Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

M. Hadid Subki, Nuclear Power Technology Professional, Vienna, Austria

© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Background 695
iPWRs 695
Compact-loop PWRs 696
Traditional loop-type PWRs 696
Boiling water reactors (BWRs) 696
Status of water-cooled, water-moderated SMR design and technology development 696
Design description of PWR- and BWR-based SMRs 697
CAREM 697
ACP100 697
NUWARD 699
SMART 701
RITM-200 701
UK-SMR 703
NuScale power module 705
SMR-160 706
BWRX-300 708
Expectation of safety enhancement in integral PWR type SMRs 710
References 710

Acronyms
ADS Automatic Depressurization System
ASME BPV American Society of Mechanical EngineersdBoiler and Pressure Vessel
BWR Boiling Water Reactor
CDF Core Damage Frequency
CEA The French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission.
CES Containment Enclosure Structure
CNEA National Atomic Energy Commission of Argentina
CNNC China National Nuclear Corporation
CNV Containment Vessel
CRDM Control Rod Drive Mechanism
CS Containment Structure
DBA Design Basis Accident
DBC Design Basis Condition
DHRS Decay Heat Removal System
ECCS Emergency Core Cooling System
EDF Électricité de France
EDG Emergency Diesel Generator
ESBWR Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor
ESF Engineered Safety Features
GHG Green House Gas
GW 109 Watt
I&C Instrumentation and Control
IEA International Energy Agency
iPWR Integral or integrated PWR
IVR In Vessel Retention
KAERI Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute
LBLOCA Large Break LOCA
LOCA Loss of Coolant Accident
LWR Light-water reactor

694 Encyclopedia of Nuclear Energy, Volume 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819725-7.00208-7

 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 695

MCP Main Circulation Pump

MPa 106 Pa
MW(e) 106 Watt electrical
MW(th) 106 Watt thermal
NI Nuclear Island
NSSS Nuclear Steam Supply System
PCCS Passive Containment Cooling System
PCV Primary Containment System
PRHRS Passive Residual Heat Removal System
PSFPCS Passive Spent Fuel Pool Cooling System
PSIS Passive Safety Injection System
PWR Pressurized Water Reactor
R&D Research and development
R&D&D&D Research, development, demonstration and deployment
RCP Reactor Coolant Pump
RCPB Reactor Coolant Pressure Boundary
RCS Reactor Coolant System
RIA Reactivity initiated accident
RPV Reactor Pressure Vessel
RVV Reactor Vent Valves
SBO Station Black Out
SG Steam Generator
SLIS Small Leaks Injection System
SMR Small and medium-sized reactor (also Small Modular Reactor)
UO2 Uranium-dioxide

Background

From the more than 70 SMR designs and concepts presently being pursued, at least 20 are of the water-cooled, water-moderated
type. These designs are under various stages of development, demonstration, and deployment. In terms of the nuclear steam supply
system (NSSS) configuration, they can be categorized into the followings four categories:

iPWRs
The term “integral” refers to integrating (entirely or partially) the primary components within the NSSS, i.e., the steam generators,
pressurizer, control rod drive mechanism, and reactor coolant pumps (RCPs) are colocated in inside the reactor pressure vessel in
the proximity of the core, hence eliminating the recirculation loop (Belles, 2015; Carelli, 2015). The primary design objectives of
this integration are of fourfold:
Simplification: The integral configuration results in reduced nuclear island size and thus enhanced components transportability.
Some designs implement horizontally or vertically mounted circulation pumps at the reactor vessel through nozzles, or
internally mounted at the bottom of the reactor vessel. Other designs adopt natural circulation for the primary cooling system,
thus eliminating the need of heavy recirculation pumps and reducing mechanical complexity. It should also be noted that the
internal steam generator has a large heat transfer area in a compact geometry.
Enhanced safety: With only small piping connected to the reactor vessel, integral NSSS configuration enables practical elimination of
loss of coolant accidents due to a large pipe break. For integral PWR designs with internal control rod drive mechanism, rod
ejection accidents can be precluded. The potential of large and medium breaks, such as hot/cold leg, pressurizer surge line, and
primary pump suction/discharge line breaks are eliminated by design.
Improved reliability: The simplified design and consequent enhanced robustness contribute to the improvement of the reliability of
integral PWR systems.
Economic Competitiveness: A high degree of modularity of shop fabricated structures, systems and components, as well as the phased
deployment of additional modules as demand increases, result in the “economics of multiple” (as oposed to the “economy of
scale”) for countries and regions for which large reactors would not be viable, or which are experiencing a slower electricity
growth rate.
696 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

The integral design, in which, as mentioned, all major components of the primary coolant system are collocated either entirely or
partially in the single pressure vessel, enables elimination of piping of the primary cooling system. By contrast, the typical large-rated
PWRs are loop systems with the primary system components, e.g., the steam generators, primary coolant pumps and pressurizer
connected by piping to each other, and to the pressure vessel which houses the reactor core and the control elements.
One simplistic way to describe an iPWR relative to the current pressurized-water reactor (PWR) designs is “more waterdless
pipe.” Because of the integral nature of the various iPWR designs, the available water volumes in an iPWR relative to the thermal
power rating of the reactors is substantially increased compared with current PWR designs. Furthermore, the size and length of the
reactor coolant system (RCS) piping is significantly reduced compared with current PWR designs. This reduces the need for many of
the active safety system components found in larger LWRs and generally increases the operator response time to plant upsets.
Differences from current PWR designs and commonalities with PWR designs are highlighted in this article. Except for the option
of air cooling, the secondary plant in an iPWR is very similar to the current PWR reactor fleet. Therefore, secondary plant compo-
nents are fairly common and will not be discussed in detail in this article.

Compact-loop PWRs
The term “compact” indicates the use of conventional loop configuration as applied in the operating medium and large-sized PWRs,
but with external vessels for steam generators and pressurizer that are flanged directly to the reactor pressure vessel. This design elim-
inates the need of recirculation piping in the primary loop. Compact loop is a transition between traditional loop-type and the inte-
gral configuration. It is applied in marine-based nuclear power plants, e.g., floating NPP and nuclear icebreaker ships.

Traditional loop-type PWRs

Typical loop-type configuration as applied in the operating medium and large PWR nuclear power plants. A loop would consist of
a steam generator, a recirculation pump, and the associated pipings (hot leg, cold leg, and cross-over leg) that connects the compo-
nents with the reactor pressure vessel.

Boiling water reactors (BWRs)

Direct cycle BWRs with natural circulation, without external pumps or external pipings, adopts predesigned features from the large-
sized Economic Simplified BWR, for its primary circuit, or nuclear boiler system. Passive safety features are fully adopted.
“Modular” refers to the unit assembly of the NSSS, which when coupled to a power conversion system or process heat supply
system, delivers the desired energy product. The unit assembly can be assembled from one or several submodules. The desired
power plant can then be developed from one or several modules as necessary to deliver the desired power rating. Importantly,
the deployment of modules can also be sequenced over time both to match regional load growth and to levelize the timing of
capital spending over a prescribed timeframe. Construction of the plant by assembly of factory-built elements or modules is the
technique of modular construction. Although it is an integral part of the construction strategy envisioned for all SMRs, this tech-
nique is not uniquely applied to SMRs. Rather, it is now being employed for relevant construction elements of nuclear power plants
of all power ratings, although the modules for large plants are considerably different in size, not typically amenable to ease of trans-
portation and to the rapid assembly as is being proposed for SMRs.

Status of water-cooled, water-moderated SMR design and technology development

Many design organizations pursue integral PWR-type or BWR-type concepts that can form a reactor module or be combined to
multi-module SMR power plants. Each module is independent of each other and operated from a common main control room.
In this article, the following nine land-based water-cooled water-moderated types of SMRs are described:

• CAREM: a 30 MW(e) integral PWR type SMRs with natural circulation developed by CNEA, Argentina;
• ACP100: a 100 MW(e) integral PWR type SMRs with forced circulation developed by Nuclear Power Institute of China, China
National Nuclear Corporation, China;
• NUWARD: a 170 MW(e)/module integral PWR type with forced convection for twin-module configuration SMR plant, jointly
developed by EDF, CEA and the Technic Atome, France.
• SMART: a 125 MW(e) integral PWR type SMRs with forced circulation originally developed by the Korea Atomic Energy Research
Institute, Republic of Korea, then the design was jointly developed with the King Abdullah City of Atomic and Renewable
Energy, Saudi Arabia through shared an Intellectual Property arrangement.
• RITM-200: a 50 MW compact-loop PWR type SMRs with forced circulation already deployed for nuclear icebreakers, developed
by OKBM Afrikantov, Russian Federation;
• UK-SMR: a 450 MW(e) three-loop PWR type SMRs with forced circulation, developed by Rolls-Royce, Plc., United Kingdom;
• NuScale Power Module: a 77 MW(e)/module integral PWR type SMRs with natural circulation and full passive safety features for
twelve (12) module configuration NuScale power plant, developed by NuScale Power Inc., United States;
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 697

• SMR-160: a 160 MW(e) integral PWR type SMRs with natural circulation and full passive safety features, developed by Holtech
International, Inc., United States.
• BWRX-300: a 300 MW(e) direct-cycle boiling water reactor (BWR) with natural circulation and full passive safety features,
developed by GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, United States.

Design description of PWR- and BWR-based SMRs

The following sub-sections are providing brief descriptions of the design characteristics and major operational and safety character-
istics of the nine representative advanced designs of PWR- and BWR-based SMRs, which qualify as Generation III (advanced evolu-
tionary) or Generation IIIþ (advanced passive). Detailed information, in particular in terms of the major design objectives, as well
as the challenges and opportunities on the path to commercialization can be found in (IAEA, 2020a,b).
Table 1 provides a summary of the main design characteristics of the various reactor concepts that are being investigated.

CAREM
CAREM stands for the Central Argentina de Elementos Modulares developed by the National Nuclear Energy Agency of Argentina
(CNEA). CAREM is an integral PWR type SMR designed as a prototype to generate 25 MW(e). CNEA started the development project
for CAREM as a new generation SMR design in 1984. The project activities were intensified in 2006 as a national priority. CNEA
completed the preliminary safety analyses report for CAREM in 2009 as a pre-requisite for construction. In 2011, site excavation
began to prepare for civil engineering work. The first concrete pour for construction was conducted in February 2014. While the
construction has experienced several delays, in the beginning 2021 the project is in an advanced stage of construction of about
70% completion on a site near the Atucha unit-2 nuclear power plant and aims for fuel loading and startup commissioning by
mid-2023.
The objective of this prototype is to demonstrate the technology that will be used as the basis for commercial Nuclear Power
Plant (NPP) versions with larger power ratings of up to 300 MW(e). A unique characteristic of CAREM is the fact that it will operate
in natural circulation mode to drive its primary system coolant flow. This eliminates the need for reactor coolant pumps. Its integral
nuclear steam supply system consists of 12 helical once-through steam generators that are installed inside the reactor vessel above
the core. The hydraulic control rod drive mechanism is also located in the upper part of the reactor vessel. System pressure is
controlled and maintained through self-pressurization, so no pressurizer component is required. This self-pressurization feature
aims at developing thermal equilibrium of the steam and liquid phases in the reactor vessel dome region. This provides pressure
stability in the reactor coolant system under normal operation, power ramps, and abnormal operating occurences. For the power
conversion system, CAREM has a similar approach to that of operating PWRs. During normal operation, pressurized feedwater is
supplied by the electrically driven pumps to the 12 helical steam generators.
The Fig. 1 shows the reactor configuration of CAREM.
CAREM’s passive heat removal system is permitting it to achieve a high safety level. For core decay heat removal, CAREM adopts
the pressure suppression pool, commonly used in the operating boiling water reactors for fission product scrubbing and absorption
of steam blowdown energy. The CAREM suppression pool is located inside the cylindrical containment vessel that constitutes the
final defence-in-depth barrier. The adopted key safety features allow mitigation of the consequences of design basis extended condi-
tions, including severe accidents with core melt, during a 36-h grace period. The safety features ensures safe peak cladding temper-
ature in the core in the case of station blackout (SBO) or loss of ultimate heat sink.

ACP100
ACP100 stands for Advanced Chinese PWR-type SMRs to generate 100 MW(e). It is designed as a Generation III advanced reactor by
the China National Nuclear Corporation (CNNC) based on the experience in designing and operating the latest PWR technology in
China. The ACP100 follows a deployment strategy of multi-purpose SMRs to supply electricity and heat to medium/small grids,
islands, remote areas as well as mining industries. This SMR design is also intended to perform seawater desalination to coastal
region with difficult access to potable freshwater. ACP100 is an integrated PWR design with forced convection to drive the primary
coolant flow. To achieve a high level of safety, passive safety systems are adopted by including features, such as the Passive Decay
Heat Removel System (PDHRS) to prevent core meltdown in the case of design basis accident (DBA), beyond DBA and mitigate
postulated severe accidents. To enhance safety and security, the reactor building and spent fuel pool are located below ground level,
which gives additional protection from external hazards and reduces any release of radioactive materials. To protect the reactor
building against large earthquakes and flooding, segregated waterproof reactor compartments are provided.
Fig. 2 depicts the reactor configuration of ACP100.
The ACP100 reactor pressure vessel includes a vertically mounted reactor coolant pump, a magnetic force-type control rod drive
mechanism, and a once-through steam generator. The pressurizer is located outside the reactor vessel. The layout of the reactor
vessel and equipment is configured to promote natural circulation between the reactor core and steam generator. The 57 fuel assem-
blies have a conventional 17  17 square PWR fuel configuration. The reactor will be able to operate on a 24-month refueling cycle.
The safety system is composed of a number of passive safety subsystems covering core cooling, residual heat removal, contain-
ment spray cooling, and containment hydrogen control, as well as an automatic depressurization system. A large primary coolant
 698
Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)
Table 1 PWR and BWR-based SMR designs: Main design characteristics (IAEA, 2020a,b).

CAREM ACP100 NUWARD SMART RITM200-M UK-SMR NuScale SMR-160 BWRX-300

Country of origin Argentina China France South Korea Russian United Kingdom United States United States United States
Federation
Design organization(s) CNEA CNNC/NPIC EDF, CEA, TA KAERI and OKBM Rolls-Royce, Plc. NuScale Power Inc. Holtec GE Hitachi Nuclear
K.A.CARE Afrikantov International Energy, Inc.
(Saudi Arabia)
Reactor type Integral PWR Integral PWR Integral PWR Integral PWR Compact PWR 3-Loop PWR Integral PWR Integral PWR BWR
Thermal output, MWt 100 385 540 365 175 1276 200 525 870
Electrical output, MW(e) 30 125 170 110 50 443 77 160 270–290
Primary cooling mode Natural Forced circulation Forced circulation Forced circulation Forced Forced circulation Natural circulation Natural circulation Natural circulation
circulation circulation
Prim. system pressure, 12.25 15 15 15 15.7 15.5 12.8 15.5 7.2
MPa
Core inlet temp. oC 284 286.5 280 296 277 296 258 209 270
Core outlet temp. oC 326 319.5 307 323 313 327 314 321 287
Fuel type UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet UO2 pellet
Assembly array Hexagonal 17  17 Square 17  17 Square 17  17 Square Hexagonal 17  17 Square 17  17 Square 17  17 Square 17  17 Square pitch
pitch pitch pitch pitch pitch pitch
Enrichment, % 3.1 <4.95 <5 <5 <20 4.95 < 4.95 4.95 Max. 3.4 Avg.
Fuel cycle, months 24 24 36 60 18–24 24 18–24 12–24
Reactivity control Control rods Control rods, Control rods Control rods, Control rods Control rods, Control rods, Control rods Control rods, soluble
Gd2O3 soluble Gd2O3 soluble boron boron
boron
Safety system Passive Passive Passive Passive Active and Active and Passive Passive Passive
passive passive
Design life, years 40 60 60 60 60 60 60 80 60
RPV height/ 11/3.2 10/3.35 13/4 18.5/6.5 8.5/3.3 11.3/4.5 17.8/3.0 15/3 26/4
diameter, m
Seismic design 0.25 g 0.3 g 0.25 >0.18 g 0.3 g >0.3 g 0.5 g 0.3 g 0.3 g
Design status Under Detailed design Basic design Detailed design Detailed design Basic design Certification Design review Design review
construction review
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 699

Fig. 1 Reactor configuration of CAREM developed by CNEA, Argentina.

inventory is also included as a safety feature. To protect against an SBO event, there is a 72-h DC battery system to provide power in
support of all accident mitigation systems. Auxiliary power units are located inside the reactor building to recharge the batteries for
up to 7 days. The ACP100’s passive decay heat removal system provides cooling for 72 h without operator interventional or 14 days
with water supply from the cooling pool, drained by gravity force.
The plant also has an enhanced spent fuel pool configuration to cope with a loss-of-heat sink event such as what occurred at the
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant. Even with the pool filled with 10 years’ worth of used fuel, the cooling system would be able to
cope for 7 days in the case of a severe accident before it would boil dry and uncover fuel.
CNNC began an R&D program for ACP100 in June 2010 with a basic design that was approved in June 2010. At the end of 2013,
a preliminary design for the ACP100 was completed that included enhanced safety features that have incorporated the lessons
learned from the Fukushima Daiichi accident. In 2014, the PSAR was submitted to the IAEA Department of Nuclear Safety and Secu-
rity to undertake a Generic Reactor Safety Review. The review lasted for 8 months and resulted in a set of recommendations to
enhance the overall performance of the design. In June 2020, the National Nuclear Safety Administration of China (NNSA)
approved the PSAR to enable Construction Start Date (CSD) in 2021 in the Fujian Province as a demonstration unit to be in oper-
ation in 2026.

NUWARD
Officially launched in 2019, NUWARD is a conceptual design of integral PWR to generate 340 MW(e) from two independent
modules that enable flexible operation. This Generation III þ SMR is being developed by a French EDF-led consortium including
CEA, TechnicAtome, and the Naval Group. As an integral PWR, the main components of the NSSS including compact steam gener-
ators, pressurizer and control rod drive mechanisms are installed within the Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) in proximity with the
core. Design simplification leads to a shortened RPV that enables the NSSS to be installed in a steel containment vessel submerged
in a large volume underground water-wall.
The reference core is based on a proven 17  17 fuel assemblies design used in currently operating PWRs with a shortened core
height and UO2 rods with enrichment < 5 wt% 235U. Various levels of 235U enrichments and burnable poisons are used in the core
to achieve a boron-free design. Based on a 2-year refueling interval, fuel handling uses state-of-the-art techniques applied in the
operating PWRs. The reactor coolant system of NUWARD uses a newly invented Compact Steam Generator (CSG), once-
through steam generator technology derived from the plate heat exchanger concept that allows direct connection to the reactor
vessel. The overall size of the reactor coolant system can, therefore, be significantly reduced.
Fig. 3 illutrates the reactor configuration of NUWARDÔ.
700 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

Integrated Head Package

contain ing
Control Rod Drive Mechanism

Reactor Pressure Vessel

containing
Internal Steam Generators (16x)
Main Steam Lines and
Feedwater Nozzles

Reactor Coolant Pump (4x)

Fig. 2 Reactor configuration of ACP100 developed by NPIC/CNNC, China.

Fig. 3 Reactor configuration of NUWARD™ developed by a consortium of CEA, EDF and TechnicAtome, France.
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 701

To achieve high safety performance, NUWARD adopts passive safety systems to cope with Design Basis Conditions (DBC)
without the need for any external power supply and is self-reliant on an internal ultimate heat sink for a grace period of more
than 72 h. No safety classified 1E electrical power is required (except DC power to I&C). No operator action required for more
than 3 days after any design basis accidents (DBA). To cope with severe accidents with core melt, in-vessel retention of the corium
(IVR concept) is adopted.
The following inherent features benefit NUWARD in achieving its safety performance goals:
- Large reactor coolant inventory provides inertia in coping with power transients;
- The boron-free operation provides large and constant moderator counter-reaction and is preventing boron dilution;
- The integral NSSS architecture minimizes the pipe break size in LOCA, thus providing more time for mitigation. Internal control
rod drive mechanism (CRDM) prevents reactivity accidents caused by rod-ejection;
- A submerged containment provides passive cooling for several days;
- A small core in a large RPV facilitates an in-vessel retention strategy for severe accidents with core melts.
The Nuclear island (NI) houses two independent modules and an associated fuel storage pool. The NI is designed to withstand
design basis earthquakes. No heat sink outside the NI is required to ensure the safe-state for at least 72 h. The NI is self-reliant
for at least this period due to the water-wall in which each containment vessel is immersed. To account for seasonal variations,
the concept of “a set of reactors inside the same plant” provides the operator with a solution to adapt the maintenance schedule
with priority given to the electrical grid supply needs. There is always at least one reactor of the plant in operation and supplying
the grid, while another reactor may be in maintenance. As twin-module configuration, the reactors are operated from a common
control-room with dedicated panels for normal operation.

SMART
The 365 MW(th) System-integrated Modular Advanced ReacTor (SMART), developed by the Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute
(KAERI), is an integral PWR with a rated electrical power of 110 MW(e). SMART adopts advanced design features to enhance the
safety, reliability and economics. The advanced design features and technologies implemented were verified and validated during
the standard design approval review. To enhance safety and reliability, the design configuration incorporates inherent safety features
and passive safety systems. Economics improvement is achieved through system simplification, component modularization, reduc-
tion of construction time and high plant availability. The advanced design features of SMART include integrated SGs, in-vessel pres-
surizer, and the horizontally mounted canned motor pumps. SMART is a multi-purpose application reactor for electricity
production, seawater desalination, district heating, process heat for industries, and suitable for small or isolated grids. SMART
has a unit output adequate to meet the demands of electricity and freshwater for a city of 100,000 inhabitants.
Fig. 4 provides the reactor configuration of SMART.
The SMART design adopts an integrated primary system, modularization and advanced passive safety system to improve the
safety, reliability as well as the economics. Improvement in the economics is achieved through a system simplification, in-
factory fabrication, reduction of construction time and high plant availability.
SMART has an integral reactor coolant system configuration for the NSSS that enables the elimination of large bore pipe connec-
tions resulting in the removal of the large break loss of coolant accident (LOCA) from the design basis events. The NSSS consists of
the reactor core, helically coiled steam generators and a pressurizer integrated in the reactor pressure vessel (RPV). The primary cool-
ing system is based on forced circulation during normal operation. The system has natural circulation capability for emergency
condition.
The safety systems of SMART are designed as fully passive that function automatically on demand. These consist of a reactor
shutdown system, a passive safety injection system (PSIS), PRHRS, a shutdown cooling system and a passive containment cooling
system (PCCS). Additional safety systems include reactor overpressure protection system such as automatic depressurization system
(ADS) and pressurizer safety valves, and severe accident mitigation system. As a result the reactor safety is enhanced substantially
and the core damage frequency is also reduced.
As for the engineered safety system approach and configuration, SMART adopts passive safety features to cope with abnormal
operating occurrences and postulated design basis accidents, and severe accidents with core melts. The passive safety system is being
developed to maintain a safe shutdown condition following design basis accidents such as LOCA and non-LOCA transient events
without AC power or operator actions. The passive safety system consists mainly of PSIS, PRHRS, PCCS, and the automatic depres-
surization system (ADS). All the active safety features are being substituted with passive versions, eliminating the necessity for emer-
gency diesel generator (EDG) or operator actions for at least a 72 h period.
KAERI received the standard design approval from the Korean nuclear safety commission in July 2012. In September 2015, a pre-
project engineering agreement was signed between the Republic of Korea and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for the deployment of
SMART. A construction period of less than 3 years from the first concrete to fuel load is predicted. A safety enhancement program to
adopt a passive safety system in SMART began in March 2012, and the testing and verification of the PRHRS and PSIS were
completed at the end of 2015.

RITM-200
The RITM series reactor RITM-200 is the latest development in the Generation III þ SMR line designed by the OKBM Afrikantov. It
has incorporated all the proven features from its predecessors. The RITM-200 based NPP is a reference technology, currently at
702 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

Control Rod Drive Mechanism

Reactor Pressure Vessel

Horizontal Mounted
Reactor Coolant Pump

Main Steam Line Nozzles (4x)

Internal Steam Generators (8x)

Feedwater Line Nozzles (4x)

Reactor Core

Fig. 4 Reactor configuration of SMART developed by KAERI, Republic of Korea.

a rather advanced development stage and will be available in short/medium term for commercial deployment. RITM-200 based
NPP modularity enables to provide power both for commercial/local needs (e.g., in the 100 MW thermal rating range), as well
as for regional needs (300 MW). Being initially designed for icebreakers, the RITM series reactors are already responding to the
key market requirements, such as small size, long refueling cycle and flexible load following capabilities (100 to 30 to 100%
nominal power). Six RITM-200 reactors have been already manufactured for nuclear icebreakers. Four reactors are already installed
on the Sibir and the Arktika nuclear icebreakers. Based on these factors, the RITM series reactors are the most optimized solution in
terms of size and other technical and economic parameters.
The RITM-200 series reactors are land-based multi-purpose application reactors for electrical power generation, water desalina-
tion, and district or industrial heating. RITM-200 based NPPs is suitable for small, isolated, or distributed grids.
The RITM series reactors are the evolutionary development of the reactors (OK-150, OK-900, KLT-40 series) for Russian nuclear
icebreakers with a total operating experience of more than 50 years (more than 400 reactor-years). With incorporation of the steam
generators into the reactor pressure vessel, the reactor system and containment is very compact compared to the KLT-40. RITM
design makes it possible to increase electric output (40% more) and reduces the dimensions (45% less) and the mass (35%
less) in comparison with KLT-40S. While integral reactor configuration almost eliminates the classic large loss-of-coolant accident
(LOCA) and the other inherent features and active and passive safety systems apply concepts of diversity, redundancy, physical sepa-
ration, and functional independence to achieve the necessary safety level and reliability.
The RITM nuclear steam supply system consists of the reactor core, four steam generators integrated in the reactor pressure vessel,
four canned main circulation pumps (MCP), and pressurizer. The primary cooling system is based on forced circulation during
normal operation and allows natural circulation in the case of emergency condition.
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 703

For the reactor core, RITM-200M adopts a low enriched cassette core similar to KLT-40S that ensures long time operation without
refueling and meets international non-proliferation requirements. The core consists of 199 fuel assemblies with fuel enrichment up
to 20%.
The safety concept of the RITM-200 is based on the defence-in-depth principle combined with the inherent safety features and
use of passive systems. Properties of inherent safety features are intended for automatic control of power density and reactor self-
shutdown, limitation of primary coolant pressure and temperature, heating rate, primary circuit depressurization scope and outflow
rate, fuel damage scope, maintaining of reactor vessel integrity in severe accidents and form the image of a “passive reactor,” imper-
vious to possible disturbances. RITM-200 optimally combines passive and active safety systems to cope with abnormal operating
occurrences and design basis accidents. More specifically:
- Passive pressure reduction and cooling systems have been included (system reliability is confirmed by test bench);
- Pressure compensation system is divided into two independent groups to minimize size of potential coolant leak;
- Main circulation path of the primary circuit is located in a single vessel;
- Steam header of primary coolant circulation is added, which ensures safety of the plant during SG and MCP failures.
The exposure dose for the staff in normal operation and design basis accidents does not exceed 0.01% of the natural radiation limit.
The public exposure dose in case of severe accident is below the value requiring protective measures.
The basic architectural design of the RITM-200M land-based NPP is similar to conventional large NPPs. However, it is housed
within a relatively small footprint and includes nuclear island, spent fuel pool, turbine island, auxiliary buildings for water treat-
ment, maintenance, and switchyard connections. The RITM-200 design was developed in conformity with Russian laws, norms
and rules for nuclear power plants and safety principles developed by the world community, as well as based on IAEA
recommendations.
Fig. 5 shows the RITM-200M reactor configuration.

UK-SMR
Rolls-Royce, Plc. is undertaking SMR design and technology development for a Gen IIIþ three-loop, close-coupled PWR that
provides a power output of 443 MW(e) from 1276 MW(th) using industry standard UO2 fuel. Coolant is circulated via three centrif-
ugal RCPs to three corresponding vertical u-tube SGs. The design includes multiple active and passive safety systems, each with

Control Rod Drive Mechanism

In-Vessel Instrumentations

Reactor Pressure Vessel

Reactor Coolant Pumps (4x)

Fig. 5 Reactor configuration of RITM-200M designed by OKBM Afrikantov, Russian Federation.

704 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

substantial internal redundancy. Rapid, certain and repeatable build is enhanced through site layout optimization and maximizing
modular build, standardization and commoditization. The power station is designed for installation on an extensive range of in-
land and coastal sites, across a wide range of soil conditions. This flexibility is enabled through design features such as seismic isola-
tion for safety related areas. The three-loop PWR is located in the Nuclear Island, adjacent to the Turbine Island with the Cooling
Water Pump House following. Support buildings and auxiliary services are situated within a berm that sweeps around the site and
provides protection from external hazards such as tsunami or aircraft impact.
Fig. 6 reactor configuration of the UK-SMR.
The plant is capable of load following, operation on house load where required, even a black start in which the plant is capable
of restoring an electric power station without relying on the external electric power transmission network. As a result of the passive
nature of safety systems, the plant is not reliant on grid power for safety related functions. The UK SMR is primarily intended for
electricity production; however, the design can be configured to support other heat-requiring or cogeneration applications.
The UK SMR primary circuit comprises a reactor core, containing the reactor fuel, mounted in an RPV that is closely coupled
through large bore pipework to three SGs. Nuclear fission in the reactor core produces heat which is transferred to coolant in
the primary loop through thermal conduction and convection. A pressurizer is connected to the primary circuit via a surge line
to provide the necessary overpressure to prevent boiling in the reactor coolant circuit.
The reactor core has been sized to optimize power output within an RPV that is sized to maximize road transportability,
producing 1276 MW(th). Coolant is transferred via three canned sealless centrifugal RCPs to three corresponding vertical u-tube
steam generators, each rated to remove approximately 425 MW(th) during normal power operation. The RCPs are mounted, via
close-coupled nozzles, to the bottom of the SG outlet head.
For all Design Basis Accidents (DBA), defence in depth is provided through the provision of robust safety measures, designed
against conservative conditions, which meet the guidelines from the deterministic design basis analysis.
Multiple layers of fault prevention and protection are provided through diverse and independent active and passive systems,
comprehensively ensuring UK SMR safety for design basis and design extension conditions, for all modes of operation and during
all lifecycle stages.
In addition to heat removal via the closed loop SG steam and feed cycle, the Passive Decay Heat Removal (PDHR) system and
the Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS) are passive, redundant, diverse and segregated protective safety measures that provide
multiple means of decay heat removal in response to faults.
All design basis Loss of Coolant Accidents (LOCA) are protectable by ECCS, with diverse protection additionally available from
the Small Leak Injection System (SLIS) for smaller leaks. Control Rods (scram) and Emergency Boron Injection provide two diverse
and highly reliable means of reactor shutdown. Three Safety Relief Valves are provided to protect against over pressure hazards, each
fully capable of providing depressurization.
The UK SMR consortium includes among others the National Nuclear Laboratory (NNL), the Nuclear AMRC, and Rolls-Royce,
Plc. The consortium aims to have the first UK SMR power station in operation around 2030 in the United Kingdom.

Fig. 6 Reactor configuration of UK-SMR developed by Rolls-Royce, Plc., United Kingdom.

 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 705

NuScale power module

The NuScale Power Module (NPM) is a small, light water cooled pressurized-water reactor (PWR) developed by the NuScale Power
Incorporation, United States. The design has received standard design approval from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission in
September 2020. The NuScale design is a modular reactor for electricity production and non-electrical process heat applications.
A NuScale nuclear power plant is scalable and can be built to accommodate a varying number of NPMs to meet a customer’s energy
demands. The 77 MW(e) NPM provides power in increments that can be scaled to 924 MW(e) gross in a single facility. A 12 module
configuration is the current reference plant size for design and licensing activities. Each NPM is a self-contained module that oper-
ates independently of the other modules in a multi-module configuration, as shown in Fig. 7. All modules are managed from
a single control room. The plant design contains the following significant features:
- reliable and passively safe systems that are simple in design and operation;
- safety features that assure a core damage frequency substantially lower than the current light water reactor fleet;

Containment Vessel
submerged in water

REACTOR

Fig. 7 Reactor configuration of NuScale Power Module developed by NuScale Power Inc., United States of America.
706 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

- reactor building designed to protect against aircraft impact while maintaining spent fuel pool integrity and preserving
containment integrity;
- 60-year design plant life;
- reduced construction schedule compared to nuclear plants of a comparable output;
- modularization to enable in-shop fabrication of reactor and containment components; and
- use of half-height traditional 17  17 nuclear fuel assemblies.
The NuScale power plant design philosophy is based on the following elements: a design that uses proven light-water reactor tech-
nology, modular nuclear steam supply system, factory-fabricated power modules with shippable components, and passive safety
systems that allow for unlimited coping time after a design basis accident without power, operator action, or makeup water. The
NPM is designed to operate efficiently at full-power conditions using natural circulation as the means of providing core coolant
flow, eliminating the need for reactor coolant pumps. The NSSS consists of a reactor core, helical coil steam generators, and a pres-
surizer within the RPV. The NSSS is enclosed in an approximately cylindrical containment vessel (CNV) that sits in the reactor pool
structure. The reactor core is located below the helical coil steam generators inside the RPV.
Each NPM incorporates several simple, redundant, and independent safety features, specifically:
Decay Heat Removal System: The decay heat removal system (DHRS) provides secondary side reactor cooling for non-LOCA events
when normal feedwater is not available. The system is a closed-loop, two-phase natural circulation cooling system. Two trains of
decay heat removal equipment are provided, one attached to each steam generator loop. Each train is capable of removing 100%
of the decay heat load and cooling the reactor coolant system. Each train has a passive condenser immersed in the reactor pool.
During normal operations, the condensers are maintained with sufficient water inventory for stable and effective operation.
Emergency Core Cooling System: Emergency core cooling system (ECCS) consists of two independent reactor vent valves (RVVs) and
two independent reactor recirculation valves (RRVs). For LOCAs inside containment, the ECCS returns coolant from the CNV to
the reactor vessel. This ensures that the core remains covered and that decay heat is removed. The ECCS provides a defence-
in-depth means of decay heat removal in the unlikely event of a loss of feedwater flow, combined with the loss of both
trains of the DHRS. The ECCS removes heat and limits containment pressure by steam condensation on, and convective heat
transfer to, the inside surface of the CNV. Heat is then transferred by conduction through the CNV walls and convection to the
water in the reactor pool. Long-term cooling is established via recirculation of reactor coolant to the RPV through the ECCS
recirculation valves.
Reactor Pool: The reactor pool is a large stainless steel lined pool located below the plant ground level. Water in the pool provides
cooling for the NPM for a minimum of 72 h following any design basis accident. During normal plant operations, heat is
removed from the pool through a cooling system and ultimately rejected into the atmosphere through a cooling tower or other
external heat sink. In an accident where off-site power is lost, heat is removed from the NPMs by allowing the pool to heat up and
boil. Water inventory in the reactor pool is large enough to cool the NPMs for an unlimited time without adding water.
In December 2016, NuScale Power submitted the Design Certification Application (DCA) to the US NRC. The design certifi-
cation review went on track. The NRC issued a design certification approval (DSA) in September 2020, with final design approval
(FDA) in 2021. The first plant owner, the Utah Associated Municipal Power System (UAMPS) has target commercial operation
date of 2029 for the first module, to be built in Idaho.

SMR-160
The SMR-160 conceptual design has been developed by the US company Holtec International as an advanced PWR-type small
modular reactor producing power of 525 MW(th) or 160 MW(e) and adopting passive safety features. Simplification in the design
is achieved by using fewer valves, pumps, heat exchangers, instrumentation, and control loops than conventional plants, simpli-
fying operator actions during all plant modes, including diagnosing and managing off-normal and accident conditions. The
SMR-160 uses fuel similar to existing commercial LWR fuel, includes no reactor coolant pumps and utilizes a large vertical steam
generator. A modular construction plan for SMR-160 involves pre-assembling the largest shippable components prior to arrival at
a site. A 24-month construction period is envisaged for each unit.
Fig. 8 depicts the reactor configuration of the SMR-160.
The primary application of SMR-160 is electricity production with optional cogeneration equipment (i.e., hydrogen genera-
tion, district heating, and seawater desalination). Target applications include distributed electricity production, repowering coal
facilities, uprate for existing nuclear facilities and providing electricity and low-temperature process heat for commercial and mili-
tary installations. Design optimization includes air-cooled condensation for no wet cooling. The plant design includes a unique
fuel management solution that incorporates an integrated state-of-the-art underground dry fuel storage facility with the base plant
offering.
The SMR-160 is a pressurized water reactor with the RCS using natural circulation for all power and accident modes and states.
The RCS is comprised of the RPV and a SG in an offset configuration with an integrated pressurizer flanged to the top of the steam
generator. The RPV and the SG are connected by a single connection that houses both the hot leg and the cold leg. The hot leg is the
inner pipe and the cold leg is the annular region of this single connection. Unique among integrated PWRs, the offset configuration
allows easy access to the core without moving the RPV or SG during refueling. The SG has a superheating feature which eliminates
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 707

Fig. 8 Reactor configuration of SMR-160 developed by Holtec International Inc., United States of America.

the need for a moisture separator reheater and trains of feedwater heaters, while not compromising the thermodynamic efficiency of
the plant. The secondary side has only two feedwater heaters simplifying plant operations and maintenance.
The SMR-160 employs an efficient core design that uses traditional reload shuffle at the end of each cycle. The core is designed for
up to a 2-year cycle with flexibility for shorter cycles depending upon utility requirements. Because of the relatively low number of
fuel assemblies and overall outage schedule, the shuffling of nuclear fuel is not a critical path activity during an outage. The core
contains an array of 96 square-lattice assemblies having an area of approximately 35.5 cm2, and an 4.3 m active height. Fuel bundles
are surrounded by 16 reflector assemblies that contain pins of solid stainless steel or other reflecting material contained within stain-
less steel tubes. The reflector assemblies allow for an axial variation in the radial reflector by varying the composition of the pins
along their length. The reflector assemblies can also be changed on a cycle to cycle basis if necessary depending upon fuel utilization
requirements. Surrounding all of the fuel and reflector assemblies is a solid stainless steel reflector structure. This provides reflection
of fast neutrons in order to improve the neutron economy, while reducing the fast neutron fluence through the reactor pressure
vessel thereby, increasing vessel life.
To achieve the desired safety performance, the SMR-160 safety basis incorporates defence-in-depth via multiple and diverse
simple pathways for heat rejection from the core. All safety systems are within the containment structure (CS), making them secure
and safe from external threats. A large inventory of water within a reservoir outside the containment structure provides long-term
post-accident coping, and that structure facilitates air cooling for decay heat removal if the reservoir inventory boils off; for an
unlimited coping period. SMR-160 engineered safety features include the passive core cooling system (PCCS), passive spent fuel
pool cooling system (PSFPCS), and automatic depressurization system (ADS).
The SMR-160 ICS consists of a free standing steel containment vessel called the CS, supported within a reinforced concrete
reactor building called the containment enclosure structure (CES), which also provides a missile protection. An annular coolant
reservoir between the CS and the CES is filled with water and serves as the UHS for SMR-160. In addition to preventing the release
of radioactive fission products to the environment, the ICS acts as a large passive heat exchanger to cool the core and the spent fuel
pool. The PCCS and PSFCS are connected to the integrated containment system (ICS) via the CS metal surface to reject heat to the
environment, which is the plant ultimate heat sink (UHS). The reservoir provides sufficient inventory to remove the peak decay heat;
as the water in this reservoir depletes (reservoir becomes dry > 60 days), the ICS transitions to air cooling to remove subsequent
decay heat. The operator has the option of replenishing the reservoir.
708 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

BWRX-300
GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy’s (GEH’s) BWRX-300 is a 300 MW(e) water-cooled, natural circulation SMR utilizing natural
phenomena driven safety systems. The BWRX-300 is an evolution of the U.S. NRC-licensed, 1520 MW(e) ESBWR. It is designed
to provide clean, flexible energy generation that is cost competitive with natural gas-fired power plants. Target applications include
baseload electricity generation, load following electrical generation within a range of 50–100% power and district heating.
Fig. 9 shows the BWRX-300 reactor configuration.
The key features of the BWRX-300 include:
- 10th generation BWR technology.
- 300 MW(e) SMR.
- Compliance with the international high safety standards.
- Designed to be cost competitive with gas.
- Up to 60% capital cost reduction per MW.
- Evolved from the licensed ESBWR.
- Designed to eliminate large-break LOCA.
- Reduced on-site staff and security.
- Proven components, fuel, and supply chain.
- Constructability integrated into design.
BWRX-300 is being designed with the proven supply chain of the ABWR, and predesigned features from the ESBWR, for its primary
circuit, or nuclear boiler system. The primary functions of the nuclear boiler system are:
- To deliver steam from the RPV to the turbine main steam system;
- To deliver feedwater from the condensate and feedwater system to the RPV;
- To provide overpressure protection of the reactor coolant pressure boundary (RCPB);
- To provide the instrumentation necessary for monitoring RPV pressure, steam flow, core flow, water level, and metal temperature.
The RPV has a minimum inside diameter of 4 m, a wall thickness of about 136 mm with cladding, and a height of 27.4 m from the
inside of the bottom head (elevation zero) to the inside of the top head. The bottom of the active fuel location is 5.2 m from eleva-
tion zero and the active core is 3.8 m high. The relatively tall vessel, due to the chimney, permits natural circulation driving forces to
produce abundant core coolant flow.
The major reactor internal components include:
- core (fuel, channels, control rods and instrumentation),
- core support structures (shroud, shroud support, top guide, core plate, control rod guide tube and orifice fuel support),
- chimney
- chimney head and steam separator assembly,
- steam dryer assembly,
- feedwater spargers,
- in-core guide tubes.

Fig. 9 Reactor configuration of BWRX-300 developed by GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy, United States of America.
 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR) 709

Containment/confinement
The BWRX-300 Primary Containment Vessel (PCV) is a metal tank that encloses the RPV and is related systems and components.
The PCV is dry and is located mostly below grade. The dry PCV is a leak tight gas space surrounding the RPV and the reactor coolant
pressure boundary.

Isolation condenser system (ICS)

The isolation condenser system (ICS) removes decay heat after any reactor isolation during power operations also provides over-
pressure protection in accordance with ASME BPV code, section III, class 1 equipment. Decay heat removal limits further increases in
steam pressure and keeps the RPV pressure low. The ICS consists of four independent loops, each containing a heat exchanger, with
a capacity of 33 MW(th), that condenses steam on the tube side and transfers heat by heating/evaporating water in the IC pool,
which is vented to the atmosphere.
The ICS is initiated automatically, and the ICS will also be initiated if a loss of DC power occurs. To start an Isolation Condenser
(IC) into operation, the IC condensate return valve is opened whereupon the standing condensate drains into the reactor and the
steam-water interface in the IC tube bundle moves downward below the lower headers. The ICS can also be initiated manually by
the operator from the MCR by opening the IC condensate return valve. The IC pool has an installed capacity that provides 7 days of
reactor decay heat removal capability. The heat rejection process can be continued indefinitely by replenishing the IC pool inven-
tory. The ICS passively removes sensible and core decay heat from the reactor when the normal heat removal system is unavailable.
Heat transfer from the IC tubes to the surrounding IC pool water is accomplished by natural convection, and no forced circulation
equipment is required.

Table 2 Expectation for enhanced safety of iPWR type SMRs (Hidayatullah et al., 2015).

Features Added values to design Expected safety improvements

Low core power
The RCS integrated within
the RPV
Once-through helical coil
integrated steam
generator with feedwater
and steam inside the tube
Natural circulation
Passive safety systems
Internal CRDMs
High pressure design,
temperature and
evacuated metallic
containments
Soluble Boron free core
• Reduces fission product source term
• Low level of decay heat and, therefore, would require
less cooling after reactor shutdown
• No large external primary coolant piping
• Longer RPV lifetime due to reduced fast neutron
fluence
• Steam generator is designed to withstand the primary
pressure without pressure in the secondary side
• Steam system is designed to withstand primary
pressure up to isolation valves
• Steam generator tubes are in compression
• Reduced tube-side water inventory
• Simplified design and reduced maintenance costs, due
to the absence of main coolant pumps
• The passive safety systems mitigate or potentially
eliminate the need for external power under accident
conditions
• The auxiliary feedwater system may not be required
• Spray systems are not required to reduce steam
pressure or to remove radioiodine from containment
• Elimination of rod ejection event
• Elimination/reduction of vessel head penetrations
• Containment pressure and temperature for worst-case
design basis accident remains below containment
design values
• All water lost from RPV stays within containment and
returns to reactor vessel by passive means
• More sub atmospheric pressure during normal
operation
• The engineered safety systems are simplified
• Improve seismic capability
• No Boron dilution
• Less corrosion
• Reduces volume of liquid radwaste
• Strong negative moderator temperature coefficient
• Boron monitor and adjustment systems eliminated
• Enhances in-vessel corium retention
• Reduces accident consequences
• Simplifies emergency planning
• Lower or eliminate susceptibility to certain potential
events, such as LBLOCA
• Improved steam generator tube integrity with steam
generator tube rupture frequency reduced
• Excessive cooling during a steam line break accident: the
addition of reactivity would be limited and the reactor
over power may not compromise critical safety limits, due
to small secondary water inventory hence heat removal
• Eliminate loss of flow accident (LOFA)
• Eliminates reactor coolant pump accidents (shaft breaks,
seal leakage, pump seizure and pump leaks)
• Station-black-out (SBO) can be coped
• Active safety systems are not required (low core damage
frequency)
• Removal of core heat without an auxiliary feedwater
system may be a significant safety enhancement
• No safety-related pumps for accident mitigation; therefore,
no need for sumps and protection of their suction supply
Reactivity initiated accident (RIA) due to rod ejection is
precluded
• No postulated small-break LOCA (SBLOCA) capable of
uncovering nuclear fuel
• Containment integrity assured (due to the metallic
containment vessel, molten core concrete interaction is
not applicable)
• The deep vacuum enhances steam condensation rates for
containment heat removal during a postulated SBLOCA
• Prevent Hydrogen explosion during a severe accident as
little Oxygen will be available
• Reactivity-initiated events are precluded
• Reduced occupational radiation dose
• Improve reactor transient performance as well as
operational safety
710 Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors (Integral PWR and BWR)

Passive containment cooling system (PCCS)

The PCCS is a passive system that removes the decay heat and maintains the containment within its pressure limits for design basis
accidents such as a LOCA. It consists of several low-pressure, totally independent heat exchangers suspended in the PCV. The heat in
the PCV is transferred to the Reactor pool which is located above the PCV upper head, and which is filled with water during normal
operation. The Reactor pool is vented to the atmosphere. PCCS operation requires no sensing, control, logic or power actuated
devices for operation. The PCCS condensers are a closed-loop integral part of the containment pressure boundary. Since there
are no containment isolation valves between the PCCS condensers and the drywell, they are always in “ready standby” mode.

Expectation of safety enhancement in integral PWR type SMRs

The integral PWR type SMRs with modularization are designed for cost reduction and further safety enhancements. Safety improve-
ments are achieved through design simplicity, incorporation of passive safety systems, small fuel inventory, and use of additional
fission product barriers. The NSSS with integral module configuration eliminates external coolant loop piping, thus eliminating the
large-break loss-of-coolant accident (LBLOCA) scenario. The passive engineered safety features (ESFs) eliminate the need for
external power under accident conditions. The expectations for improved safety of iPWR type SMRs are listed in Table 2 below.
The expected core damage frequency (CDF) will be much less and may be of the order of 10 6–10 8 per year or even lower.
The CDF of the order of 10 8 per reactor-year has been claimed by vendors so far (IAEA, 2016).

See Also: Impact of Small Modular Reactors on the Acceptance of Nuclear Power by the Public, Investors, and Owners.

References

Belles, R.J., 2015. Key reactor system components in pressurized-water reactors (iPWRs). In: Handbook of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors, Part Two, Section 5. Woodhead
Publishing Series in Energy. Elsevier.
Carelli, M.D., 2015. Integral pressurized-water reactors (iPWRs) for producing nuclear energy: A new paradigm. In: Handbook of Small Modular Nuclear Reactors. Woodhead
Publishing Series in Energy. Elsevier.
Hidayatullah, H., Subki, S., Susyadi, M.H., 2015. Design and technology development for small modular reactorsdSafety expectations. Prospects and Impediments of their
Deployment, Progress in Nuclear Energy 79, 127–135.
International Atomic Energy Agency, 2016. Design Safety Considerations for Water Cooled Small Modular Reactors Incorporating Lessons Learned from the Fukushima Daiichi
Accident. IAEA-TECDOC-1785. http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/TE-1785_web.pdf.
International Atomic Energy Agency, 2020a. Technology Roadmap for Small Modular Reactor Deployment. In: IAEA Nuclear Energy Series No. NR-T-1.18. IAEA.
International Atomic Energy Agency (2020b) Advances in Small Modular Reactor Technology Developments, A Supplementary Booklet to the Advanced Reactor Information System
(ARIS) 2020 Edition. https://aris.iaea.org/Publications/SMR_Book_2020.pdf.