NUCLEAR ENGINEERING AND DESIGN 21 (1972) 303-317.

NORTH-HOLLAND PUBLISHING COMPANY

DESIGN OF FUEL ELEMENTS*

D.O. PICKMAN
UKAEA, Springlqelds Laboratories, Preston U.K.

ReceDed 24 June 1971

This lecture concentrates on design features which may limit the performance of water-cooled power reactors.
However, a comprehensive review of all aspects of design is beyond its scope. Apart from achieving its target in terms
of reactivity life and thermal and hydraulic performance, a fuel element has done its job if it endures to its design
bumup without release of fission products and in a fit condition for discharge and post-irradiation storage and
handling.
Attention is devoted only to rod bundle type fuel elements, which are used almost exclusively in present day
power reactors.

1. Introduction 1. System pressure and temperature;

2. Fuel rating and burnup;
The ideal fuel element should achieve its design per- 3. Coolant condition and flow;
formance withotrt an excessive margin, which in prac~ 4. Mode of reactor operation;
tice would mean a small but finite failure rate, depend- 5. Fuel cycle and refuelling technique.
ing on the ease of discharge and local activity release Attention must then be devoted to the various
criteria. possible life-limiting processes, and how it is proposed
This at the present time is an idealized situation. Up to circumvent them. The principal such processes re-
to recent times a majority o f fuel element failures in cognized today, and some of their causes and effects
the world's power reactors were probably due to ex- are:
traneous factors not related to the basic design con- 1. Corrosion
cept. It is therefore too early to be able to appraise - loss of wall thickness,
the systematic long term performance and in the light - hydriding,
of that knowledge to design to fine limits. Information - increased can surface temperature.
from the large water cooled power reactors now in op- 2. Cladding embrittlement
eration will change this situation in the next few years. - irradiation damage,
- adverse texture,
- hydriding.
2. Operating factors and limiting phenomena 3. Cladding overstrain
- UO: expansion and swelling,
O n e must look at design in relation to the reactor - fission gas pressure,
operating parameters, of which the following are the - ridge and wrinkle formation,
key items: - power cycling (fatigue, ratchetting).
4. Contamination of UO2
- internal hydriding (sunburst),
* Lecture No. 9 of the Advanced Course on Limiting Aspects
o f Fuel E l e m e n t Performance in Water-Cooled Power Reac- - corrosion by fluorine.
tors, Netherlands-Norwegian Reactor School, Institutt for 5. Hydrodynamic instability
Atomenergi, Kjeller, Norway (24-28 August, 1970). - fretting corrosion,
304 D.O. Pickman, Design of fuel elements

fatigue,
-

mechanical damage.
-

6. Crud deposition
- clad surface overheating,
- flow obstruction.
7. Dry-out
- clad surface overheating,
- fuel pin bowing,
- standing voids,
- overpower operation.
8. Fission product attack
- corrosion,
- stress corrosion.
9. Manufacturing defects
- cladding,
cLA u, -'
- end caps,
- welds, FUEL ROD
INTERIM
- spacers. SPACER
144"
ACTIVE FUEL ZOf4E

3. Design concepts

3. l. General features FUEL

CHANNEL .,.=.
General design concepts for water reactors are
based on optimization involving reactor physics, ther-
mal hydraulic performance, safety, cost, engineering
aspects, fuel performance, reliability, system require-
ments and many others. The fuel designer is left with LOllER
TIE PLATE ......
the task of translating the performance requirements
(fuel element power output) and constraints into an
economic and reliable design.
It is useful at this stage briefly to examine the gen- 7.13/32•

eral design features of some of the better known fuel

element types. Modern BWR and PWR fuel elements
differ little in concept and are exemplified by figs.
1 and 2. They are clusters of long fuel pins arranged
in a square array and spaced at intervals along their
lengths by spring type spacer grids. The PWR element
has empty pin positions containing thimbles into
which slim control rods are inserted, the so-called con-
trol rod cluster design. In all cases cladding is a zirco-
nium alloy and fuel is sintered UO2 in pellet form. A
fission gas plenum space is provided at one or both
extremities of the UO 2 pellet stack.
Fuel elements for pressure tube reactors such as
SGHWR and CANDU are round in geometry in order
to economize on material in the pressure tube. Apart
Fig. 1. Schematic view of BWR fuel element.
from this feature SGHWR fuel elements (fig. 3) are
similar in concept to BWR elements, but employ a
different type of spacer grid not having springs. An
alternative spring type is available. The CANDU/PHW
concept, as used in Douglas Point and Pickering, is
a substantial departure in that each fuel channel con-
tains a number of separate short elements (fig. 4). Be-
cause of their short length the pins in these elements
are attached at both ends to end plates and there are
no intermediate spacer grids as such. Both wire wrap
 ItOID
A|S~

............ T ~
NOZZLE

....... FUEL ROD

;EMBLY ga

................ •ABSORBER ROD

GUfOE SHEATHS

--.GRID
ASSEMBLY
t~

Fig. 2. Schematic showing construction o f PWR fuel element. Fig. 3. SGHWR fuel element. Detail at spacer grid.
 306 D.O. I~ckman, Design of fuel elements

Fig. 4. CANDU/PHW fuel element designs.

Table 1
Typical fuel element design parameters.

BWR PWR CANDU/PHW SGHWR MZFR

Fuel material UO 2 pellets UO~ pellets UO 2 pellets UO 2 pell¢ts U02 pellets

Fuel density 10.3 10.3 10.6 10.6 10.55
Pellet diameter [ mm ] 12.4 9.29 14.25 14.43 10.69
Fuel-clad gap (diametral) [mm] 0.25 0.18 0.08 O. 18 0.20
Cladding material Zr-2 Zr-4 Zr-2 Zr-2 Zr-2
Cladding wall thickness [ mm ] 0.81 0.62 0.38 0.635 0.50
No. of pins per element 49 204 28 36 36
No. of elements per channel 1 1 12 1 1
Average core rating [W/g] 22.0 34.8 22.1 17.4 26.6
Peak heat rating [W/cm'--2] 134 171.2 126.1 110 154
Linear heat rating (peak) [W/cm] 600 577 603 540 576
UO~ peak temperature [°C] 2415 2260 2000 1850 2200
Cladding peak temperature ['C] 296 347 310 292 320
Averlge humup (metric) [MWd/te U] 27,500 24,400 9,000 21,000 8,000
 D.O. Pickman, Designof fuel elements 307

and brazed on spacers (warts) have been used to pre- Key. "%

serve intermediate spacing of pins, and wear pads are A FULLY ANNEALED TUBING |/ ALL
attached to outer pins to space the elements away --x--STRESS I~ELI EVED TUBING ~.0.62
!
in. o.d
--o-- STRESS RELIEVEO TUBING J 0 . 0 2 8 in. W A L L
from the horizontal pressure tubes. In both these fuel --o--COLO WORKED TUBING
J
elements the cladding is again a zirconium alloy and ,moo
the fuel sintered UO 2 pellets. SGHWR fuel has a fission
gas plenum at the top end of the pin and CANDU/ '~=
PHW has no end plenum as such, but a void volume for
fission gas storage is provided by the use of hollow end
caps [ 1]. ~ 3ooc
Fuel elements for ~,gesta and MZFR, although these 3
are pressure vessel reactors, have a round configuration P.
because the elements are contained in flow tubes to
separate the coolant flow from the rest of the moder- ~~aooc
ator. Both otherwise follow the general pattern of full o
core length pins with spacer grids.
The main fuel design parameters for these reactor o
types are given in table 1.
In looking at the factors which may be life-limiting, ~ iooc
and hence govern design choice in materials and dimen-
sions of the fuel pins and spacer grids, reference can be
made to the solutions adopted in these various designs, z
I I I
I00 200 300
4. Cladding material thickness, strength and condition TEMPERATURE j °C
Fig. 5. Comparison of the mean collapse pressures of cold
4.1. Collapse behaviour, ratchetting and wrinkling worked, stress relieved and fully annealed zirealoy-2tubing.
There are two distinct regimes of cladding strength
available to a designer, elastically unstable, or so called sorption in the core and the cladding has been corre-
collapsible, and free-standing. No cladding is of course spondingly strengthened.
completely stable against creep collapse, and selection One of the problems with elastically unstable clad-
of thickness within the freestanding regime is a matter ding is ratchetting as a result of combined power and
to be decided based on operating requirements. The pressure cycling. In the limit this can lead to can strains
determination of instantaneous collapse pressure was sufficient to cause rupture, or, if insufficient clearance
discussed [2]. The fnfluence of clad condition for is provided, to structural damage or severe bowing. For
SGHWR geometry (0.63 in O.D., 0.028 in. wall) is ratchet~ing to occur, however, it must be possible for
shown in fig. 5 [3]. It is interesting to note that anneal- the pellets to re-stack on power reduction, which can
ed cladding has a higher collapse pressure than cold happen under gravity in a vertically disposed fuel ele-
worked cladding. Collapse pressures at 300°C are: ment if the pressure is reduced sufficiently. In CANDU/
CANDU/PHW (Pressurised HeavyWater Reactors) 500 psi, PHW the elements lie horizontally and re-stacking does
MZFR(Pressurised HeavyWater Reactors) 2300 psi, not take place. In elements with freestanding cladding,
SGHWR(Boiling Water Reactors) 2500 psi, fuel pellets will automatically re-stack if there is a suf-
BWR (BoilingWater Reactors) 3000 psi, ficient power reduction and a different form of ratchet-
PWR (PressurizedWater Reactors) 5000 psi, ring may arise dependent on the amount of creep-down
All except CANDU/PHW have freestanding cladding. that occurs at reduced power.
In the CANDU case the choice is governed by the use There is nothing basically against the use of elastically
of natural fuel, such that burnup is at a premium to unstable cladding provided it suits the proposed mode
obtain good economics. MZFR has less parasitic ab- of reactor operation.
308 D.O. Pickman, Design of fuel elements
The problem of wrinkling at low rated positions,
or during prolonged low power operation, has rarely
been encountered in water reactors. It could however
be of importance if coolant-pressure-induced clad
stresses are high (> 15 000 psi), t/d ratios are low
(0.03) and can/fuel clearances under operating condi-
tions exceed 0.03 in. Reactor experience has shown
that predictions based on out-of-reactor tests are
somewhat pessimistic. However, in adopting large
cold clearances to minimize can strains, it must be
remembered that this will result in large gaps at
power in the lowest rated positions in the reactor.
4.2. Loss of thickness
The design allowance for loss of metal thickness
by corrison under typical BWR conditions should be
about 0.0004 in/year [4] and in a PWR with H2
overpressure about 0.0002 in/year [5].
4.3. Temperature variation
For strength calculations an allowance must be
made for the rise in clad temperature resulting from
oxidation and crud deposition. Typical conductivity
values are 0.02 W/cm °C for ZrO2 and 0.004 W/cm
°C for wet porous iron rich crud. The effective heat
removal through porous crud will be higher than
calculated from crud conductivity as a result of
coolant mass transfer through the pores. The type
of crud formed and the deposition rate depend on
aspects of plant design, materials and chemistry. For
conditions which can be achieved on commercial
plants at the present time, it seems likely that the
deposition rate in a typical BWR or SGHWR will be
about 0.0005 in/year. Rates in PWR reactors are less
well known and are generally believed to be low, but
higher rates than the above have been quoted. There
are well established views based on UK and Canadian
experience which indicate that crud thickness does
not increase uniformly with time, but quickly
reaches an equilibrium level. Estimates of clad sur-
face temperature increases of 28°C/year for crud
plus oxide have been quoted for a BWR [4] and
5°C/year for oxide only for a PWR [5]. These are
for respective heat fluxes of about 95 W/cm 2 and
140 W/cm 2. Estimates for SGHWR put the figure
at nearer 10°C/year for the peak surface heat flux
110 W/cm 2, but with a tailing off in later years due
to the equilibrium crud thickness and reduction in
rating. Direct measurement by surface thermGcouple
taken over a period of 4 months" in SGHWR showed
no measurable change, indicating that 10°C/year is
probably an extreme estimate.
4.4. Hydrogen pick-up
It has been observed in BWR irradiations and also
on occasions under PWR conditions that oxidation
is non-uniform and small spots of greater thickness
develop. These local effects do not appear to greatly
influence hydrogen pick-up, and provided they do not
coalesce can effectively be ignored; fears that the tem-
perature rise under such areas might lead to an ac-
celerating corrosion rate appear to be groundless.
The pick-up of hydrogen has been discussed in
other lectures and it is clear that although under ideal
circumstances large amounts may be tolerated, there
are limits that it would be foolish to exceed. The
solubility of H2 in various alloys is shown in fig. 6.
As it is the amount present as hydride precipitates
under operating conditions which is the most im-
portant parameter, the permissible H2 content in
PWR cladding is higher than in BWR by about 50 ppm
due to the difference in temperature. Westinghouse
[5] have quoted a total absorption of 230 ppm in
3 years for their PWR's but use a limit of 500 ppm
for design purposes. GE [4] claim a pick-up of only
60 ppm in the same time, and suggest a limit of
200 ppm. Page [1] gives results for CANDU/PHW
fuel elements showing a very slow rate of pick-up of
D2 after 200 days leading to a total absorption of
about 60 ppm in 3 years, but with some results up
to twice this level for early cladding supplies and
some much lower with a low D2-concentration in
the D20: SGHWR results indicate a pick-up of about
20 ppm/year and a limit of 200 ppm is taken for
design purposes.
There seems to be good agreement that no more
than 200 ppm H2 (250 ppm for PWR) should be
allowed, and indications are that at least in BWR
this limit will not be closely approached. In this
context it is recommended that to obtain lowest
corrosion rate and minimum H2 absorption billets
intended for cladding tube manufacture should be
E-quenched at some stage to produce a closely spaced
distribution of fine intermetallic particles.
 1:).0. Pl'ckman, Design of fuel elements 309
ialfi
500 I I duty in the group, especially under power cycling con-
ditions, a fact which has recently been recognized by
/ decisions to pre-pressurize PWR fuel pins [6] to reduce
.y" ~.~ X,~ IF°~" clad stresses. Certainly the more conservative stresses
give much greater operational freedom.
u4oo
0
~d 4.6. Clad surface treatment
z~
D Much attention has been devoted in the past to
I--
surface preparation of zircaloy cladding tubes. Histori-
~ ( l 4- HYDRIDE cally, steam autoclaving of the outside surface at 400°C
for 12 hours to 7 days has been adopted. This started
out as a final proof-test on each piece of fuel cladding
destined for reactor service. More recently, with im-
provements in quality control and fuel pin fabrication

J o
pr

100
I
2OO
HYDROGENCONTENT,PPM
I
300
Fig. 6. Comparison of the solubility of hydrogen in zirealoy-2
(A), zirealoy-4 (X), and zirconium-2½ wt.% niobium alloy (+).
4.5. Clad condition and stress level
There is little to lose on creep strength under irra-
diation from the use of annealed, as compared with
cold-worked and stress-relieved cladding [2]. Although
yield strength may be lower, in the important respects
of ductility and resistance to both plastic and elastic
instability the annealed material has some advantage.
Therefore, except if it were planned to use material
stressed under coolant pressure to very close to its
yield, such that large initial plastic strains or even
wrinkling might result, there seems little advantage in
"the use of cold-worked and stress-relieved cladding.
Some practical problems may arise in handling thin
walled annealed cladding, and in straightening it after
annealing. In any event, straightening must be entered
into with great care, since it may seriously impair the
properties of the tube by introducing cold work and
local texture variations.
Clad stresses in fuel cladding of various types when
freestanding under coolant pressure are typically:
BWR 9000 psi,
SGHWR 11000 psi,
MZFR 18000 psi,
PWR 20000 psi,
CANDU/PHW 26000 psi,
In view of the high burnup and long residence time of
PWR fuel, this cladding must have the most onerous
processes, it is unnecessary for this purpose. The gener-
al arguments adopted for continuing to autoclave are:
1. the initial oxidation is carried out under well-
controlled conditions;
2. the autoclave film gives protection against con-
tamination subsequent to manufacture;
3. the autoclave rflm protects against accidental
damage, including scoring by spring spacer grids
during assembly;
4. the presence of an autoclave film inhibits fretting
corrosion.
Arguments against are:
1. the production of a visually good or bad autoclave
film is no guarantee that material is acceptable or
un-acceptable;
2. there is a memory effect of the oxidation rate at
400°C which persists at lower temperatures in the
reactor;
3. pre-autoclaving increases the initial H2-content;
4. fuel manufacturing costs are increased.
Pre-autoclaving has generally been preceded by pick-
ling in an HNO3-HF mixed acid bath. This is known
to leave some F in combined form on the cladding
surface. Its purpose is to remove surface contamination,
and it incidentally produces a bright pickled finish
which results in a deep lustrous black colour after
autoclaving. With present day materials and methods,
the occurrence of an unsatisfactory autoclave film is
more often a consequence of poor washing (i.e. incom-
plete removal of HF) than of unsatisfactory material.
The presence of some residual surface F after even the
best pickling and autoclaving procedure is an undesir-
able feature of the process, and present trends are to
replace the pickle by a surface abrasion process. Auto-
310 D.O. Pickman, Design or fuel elements
claving after such processes gives a matt grey finish.
It remains very much a matter of individual judgement
whether to adopt external autoclaving; the case for
doing so is not strong, but few manufactures have yet
abandoned it. Alternative processes based on surface
abrasion have been used without autoclaving, particu-
larly by PWR manufacturers, and a modified auto-
claving procedure said to improve in-reactor corrosion
performance has been suggested by Siemens. Anodizing
has been developed by IFA in Norway. This is claimed
to be less costly, equally effective in detection of con-
tamination and in preventing adverse effects of subse-
quent contamination, and to avoid H2-absorption. A
variety of attractive film colours can be produced
which could have identification advantages.
The case for internal pickling and autoclaving is
highly debatable. It has been used regularly by GE for
their BWR fuel pins, and in the UK a proportion of
fuel for SGHWR has been so treated. To minimize
costs it is essential to autoclave both i.d. and o.d. sur-
faces at the same time, and this implies that the clo-
sure welds will not be autoclaved. In the UK the reason
behind experiments with internal autoclaving is to pro-
vide evidence on protection against attack by fission
product iodine. The bore surface is not prickled, how-
ever, since residual F has been suspected of initiating
stress corrosion cracking. Opponents of internal auto-
claving claim it is not necessary and that it may in-
crease the susceptibility to local attack by residual
moisture from the UO2 at local film discontinuities.
There is no firm evidence on which to judge the value
of this treatment.
5. Fuel/can clearance
After selection of the can material and dimensions,
fuel/can clearance is the most important matter to be
determined. Factors involved in this decision are:
1. clad strain limits (thermal expansion and swelling);
2. fission gas release;
3. clad stability under coolant pressure;
4. axial ratchetting;
5. economy (fuel costs).
Apart from clad strain limits, these other aspects
are considered elsewhere in this course. It will suffice
to say here that the t/d.ratio must be sufficiently large
to prevent unstable collapse, that axial ratchetting must
be within design clearances, and in any event should
not exceed about 0.5% overall, and that an increase
in can/fuel clearance above the minimum necessary,
apart from reducing the weight of UO2 directly, has
a cumulative effect in increasing fission gas release
and necessitating a larger gas plenum volume. The
direct effect of misplaced generosity in this respect
will therefore be a reduction in fuel element thermal
output.
The importance of minimizing can/fuel clearance
to restrict fission gas release will depend on estimates
of pressure at operating conditions, and an assessment
of the cost of additional plenum volume for storage. It
has been usual design policy to restrict maximum in-
ternal gas pressure to coolant pressure, although in some
cases an excess pressure has been allowed. The conse-
quences can be assessed from the creep behaviour, but
attention should also be given to what happens in the
event of a depressurization accident.
5.1. Can strain
The strain imposed on fuel element cladding is ob-
viously of the highest importance. The ideal situation
would be one in which there was no interaction between
the fuel and cladding. Due to the obvious economic
limits, no fuel designer has seriously attempted to go
so far, although in BWR and PWR designs generally the
aim is to avoid interaction on first going to power.
Whether this buying of a period of immunity is worth-
while remains to be proved. In other fuel designs some
initial clad strain, generally less than 1%, is accepted on
the argument that this order of strain in new fuel clad-
ding has little damaging effect, and that after a shake-
down period during which clad stress relaxes to a low
level and the UO2 accommodates some of the strain
by creep, the fuel pin is in a similar condition to one
starting with a larger gap. In many ways this is a circu-
lar argument, in that the end point is a fuel pin with
its effective gap increased by up to 0.004-0.006 in.
as a result of can strain. The possible advantages of
this latter design approach are:
1. the plastic overstaining is a selective sizing opera-
tion and there is thereafter much less tolerance
variation from pin to pin;
2. the gap variation along the length of a pin is
reduced.
Interpretations from fuel pin irradiation data on
diametral clad strains are not always in good agreement
 D.O. Pickman, Design of fuel elements 311

INTERACTINGDESIGN.A ~ ' ~ C.

CLAD
STRAIN.
NON- INTERACTING
DESIGN.
C.

STRAIN IN REGION'C D' DEPEND5 ON SWELLING ALLOWANCE,

RESTRAINT AND UO2 TEMPERATURE.

IRRADIATION TIME.

Fig. 7. Schematic strain history of fuel pin cladding.

with design expectations. Many people have used an
effective pellet temperature for thermal expansion of
UOz defined by (2Tc+Ts)/3. Measured clad diameter
increases is generally less than that calculated using
this temperature, except (perhaps fortuitously) over
interpellet ridges. However, experiments in the Halden
BWR have shown an inflection in rate of can length
increase, taken to indicate a strong interaction, at
ratings lower than would be expected. The conclusion
to be drawn is probably that UO2 creeps to relieve can
strain at a can stress level sufficient to give strong fric-
tional interaction but not produce much diametral
plastic strain. Such effects obviously also depend on
UO2-centre temperature and strain rate. In the case of
low centre temperature'(say less than 1200°C) and
rapid strain-rate, better agreement with predicted clad
strains would be expected.
We have seen that there are different approaches
to design with respect to initial strain. During subse-
quent steady operation the cladding may creep down
a little after tensile stresses have relaxed out, as a re-
sult of consolidation of the UO2 pellet, or directly by
creep in regions where there was no initial interaction.
This is opposed by UO: swelling, which eventually
takes control. The net result of these processes is a
can strain history of the type shown in fig. 7. In the
light of this type of behaviour it is necessary to define
what is meant by any quoted limiting strain. This may
be interpreted as either the net strain (AD in fig. 7)
or the cumulative strain (AB + BC + CD).
It has been shown earlier that a minimum TCE (to-
tal circumferential elongation end) to failure for cold-
worked zircaloy 2 irradiated cladding in a closed burst
test is about 4%. For annealed cladding it is probably
substantially higher, but a reliable figure is not yet
available. In relation to this available ductility, a design
strata limit of 1% may seem conservative. However,
allowance must be made for an adequate margin, for
the greater strains at interpellet ridges (probably in-
creased by 0.3% typically) and for the biaxiali.ty ratio
at ridges which may approach I : 1.
It is suggested that a net plastic strain of 1% is a
safe limit, particularly bearing in mind the fact that
the swelling strains in the late stage occur by a slow
creep process for which higher rupture ductility values
are applicable.
6. Pellet design, purity and swelling allowance
Conventional UO2-pellet design for water reactor
fuels incorporates double-end dishing which provides
an allowance for thermal expansion of the hotter core
regions, and in some designs an allowance for UO2-
swelling. There is a small shoulder which should have
a minimum width to minimize the effective pellet tem-
312 D.O. Pickman, Design o/furl elements
Fig. 8. Cracked UO~-pellet (diamgrammatic).
perature for axial expansion and is only there at all to
improve robustness and avoid excessive chipping dur-
ing loading. It is normal for pellet l/d-ratios to lie in
the range 1 to 1.5.
Pellets of this type undergo complex cracking and
distortion (fig. 8), under the influence of the temper-
ature gradient. This results in the "wheat-sheaf" shape
which is believed to cause the characteristic circum-
ferential ridges in fuel cladding at inter-pellet locations.
Ridge height is known to increase with pellet length
and rating, and to decrease with increase in can/fuel
clearance. It is relatively insensitive to clad thickness
or strength.
Many alternative pellet designs have been investi-
gated from flat ended and annular pellets to more
complicated forms with end chamfers designed to
minimize ridging. Flat ended pellets are attractive in
producing smaller ridges, but can/fuel clearances must
be increased because they show a larger diameter in-
crease. The result tends to be a greater crack opening
displacement and the generation of an interpellet gap
as an annular space, not optimally placed to act as a
swelling allowance. The double end dished pellet with
l/d-ratio close to I is the best choice available and of
known performance at the present time. Chunky pellets
of l/d-ratio is < 1 have attractions in minimizing ridging,
but are more difficult to load with small clearances
and more expensive to manufacture. Vibro-compacted
fuels which have been discussed in an earlier lecture
have attractions in avoiding inhomogeneous clad strains
and are applicable provided "smear" densities in excess
of about 90% are not required.
Swelling of UO2 has been discussed earlier [7] from
which recommended numerical treatments can be ob-
tained. The old Westinghouse swelling data [8], most
of which was from plate type UO2-irrzdiations with
modest centre temperatures, has remained the main
source of design data up to the present. The use of
these data, which are both temperature, restraint and
burnup independent, and consist of an external swelling
rate of 0.16% AV/1020 flssion/cc up to the point where
the UO2 sintering porosity is Idled and 0.7%A V/1020
fission/cc thereafter, is a gross oversimplification of
the complicated processes occurring. Many fuel design-
ers now use their own modifications, particularly with
respect to temperature dependence and effect of re-
straint. Within this general framework it emerges that
the inexorable outwards swelling under restraints typ-
ical of water cooled reactors may be smaller than would
be expected from the Westinghouse data, especially
when some additional central voidage is provided.
Swelling allowance can be provided in several ways:
1. porosity in the UO2;
2. pellet dishing;
3. central hole;
4. can/pellet gap.
 D.O. Pickman, Design of fuel elements
f"
5O
Fig. 9, Westinghouse PWR grid design.
Most US fuel designers have provided the swelling
allowance as porosity in the UO2 and densities in the
range 9 3 - 9 4 % T.D. are usual. Other designers have
preferred to use end dishes in the pellet. The use of
increased can/fuel clearance or a central void have not
proved popular, although the latter has many attrac-
tions.
Provided adequate allowance is made for the in-
tended burnup, UO2-swelling need not limit fuel life.
It is of interest to know the steady state stress devel-
oped in the clad as a result of UO2-swelling from the
point of view of iodine stress corrosion and orientation
of developing hydride precipitates. If clad texture is
optimum and this stress does not exceed about 15000
psi then no fears need be entertained on either score.
The purity of UO2 with respect to total H2-content
and F-content is important in the context of cladding
integrity. Many other elements are specified in typical
UO2-specifications, but are less critical. F-contents in
the order of 10 ppm max are standard and this seems
to be a satisfactory level. Most manufacturers come
313
50
comfortably inside it without undue problems. The
H2-content is more difficult to be precise about, as
there are contradictory results. The amount of H2 -
contained in one "sunburst" has been estimated as
1 mg. The design criterion should be based on a max-
imum available H2-content in a fuel pin. In determining
the safe amount the probability of all available H2-
attacking the clad at one point needs to be assessed.
A content" of 10 ppm H20 in UO2 will provide about
3 mg H2 inside a typical BWR fuel pin. This is a fairly
normal specification level, but so many factors, such
as clad inside surface temperature, axial form factor,
can/fuel clearance, end design detail, internal auto-
claving etc. can influence sensitivity to H2-attack that
experimental endorsement is the most satisfactory
way of establishing the specification.
7. Spacer grid design
Spacer grids are a critical feature of all long fuel
314 D.O. Pickman, Design or fuel elements

element assemblies and a weird and wonderful vari- The SGHWR reference design spacer grid does not
ety of types have been designed. The functions and employ a spring. The principle is illustrated in fig. 3.
design requirements a spacer grid must fulfil are: Wear pads are attached to the fuel pin surface at each
1. to maintain the required spacing of fuel pins grid position to maintain correct spacing. These are a
within laid-down tolerances; clearance fit in a grid made of brazed stainless steel
2. to prevent fretting corrosion or wear between ferrules, the fuel pins being stabilized hydrodynamic-
fuel pin and spacer grid; ally. The design principle has been proved up to mass
3. to permit free sliding of fuel pins to accommodate velocities in the region of 2.8 × 106 lb/h ft 2, and can
differential expansion; be extended to higher flows by a reduction in inter-
4. to prevent the formation of steam voids or coolant grid spacing distance.
flow distortion of a type likely to lead to local The main requirement of the spring type grid is to
dryout, accelerated corrosion, cavitation or insta- maintain an adequate spring force on the fuel pin to
bility; restrain vibration throughout life. Destabilizing forces
5. to minimize pin vibration; typically require minimum spring loads in the region
6. to promote flow-mixing between sub-channels of 2 - 5 lb. This can lead to maximum loads, after allow-
where required (e.g. PWR); ance for relaxation and tolerance variations, which give
7. to resist forces involved during pin insertion and rise to assembly problems. The skill in design lies in en-
inertial loading during handling and transport; suring a minimum variation in spring load, and provided
8. to resist damage during charging into the core; this can be achieved it has been demonstrated that sa-
9. to have minimum neutron absorption. tisfactory fuel life is obtained.
This is a formidable list of requirements from which it
is easy to understand why the spacer grid is at the heart
of any successful assembly design, and why its secrets
tend to be jealously guarded.
Apart from design with respect to these main features
the method of support of the grids themselves, be it off
special fuel pins (BWR), control rod thimbles (PWR),
shroud tubes (Agesta) or emergency cooling supply tubes
(SGHWR), has to be decided. This can introduce joining
problems as most spacers are made from stainless steel
or nickel base alloys, although recently there has been
a move towards zircaloy grid structures, in some cases
to ease joining and in others to minimize neutron ab-
sorption and flux depression.
Most spacer grid designs in use incorporate springs
to locate and restrain pin movement, Typical BWR
and PWR designs are illustrated in figs. 9 and 10. The
PWR grid is essentially an "egg-box" or assembly of
pieces of square section tube, brazed together and
with integral double acting springs punched and
formed and with fixed dimple stops pressed out. The
material is a heat-treatable Inconel. The BWR gird is
a more intricate assembly of an egg-box framework
with formed wire fixed stops and separately inserted
springs in the form of a closed loop of diamond shape.
Other designers have used modifications in which
cantilever springs are attached to a welded or brazed
assembly of ferrules. Fig. 10. General Electric BWR grid design.
 D.O. Pickman, Design of fuel elements
8. Power variations
Two important operational factors which may have
a bearing on fuel endurance have been referred to,
power cycling and seasonal power variations. These
processes have attracted little attention to date to
judge by published literature, but have been the sub-
ject of study in the UK [9].
When a reactor is power-cycled on a regular daily
basis, radial cracks are present in an outer annulus
of UO2 (fig. 11) and open and shut as power is raised
and lowered. If the can were perfectly bonded to the
fuel it would rupture when a crack opened. In prac-
tice the frictional resistance, although opposing sliding
between fuel and can does not do so perfectly, with
the result that a stress gradient appears in the cladding;
it has a maximum in the arc of cladding over the crack
and gradually reduces to a minimum along an arc of
contact. This leads to strain concentration which is
Fig. 1l. Crack distribution in fuel pellet.
315
not fully reversed during the low power operation
phase. The result over a series of power cycles is a
progressive thinning of the can wall over pellet cracks
and also some reversed plastic strain cycling. Calcu-
lations based on the model used in the UK for SGHWR
fuel show the prime damage mechanism to be the wall
thinning. Examination of the literature suggests that
ductile fracture will always be accompanied by a mini-
mum of 10% wall thinning strain, and this is a useful
design limit. The fatigue damage is generally very small,
such that typically less than 5% of fatigue endurance
is exhausted at end of life. A computer program which
calculates circumferential stresses and strains in fuel
cladding during operation has been written. An example
of the output is shown in fig. 12 and the derived can
wall profile in fig. 13. This method is used to compare
observations with predictions, and to make long range
predictions for new designs and alternative methods of
operation.
-PELLET RADIUS
,.RADIUS OF BRIOGING
ANNULUS
PLASTIC CORE OF
PELLET
OUTER ANNULUS OF
PELLET CONSISTING OF
BLOCKS OF FUEL
CLADDING
BRIDGING ANNULUS OF
PELLET
316 D. 0. Pickman, Design or fuel elements :

CAN FUEL T~4PS FUEL STRESSES TOTAL

LOOP CYCLE TIME DURATION BURN POWER T~4P SURF CENT BAD INITL FINAL STRAIN STPAIN
1 1 456. 456,0 456, 24,0 325, 390, 1130, .2891 42808, 14799, ,923-02 ,923-02
2 1 48o, 24,0 468, 12,0 301, 335, 642, ,2882 -11222, -11222, -,242-O3 ,899-02
3 1 936. 456.0 924. 24.0 325. 393. 1145. ,2892 24429, 17494, ,793-03 ,978-02
4 2 960. 24.0 936. 12.0 301. 336. 643. .2882 -11231, -11231, -,132-03 ,965-O2
5 2 1416. 456.0 1392. 24.0 325. 395. 1150. ,2893 23176, 15625, ,?87-03 ,104-01
6 3 144o. 24.0 1404. 12.0 301. 337. 645. ,2883 -11241, -11241 -,132-03 ,I03-01
7 3 1896. 456.0 1860. 24.0 325. 397. 1154. ,2893 21749, 13923, ,762-03 ,].11-01
8 4 1920. 24.0 1872. 12.0 301. 338. 647. ,2884 -11251, -11251, -,132-03 ,109-01
9 h 2376. 456.0 2328. 24.0 325. 399. 1159. .2894 20596, 12800, ,731,03 ,ll?-Ol
1o 5 2400. 24.0 2340. 12.0 301. 339. 649. .2884 -I1261. -11261. -.132-03 .i15-01
ll 5 2856. 456.0 2796. 24.0 325. 402. 1163. .2895 19917. 12262. .705-03 .122-01
12 6 288o. 24.0 2808. 12.0 301. 341. 650. ,2885 -11270, -ll2TO, -,133-03 ,121-01
13 6 3336. 456,0 3264, 24,0 325, 404. 1168, •2895 19386, 11990, ,675-O3 ,128-01
lh 7 3360. 24,o 3276, 12,0 301, 342, 652, ,2885 -11278, -i1278, -,133-03 ,126-01
15 7 3816. 456.0 3732. 24.0 325. 406. 1172. ,2896 19074, 11830. .657-03 ,133-01
16 8 3840. 24.0 3744. 12.0 301. 343. 654. ,2886 -]_1287, -I1287, -,133-03 ,132-01
17 8 4296. 456.0 4200. 24.0 325. 409. 1177. ,289? 18886, 11736, ,646-O3 ,138-01
18 9 4320. 24.0 4212. 12.0 301. 344. 655. •2887 -11295. -11295. -.134-03 .137-01
19 9 4800. 480.0 4692. 24.0 325. 411. 1181. ,2897 18776, i1601,~ ,647-03 ,143-01
2O 1o 6528. 1728.0 6197. 20.9 318. 396. 1037. ,2895 -737, -728, -,784-06 ,143-01
21 10 8928. 2400.0 6197. .o 109. 109. 109. ,2876 550, 550, ,000 ,143-01
22 l0 9029. i01.0 6285. 20.9 318. 413. 1053. ,2897 13787, 10854, ,253-03 ,146-01
23 i0 9129. i00.0 6375. 21.6 320. 418. ii00. ,2898 17464, 12366, ,454-03 ,150-01
24 i0 9229. lO0.0 6467. 22.2 321. 423. 1136. .2899 17567. 12859. .421-03 .155-01
25 i0 9329. 100.O 6563. 22.9 322. 428. 1173. .2900 18575. 13966. .423-03 .159-01
26 i0 9429. i00.0 6661. 23.6 324. 432. 1210. .2901 19626~ 14874. .448-03 .163-01
27 i0 9529. i00.0 6762. 24.2 325. 437. 1249. .2902 20477. 15661. .467-03 .168-01
28 i0 9629. lO0.O 6866. 24.9 326. 442. 1288. .2903 21240. 16262. .495-03 .173-01
29 l0 9729. i00.0 6973. 25.6 328. 447, 1329. .29O4 21851. 168O6. .514-03 .178-Ol
30 i0 9829. i00.0 7082. 26.3 329. 452. 1370. •2905 22410. 17222. .541-03 .183-01
31 i0 9929. i00.0 7194. 26.9 330. 457. 1412. .2906 22852. 17607. .558-03 .189-01
32 i0 9929. .0 7194. 27.6 332. 462. 1455. .2907 23268. 23268. .125-03 .190-01

Fig. 12. Examples of output from the computer program which calculates stress-strain histories in cladding (0.025 in. zircaloy-2
daddir~)..

2o
z 1.6

1.2

0.8
n

0.4 ...@._...---
z
u.I
i-

0 118 3.6 5.4 2 9.0 1 .8 12.6 14,4 16.2 18.O

ANGULAR DISTANCE FROM RADIAL PELLET CRACK (deg)

Fif. 13. Strain profde in cladding after irradiation history shown in fig. 12.
 D.O. Hckman, Design or fuel elements
A special case of power cycling which can result in
a large increment of damage in one cycle is the season-
al power variation. In this case, where a reactor may ?
have been held at reduced power for a long period, say
several months, similar methods are used to predict the
wall thinning strain and peak stress as a result of re-
turning to full power. Fuel cycles can have similar, but
usually smaller, effects. Thus radial fuel movements as
used in BWR and PWR reactors, the insertion of new
fuel in a partly burnt core, or the axial shuffle as used
in CANDU/PHW, must be examined to assess the in-
crement of stress in the can and to ensure that it is
acceptable. Although it is unlikely in water reactor
fuels generally that one event of this type will cause
an overstrain failure, the high peak stress could be
dangerous if there is a sensitivity to stress-corrosion
cracking. The maximum permissible stress level can
only be fixed by experience, but stress-corrosion
studies have indicated that stresses in excess of 40000
psi are usually required to initiate cracking.
9. Conclusions
From this general examination of life-limiting fea-
tures of fuel design, the very close relationship with
operational factors can be seen. Under ideal conditions
designs might be different from those that have evolved
to meet practical operating requirements. The real skill
of the designer lies in adopting an optimum economic
compromise, which will be influenced by the effects of
defective fuel in the core and by the relative ease of
discharge.
Can overstrain and overstress by can/fuel interaction
are the vital conditions the fuel pin design must cater
for and the importance of material selection as well as
317
design parameters is stressed. The influences of pro-
gressive hydriding and temperature variations due to
oxidation and crud deposition are important input
data to any performance assessment.
Spacer grid design is the key to assembly perform-
ance, but general structural design must be sufficiently
robust to avoid the need for onerous precautions in
handling and to take care of special situations such as
earthquake requirements.
It is well established that fuel elements can achieve
design targets in most of the important water reactor
types. Reliability has not been good, however, and
closer attention needs to be paid to materials selection
and specifications, as well as to manufacturing quality
control.
Performance requirements will continue to advance
to maintain the competitiveness of these systems. No
real limiting phenomena can yet be seen for the Zr/U02
rod bundle concept, but detail design changes will be
required to keep pace with performance demands.
References
[1] R.D. Page, Proc. IAEA Symposium "Heavy Water Power
Reactors", Vienna (1967) 749.
[2] D.O. Pickman, Nuclear Eng. Design 21 (1972) 212.
[3] G.F. Slattery, UKAEA TRG Report 1476 (S), 1967.
[4] R.N. Duncan, F.H. Megerth, T.J. Pashos, Paper presented
to National Association of Corrosion Engineers, March
1967.
[5] Preliminary Safety Analysis Report. Diablo Canyon Unit
2. July 1968. Pacific Gas & Elect. Co.
[6] H.M. Ferrari, Trans.ANS 12, 2 (1969) 554.
[7] S. Aas, Nuclear Eng. Design 21 (1972) 237.
[8] R.C. Daniel, M.L. Bleiberg, H.B. Meiran and W. Yeniscavich,
WAPD-263, 1962.
[91 J.H. Gittus, D.A. Howl, H. Hughes, Trans. ANS 12,2
(1969) 525.