. When a sensitive subgrade can-
For a comparative study, the number not be avoided in test sections, a remolded under the geogrid.
of vehicle passes should also be limited subgrade strength should be used for
due to time and cost considerations. The design.
typical number of vehicle passes used in Variability in subgrade strength exists
field trafficking tests of unpaved roads is in the field. Examples of variability char-
1,000. If an accelerated pavement testing acterized by the coefficient of variation
facility is used, a large number of axle (COV) are as follows:
passes may be adopted, typically 5,000 • White et al. (2005) reported that the
passes or more. COV values for DCP penetration indi-
ces of base and natural subgrade ranged
Loading and tire pressure from 14.3% to 47.0%.
For most unpaved road applications, • Phoon (2007) indicated that: (i) COVs
tire pressure ranges from 400 to 700 kPa for geotechnical properties ranging
(approximately 60 to 100 psi) and wheel from 10% to 30% are considered low;
load ranges from 20 to 90 kN (5 to 20 and (ii) typical COVs for undrained
kips) for a single axle or 35 to 180 kN shear strengths of clays obtained from
(8 to 40 kips) for a tandem axle. The most unconfined undrained (UU) tests and
commonly used tire pressure and wheel vane shear tests are 10% to 30% and 10%
load for trucks in the United States are 550 to 40%, respectively.
kPa and 40 kN (80 psi and 9 kips), respec- Avoiding variability in subgrade
tively. High tire pressure necessitates a strength is key to achieving meaningful
high-quality granular material for the base results. The variability in subgrade strength
in an unpaved road but does not necessar- should be checked across individual sec-
ily require a thick base. tions as well as across all sections. The
number of tests thus required depends on
Subgrade strength the variability in subgrade strength and
Subgrade strength is a key parameter will be further discussed in the section
for the design of unpaved roads with or “Representativeness of test sections” in the
without geosynthetic. Subgrade shear Part 3 article.
strength is often quantified using und- Since almost all the design methods
rained shear strength, which can be for unpaved roads have been developed
measured by the vane shear test in based on 50% reliability (i.e., average per-
the field or unconfined compression formance), it is appropriate to use average
test in the laboratory; also, it can be subgrade strength for the design of test
estimated using available correlation sections. However, if there is variability,
with the California Bearing Ratio (CBR). using averaging over the whole test area
ROADS & BRIDGES
may not be representative and could lead ities (such as some woven geotextiles and
to premature failure of some test sections. some geogrids with apertures too small to
In this case, averaging over each indi- interlock with aggregate) may serve as a
vidual test section should be used rather tensioned membrane providing additional
than averaging over the whole test area. force to support wheel loads if a large rut
depth (> 100mm [4in.]) is allowed.
Base material properties A stiff geogrid, able to restrict lateral
The base in an unpaved road is in direct displacement of aggregate by interlock,
Field evaluation contact with wheels; therefore, the base can contribute to separation between well-
material should have sufficient strength, graded aggregate and fine-grained sub-
of unpaved roads modulus, and abrasion resistance to with- grade by maintaining the integrity of the
incorporating stand trafficking effects for the service life aggregate layer. However, if the aggregate
of the road. Granular material is gener- is open graded, a nonwoven geotextile
geosynthetics can have ally used as base material. For the selec- may be placed under the geogrid. Geogrid
different objectives. tion of the base granular material, the fol- properties considered to be important for
lowing can be considered: (i) rounded or lateral restraint of the granular material
subrounded particles are not suitable for are rib shape, rib thickness, aperture size,
a granular layer used as a base because initial tensile modulus, in-plane flexural
granular layers constructed with such stiffness of the ribs, and junction efficiency
particles have low strength and modulus; (Webster, 1992; Giroud, 2009). In addition,
and (ii) single-sized angular particles are aperture shape plays an important role in
difficult to compact and tend to break geogrid-particle interlocking. To ensure
under wheel loading. As a result, the most effective interlocking between geogrid and
suitable granular material is well-graded granular material, the particle size and gra-
crushed aggregate. dation should be controlled and a geogrid
The strength and modulus of well- with compatible aperture size should be
graded aggregate are often quantified by selected. Holtz et al. (2008) suggested that
CBR tests and/or DCP tests. It should be the geogrid aperture size should be larger
pointed out that the CBR value of a granu- than the mean particle size and smaller
lar layer in the field is often lower than that than twice the particle size corresponding
determined by standard CBR tests in the to 85% finer. Giroud and Han (2015) con-
laboratory because the granular layer in the cluded that the optimum aperture size for
field is less confined and more difficult to geogrid interlocking with granular material
compact than in the laboratory, especially is approximately twice the mean particle
when the subgrade is soft. size.
Geocells can provide closed confine-
Geosynthetics ment to granular material and their effec-
Geosynthetics, commonly used to improve tiveness depends on geocell height, pocket
the performance of unpaved roads, are non- diameter, welding strength, and degree of
woven geotextile, woven geotextile, geogrid, compaction of the granular material.
and geocell.
Nonwoven and woven geotextiles can
serve a function of separation between Recommendations
granular base and subgrade soil and and conclusion
the key geotextile parameter is then the Recommendations
apparent opening size, which should be The following recommendations can be
selected based on the gradation of the made from the above discussions.
subgrade soil. Geosynthetics with high The objective of field evaluation should
tensile strength and low interlock capabil- be clearly defined. The methods for evalua-
tion may be different for different objectives REFERENCES Webster, S.L., Brown, R.W., and Porter, J.R., 1994, “Force
Projection Site Evaluation Using the Electric Cone
(i.e., quality assurance, benefit evaluation, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO), 1993, “Guide for Penetrometer (ECP) and the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
comparative study). Design of Pavement Structures”, Washington, D.C. (DCP)”, Technical Report No. GL-94-17, Air Force Civil
Test sections for benefit evaluation and Cuelho, E., Perkins, S., and Morris, Z., 2014, “Relative
Engineering Support Agency,
U.S. Air Force, Tyndall Air Force Base, Fla.
comparative study should be planned in a Operational Performance of Geosynthetics Used as
White, D.J., 2015, “Two-Layer In-Situ Performance
way that ensures they will be performed Subgrade Stabilization”, FHWA/MT-14-002/7712-251,
Comparison of TX130s, BX1100, BX1200, RS580i, and
Western Transportation Institute and Montana State
under well-controlled conditions. In par- University, Bozeman, 313p. HP370 Geosynthetic Stabilized Aggregate Layer over Soft
Subgrade: Boone Test Bed”, Boone, Iowa, USA. Prepared
ticular, uniformity of subgrade is essential Giroud, J.P., and Noiray, L., 1981, “Geotextile-Reinforced for Tensar International Corporation, Alpharetta, Ga.,
and should be required. Unpaved Road Design”, Journal of the Geotechnical Project #2015-011, Ingios Geotechnics.
Division, ASCE, Vol. 107, No. GT 9, September 1981,
Appropriate design of the base and pp. 1233-1254. White, D.J., Gieselman, H.H., Douglas, C., Zhang, J., and
appropriate test methods are key to a suc- Vennapusa, P., 2010, “In-Situ Compaction Measurements
Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2004, “Design Method for for Geosynthetic Stabilized Subbase: Weirton, West
cessful field evaluation. Geogrid-Reinforced Unpaved Roads. I Development Virginia”, EERC Publication ER10-05.
of Design Method”, Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 130, No. 8, White, D.J., Harrington, D., Ceylan, H., and Rupnow,
Conclusion August 2004, pp. 775-786. T., 2005, “Fly Ash Soil Stabilization for Non-Uniform
Field evaluation of unpaved roads incor- Subgrade Soils”, Volume II: Influence of Subgrade
Giroud, J.P., 2009, “An assessment of the use of geogrids Non-Uniformity on PCC Pavement Performance.
porating geosynthetics can have differ- in unpaved roads and unpaved areas”, Proceedings of the Iowa State University. G
ent objectives: quality assurance, ben- Jubilee Symposium on Polymer Geogrid Reinforcement,
Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK, pp. 23-36.
efit evaluation, and comparative study.
Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2015, “Design of geosynthetic-
Design of test sections and selection of reinforced unpaved roads”, e-lecture, http://geo-u.com.
test methods depend on the objective of
Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2016, “Mechanisms governing
field evaluation. the performance of unpaved roads incorporating
Representative test sections should be geosynthetics”, Geosynthetics, Vol. 34, No. 1,
February–March 2016, pp. 22-36.
carefully designed. Falling weight deflec-
Holtz, R.D., Christopher, B.R., and Berg, R.R., 2008,
tometer (FWD), lightweight deflectometer “Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines”,
(LWD), static, and repetitive plate loading FHWA-NHI-07-092, 592p.
tests may be considered for quality assur- Jersey, S.R., Tingle, J.S., Norwood, G.J., Kwon, J., and
ance and benefit evaluation. Trafficking Wayne, M., 2012, “Full-scale evaluation of geogrid
reinforced thin flexible pavements”, Transportation
tests can be planned for benefit evaluation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research
and comparative study. Board, No. 2310, pp. 61-71.
In conclusion, this article provides guid- Phoon, K.K., 2007, “Uncertainties in geomaterials and
ance for properly planning field tests for geotechnical models”, Invited Lecture at Department
of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering,
quality assurance, benefit evaluation, and University of Kansas, 22 Feb. 2007.
comparative study. Proper planning of field Qian, Y., Han, J., Pokharel, S.K., and Parsons, R.L., 2013,
tests requires a good understanding of the “Performance of triangular aperture geogrid-reinforced
base courses over weak subgrade under cyclic loading”,
mechanisms that govern the performance Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 25(8), 1013-
of unpaved roads (which was the purpose of 1021.
the Part 1 article published in the February/ Webster, S.L., 1992, “Geogrid Reinforced Base Courses
March issue of Geosynthetics), while adequate for Flexible Pavements for Light Aircraft: Test Section
Construction, Behavior under Traffic, Laboratory Tests,
implementation of the field tests is essential and Design Criteria”, final report, DOT/FAA/RD-92/25,
(which will be addressed in the Part 3 article U.S. Department of Transportation and Federal Aviation
Administration, 91p.
to be published in the June/July issue of Geo-
synthetics).
Mechanically stabilized main access road over
peat soils at Whitelee Wind Farm near Glasgow,
Scotland. Photo: Tensar International
JUNE/JULY 2016 GMA TECHLINE EROSION CONTROL GREEN ROOFS 101
VOLUME 34 NUMBER 3
SUBSCRIBE AT
Reservoir liner? Reinforced soil slopes The science that makes
Strength test? design and construction green roofs work
Unpaved roads
incorporating
geosynthetics
Part 3—Implementation
$19 US | $25 CAN
0616GS_Cv1.indd 1 5/24/16 1:16 PM

Construction of mechanically stabilized
access roads built between the turbines
at the Renaico Wind Farm in Chile.
Photo: Tensar International Corp.
26 Geosynthetics | June July 2016 Copyright © 2016 Industrial Fabrics Association International. May not be reproduced without permission.
Part 3
Field evaluation of the

roads incorporating
geosynthetics—
Implementation
AUTHORS’ NOTE
Introduction The use of geosynthetics in unpaved roads
T
involves several mechanisms that govern the
he mechanisms that govern unpaved road performance are complex, and ac-
performance of these roads. The Part 1 and
curate field evaluation of the performance of unpaved roads incorporating Part 2 articles published in the preceding
geosynthetics is not easy because it involves many influence factors. Interpretation issues provide a concise description of these
of test data can be correct only if there is a good understanding of the mechanisms mechanisms and guidance for planning field
(which was the purpose of the Part 1 article), rigorous planning of the field tests evaluation of the performance of unpaved
(which was the purpose of the Part 2 article), and appropriate implementation of roads incorporating geosynthetics, respec-
tively. To achieve meaningful results, field
the field tests (which is the purpose of this Part 3 article).
tests should be not only designed but also
This article will focus on construction of test sections, representativeness of implemented and interpreted in accordance
test sections, implementation of field evaluation, and interpretation of test results. with the mechanisms that govern the per-
formance of unpaved roads. Improper field
tests and data interpretation may result in
inconclusive and misleading outcomes, which
Construction of test sections
should be avoided.
A construction plan should be prepared and discussed with the geosynthetic sup-
plier. For both subgrade and base preparation, accurate measurement of ground
levels is necessary for calculating base thickness and ensuring consistency. Specific
considerations are presented below. Jie Han, Ph.D., is a professor at the University
of Kansas and has academic and industrial
Subgrade preparation experience in geosynthetic research and
The construction of a test section should start with the removal of topsoil, which applications. In 2014, he received an IGS award
for his research on design of unpaved and paved
often contains vegetation and organic matters. The subgrade should be graded or
roads using geosynthetics.
compacted to a level surface without any apparent voids. As a general rule, prepara-
tion and subsequent trafficking of all test sections should be consistent. The follow- J.P. Giroud, Ph.D., is a consulting engineer, a past
ing constraints apply to construction equipment: president of the International Geosynthetics
• In the case of natural subgrade soil, efforts should be made to minimize construc- Society (IGS), and a member of the U.S. National
Academy of Engineering. He has published
tion equipment traffic directly on the subgrade. If extra space is available, excavation
unpaved road design methods since 1980.
Unpaved roads incorporating geosynthetics—Implementation
and grading should be conducted from be installed and connection between the
the sides of the test section. Otherwise, two pieces should be done by overlap or
only the minimum required construction jointing. The overlap or jointing recom-
traffic to prepare the subgrade should be mendations of the relevant manufacturers
allowed. No further construction traffic should be sought and followed where pos-
is then allowed. sible. In addition, the following recom-
• In the case of compacted subgrade soil, mendations may be considered, depending
construction equipment is allowed on the type of geosynthetic:
The mechanisms directly on the subgrade during con- If geotextiles are used, Holtz et al.
struction but is not allowed after sub- (2008) suggest a minimum unsewn over-
that govern unpaved
grade preparation. lap of 0.3–0.45m (12–18in.) for subgrade
road performance are Even though natural subgrade presents CBR > 2%, 0.6–0.9m (24–36in.) for sub-
the drawback of being heterogeneous, it is grade CBR = 1–2%, and 0.9m (36in.) for
complex, and accurate preferred to compacted subgrade, espe- subgrade CBR = 0.5–1%. Alternatively, the
field evaluation of the cially when large test sections are needed. geotextile can be sewn for subgrade CBR <
This is because constructing a uniformly 1%. Geotextiles that are expected to act as
performance of unpaved compacted subgrade in a large area is very tensioned membrane should be sewn. All
difficult. However, when a subgrade soil of geotextile roll ends should be overlapped
roads incorporating a specific strength or CBR is required for for 0.9m (36in.) or sewn.
geosynthetics is not easy test sections, a compacted subgrade soil • If geogrids are used, an overlap of 0.3–
may be used, with the following precau- 0.45m (12–18in.) is often used.
because it involves many tions: • If geocells are used, connection should
influence factors. • The soil to be compacted should be well be done using staples.
mixed with water (if needed), which
requires sufficient time for moisture Base course construction
content to even out across the section. Construction of a base course should fol-
Then, the soil must be placed and com- low the following typical procedure:
pacted in a consistent way. • If multiple trucks are required to deliver
• If soil is placed inside a trench to prepare granular material to a test site, it is
EDITOR’S NOTE a compacted subgrade, measures may important that all material is dumped
be taken to maintain moisture of the and mixed together on site to prevent
This article (Part 3 article) is the third
compacted subgrade if needed. If the test segregation and reduce variability
of a series of three articles devoted
to unpaved roads. The Part 1 article,
site is expected to be subjected to rain- between loads of material in terms of
authored by Giroud and Han and fall during the test, a properly designed grading and moisture content.
titled “Mechanisms governing the drainage system with equally spaced • Granular material should be end-
performance of unpaved roads drain outlets should be installed in each dumped and cascaded over the geosyn-
incorporating geosynthetics”, was test section; otherwise, the compacted thetic using construction equipment.
published in the February/March
subgrade soil may be ponded with water, The starting granular material thickness
2016 issue of Geosynthetics. The
Part 2 article, authored by Han and which reduces subgrade strength and is a function of the subgrade strength.
Giroud and titled “Field evaluation modulus. The preferred thickness of each lift after
of the performance of unpaved compaction is 0.15m (6in.) to 0.20m
roads incorporating geosynthetics— Geosynthetic placement (8in.). When a base course is too thick
Planning”, was published in the April/
Generally, the recommendations of the rel- (e.g., greater than 0.3m or 12in.) to
May 2016 issue of Geosynthetics.
evant geosynthetic manufacturers should be placed in a single lift, it should be
be followed. The geosynthetics should be divided into two or more lifts. When
placed directly and flatly on top of the two or more lifts of granular material
subgrade. If the width of the test section is are placed, they should be placed in
wider than the roll or panel width of geo- equal or similar lift thickness to avoid
synthetic, additional geosynthetic should non-uniform base densities in depth.
A well-graded granular material with corresponding to 90% and 95% confidence
fine particles should be compacted at levels are 1.645 and 1.960, respectively.
its optimum water content within ±2% At different COV (from 10% to 30%),
tolerance. allowable margin of error (5% or 10%),
• It is important to ensure that the con- and confidence level (90% or 95%), the
struction traffic is equal over all sections. required number of test data can be deter-
All fill should not be brought in from mined as provided in Table 1.
one end, resulting in greater construction If a test site can be constructed with a
traffic over the initial sections. subgrade strength COV lower than 20% To evaluate the
• Depending on the type and quality of as an example, 11 to 16 subgrade strength
granular material used, pneumatic com- tests are needed if the allowable margin of
paction equipment may be needed in lieu error is 10%, as shown in Table 1. roads incorporating
of a steel drum. Low ground contact pres-
sure equipment can be used to perform Uniformity of subgrade and base
geosynthetics,
placement of aggregate. This equipment The representativeness of test sections is representative test
should make complete passes over all significantly affected by variability of sub-
sections. All passes should be recorded grade and base. Indeed, Han and Giroud sections should be
to be reviewed in the event that there are (2012): (i) demonstrated that variation of
unexplained differences in test results. subgrade soil at a low CBR value (e.g., CBR
designed and prepared.
Video records can be used to substantiate < 1%) has more effect on the performance
this information. It is preferable that local of unpaved roads than that at a high CBR
compaction practice be followed. value (e.g., CBR > 1%); and (ii) calculated
• After placement and compaction of all in a specific case that a 10% base thick-
lifts, the final compacted base thickness increase resulted in 100% to 330%
ness should be equal to the design base increase of the service life of the considered
thickness. unpaved road.
To ensure the validity of test sections,
subgrade and base should be uniform. To
Representativeness ensure uniformity of subgrade and base,
of test sections density tests should be performed during
To evaluate the performance of unpaved and after construction of test sections
roads incorporating geosynthetics, and typical density requirements should
representative test sections should be be followed. In addition, the COV values
designed and prepared. To prepare for subgrade strength and base modulus
representative test sections, the following for all test sections should be lower than
factors should be considered. 20% and the allowable margin of error
for the average value of each parameter
Required number of test data with respect to its target value should
For test results to be reliable, a required be less than 10%. The COV values for
number of test data is needed statistically. individual test sections should be lower
The basic formula to estimate the mini- than 10%. The deviation of the compacted
mum number of test data assuming a nor- base thickness from the target thickness
mal distribution is: should be smaller than 13mm (0.5in.). If
the COV values for the test sections are
where N = required number of test data; zR higher than 20% or the COV values for
= standard normal deviate, which depends individual test sections are higher than
on a confidence level; COV = coefficient of 10%, closer examination is needed and
variation (%); and e = allowable margin of the number of tests at least needs to be
error (%). The standard normal deviates doubled. To minimize moisture variation
due to rainfall, a drainage system should accumulation of excess pore water pres-
be properly designed and installed in test sure in the soil. All these sensors should be
sections. prepared and calibrated in the laboratory
before they are installed in the field. The
Size of test section following comments are related to the use
Test sections should be large enough to be of earth pressure cells:
representative. There is a general rule in • Earth pressure cells placed horizon-
geotechnical research that the size of the tally measure vertical stresses. They are
A simplistic test section should be at least five times often used on top of the subgrade, i.e.,
the loading plate size to avoid a boundary at the interface between base course and
interpretation of field
effect. The influence depth of a circular or subgrade if there is no geosynthetic or
tests consisting in square loading plate is two times the plate beneath the geosynthetic if any.
size. In the case of a loading plate size of • Earth pressure cells placed vertically
comparing only the 0.3m (1ft), these rules lead to the following: measure horizontal stresses. They are
overall performance of • The size of the test section should be at located at distances from the center of
least 1.5m × 1.5m (5ft × 5ft). a loading area (in a radial direction if a
test sections and using • For a circular or square loading plate, circular plate is used or in the transverse
the depth of the test section should be at direction with respect to traffic). They
only one criterion, least two times the plate size (i.e., 0.6m can be used in the base course (to evalu-
e.g., the total number of [2 ft]). ate the lateral restraint effect) and/or in
Two- or three-axle dump trucks have the subgrade.
vehicle passes, may be been mostly used for trafficking tests in the • An earth pressure cell placed close to
misleading. field. Rear axles carry most of the truck load. crushed aggregate should be protected
An accelerated pavement testing (APT) by sand. A large-size earth pressure cell
facility has also been used for the same pur- may hamper the interaction between
pose, which may employ a full axle or a half geogrid-stabilized base and subgrade.
axle. Commonly used wheel configurations Therefore, a cell size of 50 to 75mm (2 to
include single wheel, dual wheels, and tan- 3in.) is preferred.
dem wheels. To minimize possible bound- • When a static plate loading test is per-
ary effects, a test section for the trafficking formed on top of the base course, at least
test by a full-size truck in the field or a full one earth pressure cell should be placed
axle in an APT facility should be at least horizontally within 50mm (2in.) of the
6.0m (20ft) long, 4.5m (15ft) wide, and 1.2m top of the subgrade under the center
(4ft) deep (including the base and the sub- of the loading plate to measure vertical
grade). A test section loaded by a half axle stress.
in an APT facility should be at least half of • During a trafficking test, earth pres-
the plan dimension (i.e., 3m [10ft] long and sure cells for the measurement of verti-
2.3m [7.5ft] wide) as that tested by a full-size cal stress should be placed horizontally
truck or a full axle. within 50mm (2in.) of the top of the sub-
grade along wheel paths.
• Under static loading, vibrating wire type
Implementation or resistance type earth pressure cell can
of field evaluation be used while, under cyclic loading, only
Instrumentation resistance type of earth pressure cell
To investigate load transfer mechanisms should be used because vibrating wire
and stress distribution, earth pressure type of earth pressure cell cannot mea-
cells and strain gauges may be used. Also, sure a dynamic stress.
when a test section consists of sensitive Strain gauges may be placed on a geosyn-
soil, piezometers may be used to monitor thetic to monitor the development of tension
in the geosynthetic. A strain gauge on a all test sections. Turning and wandering truck, and disturbance of ruts by the base of
geosynthetic measures only the strain at its should be avoided unless they are con- the truck. The affected test section has, then,
specific location and direction of installa- sidered in design and should be reported. to be repaired if other sections are to be sub-
tion; this strain is often referred to as a local Climatic effects are minimized if the test jected to further trafficking. The rut depth
strain. For geogrids, the strains at different area is indoor or covered (i.e., sheltered set for repair of a wheel path should be
locations along the rib under tension are from rain, sun, wind, etc.). For outdoor larger than the pre-defined failure criterion
not necessarily consistent due to variation testing, trafficking tests should be carefully so that the second wheel path or the aver-
in rib section along the rib. Therefore, the planned and completed within a limited age rut depth from two wheel paths is likely
local strain on one location of the geogrid time frame or under a favorable climate larger than the pre-defined failure criterion.
may not represent the overall strain, which condition to avoid any possible effect by It is recommended that the maximum rut
is often referred to as the global strain. A rainfall, freeze-thaw, drying, or strong depth in each test section set for repair be
relationship between local strain and global wind. If the test site experiences heavy 1.5 times larger than the failure criterion.
strain should be established through labo- rainfall, trafficking test should be paused For example, if the failure criterion for rut
ratory tensile tests of a geogrid, on which and the test sections should be re-evaluated depth is 75mm (3in.), it is reasonable to test
strain gauge measurement on the rib and by dynamic cone penetration tests and/or one wheel path up to a maximum rut depth
external displacement measurement across lightweight deflectometer tests before traf- of 115 mm (4.5in.). After the repair of one
an aperture are taken. As loading is not ficking test can be resumed. or both paths of a test section, the rate of
transferred to the geogrid unidirectionally, rutting will be changed because the thick-
consideration must be given to the geom- Rut depth measurement ness of the base course in the repaired path
etry of the geogrid and the rib orientation Both apparent and elevation rut depths has been increased. Because of this fact, the
when measuring strains. should be measured. It is essential that measured rut depths in the repaired section
the position of measurements remain should not be used to calculate an average
Trafficking implementation consistent throughout the test. Permanent rut depth or compared with those in other
Since each full axle of a truck has wheels markers should be installed adjacent to sections without any repair.
at both ends, it is important to maintain the test sections at each measurement
equal wheel load on both ends of the axle. location to aid this measurement. For Forensic investigation
Uneven distribution of wheel loads will apparent rut depths, a straight edge or After a trafficking test, all test sections
result in uneven development of rutting, a laser rut measurement device may be should be carefully excavated by trench-
which may cause a truck to tilt toward one used. For elevation rut depths, surveying ing to examine changes of dimensions and
side. Tilting of a truck switches more load technology may be used. The number properties of the materials (including sub-
to one side: this accelerates the develop- of rut depth measurements depends on grade, base course, and geosynthetic) and
ment of rutting on one side of the test wheel configuration and variability of rut possible failures occurring in these mate-
section, which may result in premature depths. The common wheel configurations rials. At least two transverse trenches per
failure on this side. Therefore, uneven load are single, dual, or tandem wheels. Each section are recommended and additional
distribution on an axle should be avoided wheel induces one wheel path during trenches will be needed if surface deforma-
in trafficking tests. Visual observation is trafficking. Rut depths should be measured tions after a test are not uniform. Dynamic
an important component to recognize on each wheel path. Table 1 can be used to cone penetration testing should be per-
the development of uneven rutting. Any estimate the minimum number of rut depth formed on the base and subgrade and vane
localized area with an excessive elevation measurements in each test section. shear testing should be performed on the
rut should be marked prior to continuing subgrade across these trench areas, in par-
further trafficking. If the same problem Repair of test section ticular where there is excessive rutting. The
continues to occur at the same location, Due to the variability of loading and the test data from all these locations should be
this location should be carefully examined variability of mechanical properties of included in the report.
in the forensic investigation. subgrade and base, rut depths on different Base thickness reduction may be an
To minimize the test variables, an accel- wheel paths in a single section are likely indication of compression, shear failure,
erated pavement test (APT) approach is to increase at different rates. As a result, or lateral spreading. The profiles revealed
preferable to a driven truck. A moving one wheel path will have a deeper rut than by the excavation should be measured
wheel or a truck should be driven at a con- the other. When a rut gets too deep, it may and reported. Photographic record of the
stant speed (typically 8km/h [5mph]) on cause unbalanced loads, instability of a test exposed vertical sides of trenches may
be used to show rutting profiles at each angle. Because almost all design methods
level. It may be necessary to mark the geo- for unpaved roads have been developed
synthetic position with colored pins. The based on 50% reliability (i.e., average per-
change of top elevations of subgrade may formance), it is appropriate to use average
be an indication of subgrade deformation values for assessment of test sections (see
(such as heave) or shear failure. Intermix- Han and Giroud, 2016). These measured
ing between base course and subgrade in or calculated values are often plotted against
non-stabilized and mechanically-stabilized the number of axle passes or applied pres-
For a fair comparative test sections should be reported. sure on a loading plate. From these plots,
Great care is needed to exhume geosyn- the benefits of geosynthetics may be identi-
study of different
thetics for installation damage reporting, fied, such as the increased base modulus,
geosynthetic products, particularly if some physical or mechanical the reduced rut depth, and the prolonged
testing will be conducted on the exhumed service life. For example, White (2015) con-
it is recommended to geosynthetics. Examination of geosyn- ducted cyclic plate loading tests on field test
investigate and quantify thetic damage may include junction and sections with different geosynthetics, from
rib breakage of geogrid, rupture of geo- which resilient moduli of the subgrade and
through instrumentation textile, and breakage of geocell internal the base, with or without a geosynthetic,
welding. Investigations should examine were calculated.
the mechanisms that any evidence of geosynthetic pullout from The Traffic Benefit Ratio (TBR),
govern performance. edges of the test section and distortion defined as the ratio of the number of axle
along the wheel path (especially in the case passes of the test section with a geosyn-
of geotextiles). The horizontal distortion of thetic to that of a test section without any
a geosynthetic may be caused by low fric- geosynthetic of the same base thickness
tion between geosynthetic and subgrade and at the same rut depth, has been com-
and/or by low in-plane stiffness of the monly used to quantify the beneficial effect
geosynthetic. of geosynthetic on performance. The TBR
depends on rut depth. However, when the
TBR is used to compare the performance
Interpretation of test results of different geosynthetic products, it may
Data reduction and analysis be misleading because the performance
It is a good practice to reduce test data of each test section with a geosynthetic
immediately after measurements are taken depends on test conditions. The TBR
and plot them with previously obtained data obtained will be valid only for the exact
(e.g., rut depth vs. time or number of vehicle conditions and layer thicknesses used for
passes) so possible errors or improper test the test. For a fair comparative study of
procedures can be detected and corrected. different geosynthetic products, it is rec-
Sudden increase or decrease of measured ommended to investigate and quantify
values should be carefully examined and through instrumentation the mechanisms
verified. This is often an indication of a that govern performance.
recording error or malfunction of a sen-
sor. Data analysis depends on the type of Regression analysis
measurements used in test sections, such Linear regression analysis has commonly
as surface deformation or rut depth, strain been used to establish a relationship (i.e.,
in geosynthetic, vertical stress on top of the statistical model) between two param-
subgrade, and horizontal earth pressures eters. The coefficient of determination
in base and subgrade. These measured val- (often denoted as R2) indicates how well
ues may be used to calculate the moduli of data fit a statistical model mathematically.
base course and subgrade, coefficient of This type of analysis has been performed
lateral earth pressure, and stress distribution by researchers to examine the effect of
a certain factor on the performance of should be properly designed to achieve
a road. Such an analysis is meaningful the goal of field evaluation and avoid
only if the considered factor is related to boundary effects.
a mechanism that contributes to road per- 3. Representative test sections should be
formance. A statistical model that is not carefully designed and constructed to
related to any mechanism does not have limit the coefficient of variation of the
any physical meaning and may lead to a subgrade strength and the base modulus
false conclusion. For example, at small to less than 20% for all test sections or
rut depths of unpaved roads, ultimate 10% for individual test sections, with a A regression analysis
tensile strengths of geosynthetics are far margin of error less than 10%. Also, the
is meaningful only
from being mobilized; therefore, ultimate deviation of the compacted base thick-
tensile strengths of geosynthetics are not ness from the target thickness should be for data sets that are
related to small rut depths. However, a less than 13mm (0.5in.); and minimum
statistical model between two unrelated test section dimension (length, width, mechanically related.
data set (e.g., small rut depths and ulti- and depth) requirements should be met.
mate tensile strengths of geosynthetic) 4. Field cyclic plate loading testing is a
may still be established with a high R 2 promising test method, which can be
value as long as their values have similar performed to evaluate the section com-
trends among all the geosynthetic prod- posite modulus increase associated with
ucts. Clearly, this statistical model does the inclusion of the geosynthetic.
not have any physical meaning; therefore, 5. Trafficking tests can be performed to
a conclusion drawn from this relationship evaluate to which extent the service life
is false. Multiple regression analysis may of a test section is prolonged by the geo-
be more appropriate to establish the rela- synthetic. Accelerated pavement test
tionship between the road performance approach and indoor trafficking test are
and multiple influence factors includ- the preferred methods.
ing properties of geosynthetic, subgrade, 6. Instrumentation should be used to inves-
and base course. Unfortunately, multiple tigate the mechanisms of load transfer
regression analysis requires extensive test and stress distribution that govern the
data with a large number of variables, performance of unpaved roads incorpo-
which makes this type of analysis imprac- rating geosynthetics.
tical in most cases. In addition, different
mechanisms contribute to the overall Conclusion
performance. The feasible and correct A comparative study involving different
approach is to establish a relationship geosynthetics requires careful interpretation
between data sets when they are mechani- because the mechanisms through which
cally related. geosynthetics improve the performance of
unpaved roads are complex, as discussed
in detail in the Part 1 article (Giroud and
Recommendations Han, 2016). As a result of this complexity, the
and conclusion performance of unpaved roads incorporating
Recommendations geosynthetics depends on multiple factors.
The following recommendations can be Therefore, a simplistic interpretation of field
made from the above discussions: tests consisting in comparing only the overall
1. Uniformity of subgrade, appropriate performance of test sections and using only
design and construction of base, and one criterion, e.g., the total number of
appropriate test methods are key to a vehicle passes, may be misleading. In other
successful field evaluation. words, overall performance can be used
2. The sizes and number of test sections to compare a test section with another test
section, but overall performance alone is not REFERENCES

sufficient to compare the effectiveness of two Giroud, J.P., and Han, J., 2016, “Mechanisms governing
the performance of unpaved roads incorporating
different geosynthetics in actual unpaved geosynthetics”, Geosynthetics, 34(1), pp. 22-36.
roads. An objective comparison of the Han, J., and Giroud, J.P., 2012, “The Giroud-Han design
contributions of two different geosynthetics method for geosynthetic-reinforced unpaved roads. Part
to unpaved road improvement can result 2–Recommendations for the proper use of the method.”
Geosynthetics, 30(2), pp. 44-51.
only from a comprehensive interpretation
Han, J., and Giroud, J.P., 2016, “Field evaluation of
involving overall performance evaluation the performance of unpaved roads incorporating
>> For more, search unpaved roads at
www.GeosyntheticsMagazine.com as well as detailed instrumentation aimed at geosynthetics—Planning.” Geosynthetics, 34(2), pp.26-41.
evaluating the mechanisms through which Holtz, R.D., Christopher, B.R., and Berg, R.R., 2008,
the geosynthetic incorporated in the road “Geosynthetic Design and Construction Guidelines”,
FHWA-NHI-07-092, 592p.
structure improves the performance. This
White, D.J., 2015, “Two-Layer In-Situ Performance
necessary condition makes it possible to Comparison of TX130s, BX1100, BX1200, RS580i, and
generalize from field tests to actual situations HP370 Geosynthetic Stabilized Aggregate Layer over Soft
Subgrade: Boone Test Bed”, Boone, Iowa, USA. Prepared
because a meaningful regression analysis
for Tensar International Corporation, Alpharetta, Ga.,
can be performed only for data sets that are Project #2015-011, Ingios Geotechnics. G
mechanically related.
In conclusion, this article provides
guidance for properly conducting field
tests for quality assurance, benefit evalu-
ation, and comparative studies. In com-
parative studies, the test sections should be
instrumented to evaluate the mechanisms
governing performance improvement by
the geosynthetics used in the field tests.
This is necessary to ensure that the results
of field tests can be generalized.
Closure
This article concludes a series of three
articles that provide guidance on under-
standing the mechanisms that govern the
performance of geosynthetic-stabilized
unpaved roads, planning field tests to eval-
uate the performance of these roads, and
implementing the field tests.
Mechanically stabilized access road
under construction through forestry
on peat soils, Arecleoch Wind Farm,
South Ayrshire, Scotland.
Mechanically stabilized perimeter security
patrol road over peat soils, Laggan-Tormore
Gas Terminal, Sullom Voe, Shetland Isles, UK.

PAPER Han Giroud 3parts Web Marked

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PAPER Han Giroud 3parts Web Marked

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

FEBRUARY/MARCH 2016 GMA TECHLINE GEOCOMPOSITE GIROUD & HAN

Work platforms built

$19 US | $25 CAN

0216GS_Cv1.indd 1 1/22/16 10:08 AM

Mechanisms governing the

Road improvement is one of the

related to the base will be presented layer. Thus, a high-modulus granular

base material gradation, stress level at Discussion of mechanisms

MECHANISMS OF UNPAVED ROAD IMPROVEMENT

Basic Deep rutting (>100mm= 4in.)

Very small required Very small required

Effective with Vertical stress on subgrade

Soft subgrade (CBR<3%) and

Bridge building in Maine

$19 US | $25 CAN

0416GS_Cv1.indd 1 3/22/16 8:11 AM

Field evaluation of the

Introduction AUTHORS’ NOTE

instrumentation of the field test sections Design of test sections

$19 US | $25 CAN

0616GS_Cv1.indd 1 5/24/16 1:16 PM

Field evaluation of the

Introduction The use of geosynthetics in unpaved roads

section, but overall performance alone is not REFERENCES

You might also like