Marine Steam Turbines: Evolutionary Changes and Modern Designs

MARINE ENGINEERING PRACTICE
Volume I
Part 8
MARINE STEAM TURBINES
by
R. COATS, C.Eng., F.I.Mar.E., M.I.Mech.E.,

M.R.I.N.A., M.I.Weld., M.N.E.C.I.E.S.
THE INSTITUTE OF MARINE ENGINEERS

CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
I. Evolutionary Changes and Background 2
2. The Modern Turbine 3
3. Cleanliness of the Machinery and its Connecting
Pipework 57
4. Avoidance of Contamination of the Working Fluids 58
5. Operating Procedures 63
6. Operating Troubles 78
7. Maintenance and Adjustment 82
8. Papers for Further Study 96
References 103
INTRODUCTION
This Part is an attempt to review a wide range of marine turbine
machinery. Of necessity, many interesting designs have had to be omitted.
It has not been thought necessary to delve too deeply into the past, as the
old designs have already been adequately covered.·
Many turbines of these older types are still undoubtedly in good service,
but, in the main, the illustrations in the present work will show more recent
designs. It is hoped that the student or the operator of the older type of
machinery will refer to the earlier book· for relevant information.
It is hoped that the ground covered, and particularly the section on the
operating aspects of the machinery will be of real practical value, and that.
the supplementary information given in the abstracts from important papers
on steam turbine machinery will provide a good stimulus for further study.
• "The Running and Maintenance of Marine Steam Turbines." In "The Running and Main-
tenance of Marine Machinery," Fifth Edition. Marine Media Management Ltd., London.
1
1. EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES AND
GENERAL BACKGROUND
The evolution of the marine steam turbine over the last twenty years
has brought about significant changes, not only in physical appearance, but
also in ratio of power to weight, in steam inlet conditions, in efficiency and
fuel consumption, in reliability, in the change from manual to remote control,
and, very significantly, in the time taken to reach full operating power after
starting from cold conditions.
In general, the principles governing the correct maintenance and
operation of the machinery are unchanged, with differences in emphasis and
time scale arising from increased knowledge and differences in detail designs.
These principles are:
1) Cleanliness of the machinery and its connecting pipework;
2) Avoidance of contamination of the working fluids, namely water,
steam, fuel and lubricating oil;
3) Adherence to makers' recommendations on type of lubricating oil
for initial fill and make-up purposes, and attention to fine filtering
and water removal;
4) Orderly procedures for warming through, start-up, manoeuvring,
full away and closing down to avoid distortion;
5) Attention to drainage facilities during critical periods to avoid carry-
over of water into the turbines;
6) Avoidance of rust or other corrosion-promoting conditions;
7) Orderly recording and analysis of instrument readings in comparison
with trials figures; check on power and fuel consumption;
8) Attention to auxiliary machinery to ensure correct movement of
fluids to and from the engine;
9) Attention to boiler cleanliness and efficient combustion to ensure
optimum overall efficiency and minimum fuel rate;
10) Where automatic controls are incorporated, periodic attention and
servicing to ensure reliable operation.
It is important to consider these points in more detail, but before doing
so, it is necessary to review th,' nasic design principles and illustrate the
present state of the art.
2
2. THE MODERN TURBINE
2.1. GENERAL ASPECTS

The design of the marine turbine over the past twenty years has been
greatly influenced by economic and competitive factors, requiring reduced
fuel consumption, smaller weight to power ratio, higher steam pressures and
temperatures, higher rotational speeds and higher peripheral speeds.
Improvements in blade and nozzle have been made by application of
aerodynamic theory and vast amounts of wind tunnel research have advanced
the efficiency of impulse turbines to such an extent that the high pressure
portion of a machine is almost always of the impulse type. The reaction
stages are confined to the low pressure end of the machine. The boundary
between impulse and reaction stages is somewhat blurred nowadays because
most impulse blades operate with some degree of reaction, and many
reaction stages are made of disc and diaphragm type of construction and
look like impulse stages.
There are exceptions, however, such as the Westinghouse design and
the Blohm and Voss design.
The major influences on the impulse design have been the higher steam
conditions and the importance of reducing leakage effects, and the reduction
in axial length arising from impulse construction.
The most popular designs of turbine in present construction are the Stal-
Laval, General Electric, Mitsubishi and Kawasaki types. The only active
British design at the moment is the GEe (formerly AEI/English Electric) type.
There are, of course, many British and foreign flag ships still sailing with
Pametrada turbines.
Several striking features will be evident in modern turbines when
compared with those in "Running and Maintenance of Marine Machinery".
There is the more general use of high pressures and temperatures, e.g.
Manufacturer Standard Inlet Conditions

Stal-Laval 62 bar/51Ooe (900 Ib/in2 g/950°F)
General Electric 59 bar/510oe (850 Ib/in2 g/950°F)
General Electric Reheat 100 bar/510oe (1450 Ib/in2 g/950°F/950°F)
Pametrada 59 bar/510oe (850 Ib/in2 g,950°F)
I.H.I. Reheat 86 bar, 513°Cj51Ooe
3
4 MARINE ENGINEERING PRACTICE
Several firms have standard reheat designs introduced after Pametrada

had publicized their "1000/1000/1000" design. The main difference was
that Pametrada proposed a three cylinder high pressure/intermediate
pressure/low pressure (H.P./I.P./L.P.) scheme, whereas General Electric
and Stal-Laval used a two cylinder scheme, with H.P. and J.P. sections on
the same rotor.
In addition, there are many improvements in details, such as flexible
couplings, bearings, casing construction, bearing supports, and greater use
of fabrication and there is the ',vf'rall aflrl""~eral use of impulse type con-
struction.
2.2. TURBINE AND GEARING ARRANGEMENTS

Apart from differences in detail, there are noteworthy differences in
arrangements of gearing and condenser machinery. It has become fashion-
able to adopt the so-called "single plane" arrangement in which all bearing
centre lines lie in the same horizontal plane.
In the Stal-Laval arrangement (Fig. 1) (Ref. 1), use is made of a mixture
of epicyclic and parallel shaft gears. The H.P. turbine may have a star gear
first reduction, with a planetary epicyclic second reduction, arranged forward
and aft, respectively, of the final reduction pinion which engages with the
main wheel. The L.P. turbine has a planetary epicyclic first reduction gear
arranged aft of the final reduction pinion.
The principal change which allows the single plane design to be achieved
is the axially directed exhaust, forward from the L.P. turbine, direct into the
side of the main condenser arranged athwartships. The exhaust duct sur-
rounds the forward turbine bearing, to which access has to be obtained via
a vertical shaftway. This is not a very attractive feature, but has not been
known to lead to any operating difficulties. The ahead exhaust stream passes
over the astern casing on its way to the condenser. The astern exhaust faces
the same way, thus removing any possibility of the astern steam affecting the
ahead blading (Fig. 2).
The main attraction claimed for the arrangement is the low headroom
needed for its accommodation, which permits the boiler to be arranged over
the turbines, thus leading to a short engine room space (Fig. 3).
It will be clear that there is a power limit to the axial exhaust single flow
arrangement, which has not yet been reached at 29828 kW (40000 shp) in
the Stal-Laval design. Eventually a double flow exhaust will be needed, with
downward flow to an underslung condenser, for higher powers. It is of
interest, however, that Jung (Ref. 2) claims that a power of 93000 shp is
possible with reheat using only one flow.
General Electric's MST 13 standard (Figs. 4 and 5) (Ref. 3) is similar in
several respects to the Stal-Laval arrangement It is of the single plane type
with the L.P. turbine exhausting axially to :: >'ld:ate condenser. Access to
the forward bearing is via a vertical space between the two halves of the
THE MODERN TURBINE 5
enveloping turbine exhaust. The major difference is in the type of gearing,

which is entirely par::lllel shaft type. For claimed economy of manufacture,
the primary and secondary gearboxes are separate from each other.
The higher powered MST 14 standard shown in Fig. 6 (Ref. 4) reverts to
orthodox dual tandem construction for the gearing, and has the advantage
of sharing the power amongst four pinions in the final reduction. This
leads to a smaller diameter for pinions and wheels than is general for the
Stal-Laval standard. The L.P. turbine retains the axial exhaust.
The even higher powered MST 19 standard range covers powers from
33556 kW-89 484 kW (45000-120000 shp) with a selection from two H.P.
turbines and three L.P. turbines in both non-reheat and reheat forms. It is
of interest to note that all of these have dual tandem gears and that the L.P.
turbines exhaust downwards into underslung condensers.
The Pametrada standards (Refs. 5 and 6) retained the orthodox arrange-
ment of gearing, with dual tandem above 18643 kW (25000 shp), and in all
cases have the L.P. turbine exhausting downwards into an underslung
FIG. 3.-Stal-Laval advanced propulsion machinery in a tanker.
condenser (Figs. 7 and 8) (Ref. 6). The major overall dimensions and weights
for this standard series are given in Tables I and II of Ref. 6.
Figure 9 shows a 14914 kW (20000 shp) set of machinery from the
standard range-later installed in s.s. British Cmifidence-erected on the test
stand at John Brown Engineering. Figure 10 shows a 19760 kW (26 500 shp)
set with dual tandem gearing in s.s. Ottawa. Figure 11shows the Pametrada
Prototype 1 machinery on the test bed at Wallsend Research Station. This
operated at 55 bar (800 Ib/in2 g) and 557°C (1035°F) and completed an
extensive series of trials in 1963. Figures 12 and 13 show the H.P. turbine
from this set.
8 MARINE ESGIN' ~:RING PRACTICE
2.3. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
2.3.1. Pametrada Turbines

Figures 14-30 inclusive are typical of the construction of the later
Pametrada standards. Noteworthy points are:
a) Double casing construction of both H.P. and L.P. turbines;
b) Separate first stage nozzle boxes welded to outer casing;
c) Measures taken to minimize distortions and maintain clearances
such as centre-line support for bearing housings and inner casings,
radial key supports for diaphragms;
d) Spring backed main gland segments and diaphragm gland segments;
e) Solid forged an ld rotor~ f. •. hllth H.P. and L.P. rotors;
f) Reliance on shrouding and binding wires for inhibition of blade
vibration;
g) Compound H.P. and L.P. astern turbines which allowed acceptance
of full steam temperature for astern operation and gave high astern
power capability (over 60 per cent of the ahead power, at free-route
astern) ;
h) All welded diaphragms in H.P. turbines;
i) Brazed segmental nozzles in L.P. turbines.
All of these features were incorporated in the turbines for Queen

Elizabeth 2 (Figs. 31 to 35) which have a maximum output of 41013-5 kW
(55000 shp) per shaft at 174 rev/min. Although designed for normal operation
at 55·16 bar/510°C (800 Ib/in2 g/950°F), the materials and construction were
suitable for 538°C (1oo0°F), and this was demonstrated on trials.
A distinguishing feature of such turbines intended for passenger liners
results from the need to operate efficiently over a wide range of powers and
revolutions. This requires a Curtis wheel and a high degree of nozzle control
for the first stage. In the QE 2 there are three groups of nozzles with four
control valves. In effect, powers below 22371 kW (30000 shp) are obtained
by throttling on the top group of nozzles, and the remaining range up to
41013-5 kW (55000 shp) by the opening progressively of the remaining two
valves (Fig. 36).
Figure 37 gives a cross-section through the valve chest for numbers 3
and 4 valves, and through the operating pneumatic cylinders. The Number 1
and Number 2 valves are located on the bulkhead away from the turbine and
are operated in the same way, but with the addition of remote mechanical
operating gear on No.1 valve for use in the event ofloss of pneumatic control.
The No.1 valve acts as the main manoeuvring valve.
A word of caution is appropriate here about the difficulty of matching
pneumatic operation to the valves performing the exacting duty of nozzle
control. Forces on the valves can change very rapidly in magnitude and di-
rection during the process of opening and closing and the "springy" response
of the air system can lead to rapid hunting or chattering of the valve. Apart
from giving very severe fluctuations in the steam flow, this can lead to serious
hammering wear on the internals of the valve. Overcoming this is a difficult
design problem. (In this respect, the hydraulically operated pistons as used
for example in the Stal-Laval control valves (Fig. 38) have proved to be
completely steady in operation.)
An example of an earlier Pametrada design is illustrated in Figs. 39 and
40. This was designed for an inlet temperature of 510°C (950°F) and a power
of 9321 kW (12500 shp). The H.P. turbine is of double casing construction,
the outer casing being fabricated and the inner casing being cast. The strength
of the assembly lies in the longitudinal beam which incorporates the bottom-
half outer casing. The inner casing is supported from brackets on the outer
casing. The bearing pedestals are mounted on transverse beams suspended
by side members from the main beam. The H.P. astern turbine is at the
forward end, and the casing is supported on brackets from the main beam.
A flexible diaphragm type seal makes the joint between the main steam inlet
branch and the outer casing, and location and centralizing of the separate
elements is achieved by means of keys. Sixteen single-row impulse wheels
are incorporated and the diaphragms are of the brazed segmental type. The
astern wheel is a two-row Curtis stage. The ahead steam exhausts from the
upper-half outer casing.
3S
Main glands and diaphragm glands are of the solid type, with the fine
fins turned as an integral part of the rotor shaft, which has the advantage of
reducing the amount of heat transferred to the rotor surface in the event of a.
rub.
The L.P. turbine is also of double casing construction, the ollter casing.
being fabricated, and inner casings of cast steel. The first five ahead stages
are of impulse type, and the last seven are reaction. The L.P. astern turbine
has two Curtis stages. A unique feature is the inward turning deflector
attached to the astern casing exhaust, which not only protects the ahead
blading from direct impingement of hot astern steam, but also guides the
ahead steam clear of the astern blading. The exhaust is downwards to an
underslung condenser.
It may be of interest to note that, as a result of experience in the Second
World War, all of the Pametrada turbines were designed to resist the effects
of accelerations and decelerations arising from und6rwater explosions, a
fact that was often overlooked when comparisons were made.
2.3.2. Stal-Laval Turbines

The Stal-Laval Advanced Propulsion series of turbines has tended more
towards simplicity of construction. It will be noted that both H.P. and L.P.
turbines are single casing castings (Figs. 41 and 42). Where bleed belts are
required, they are simply welded to the main casting, with large holes drilled
through the casting to pass the steam into the bleed belts.
This simplicity has been incorporated into the first stage nozzle belt,
which forms part of the main casting, a feature which went out of favour in
other designs because of casting and distortion difficulties, but has not been
known to cause any trouble in Stal-Laval sets.
The design is of impulse type throughout with a large diameter first stage
or control stage. Normally, three groups of nozzles are used, with one group
uncontrolled and two under the control of individual local valves. This can
be seen in Fig. 1. .
The astern turbine stages are entirely located within the L.P. turbine
casing with the exhaust end pointing forward. Thus the ahead exhaust steam
passes over the astern casing on its way to the condenser. The astern casing
is a separate casting, supported in a cantilever fashion from the end inner
bell. The astern discs are separate forgings to allow for the excessive thermal
gradients which can occur during astern manoeuvres. It is the practice to
reduce steam temperature for such manoeuvres in this design.
Another distinctive feature of this design is the side entry blades with
bulb roots shown in Fig. 43, which date back to the very earliest De Laval
designs. This makes for a strong assembly which reduces blading time for
the rotors, but requires very accurate manufacture and special machine
tools. All blades have integral shrouds with shroud connecting wires rolled
into the grooves in a unique, vibration-damping construction.
In the larger blades of the L.P. rotor, lacing wires are used in addition
to help in inhibiting vibrations. These are not brazed into the blades, but
instead rely upon a frictional effect between wire and blade, to provide
damping under centrifugal force. The wires have a semicircular cross-section,
and are used in pairs with the flat surfaces butted together, the joints being
staggered and ends turned over to locate them circumferentiaIly.
The Stal-Laval design relies on flexible panting plates to support the
moving (forward) end of the H.P. turbine and accommodate the axial
expansion. Reaction forces are transferred to the base plate by keys. In the
case of the L.P. turbine, the panting plates are at the aft end and the fixed
point is at the forward feet of the condenser shell. The intermediate spring
supports at the L.P. turbine exhaust end serve to prevent sagging of the
assembly when the top half cylinder is lifted.
The nozzle diaphragms are of welded construction throughout, sup-
ported and centralized by radial pegs passing through the casing (Fig. 44).
46
The H.P. rotor shaft diameter is such that the first critical speed cal-
culated on rigid bearings is actually below the normal running speed. This,
of course, reduces gland and diaphragm leakage, but requires extreme care
in maintaining a progressive state of balance as the blading operation
proceeds. The axial entry roots, in the accurately spaced slots, facilitate this.
Stal-Laval have a test pit which enables such rotors to be check balanced at
full revolutions, which is desirable for rotors which normally run above the
first critical speed.
Spring-backed gland segments are used throughout, for main glands
and diaphragm glands, and for both RP. and L.P. turbines. Small helical
springs are used (Fig. 45).
The cross-over pipe from H.P. exhaust to L.P. inlet is accommodated
between the bottom halves. Flexible bellows pieces are fitted, but there is a
pressure thrust tending to separate the two turbines, which has to be accom-
modated by the side keys and chocking arrangements.
It is again instructive to compare these modern designs with the De
Laval turbines of 1956 (Ref. 8) Figs. 46 and 47, showing a distinct family
resemblance as far as the H.P. turbines are concerned, but with marked
differences in concept for the L.P. turbines. Notable points are the separate
keyed-on discs for the L.P. turbine, the opposing exhaust ofthe astern turbine,
and the downward exhaust to the condenser.
The layout of such machinery, e.g. in s.s. World Sincerity (shown in
Fig. 29 of Ref. 8) is interesting when compared with the modern arrangement
of Stal-Laval Advanced Propulsion machinery.
2.3.3. General Electric Turbines

The latest designs of General Electric turbines (MST 19, retain the
robustness of their predecessors with regard to general blade and nozzle
scantlings (Ref. 9). An all-impulse design is used, with a larger diameter single
row first stage in the H.P. turbine. The rotor is of integral construction with
discs machined from the solid forging.
The cylinder is basically a single casing construction, with nozzle box
hung from the floor of the steam chest in the top half, thus achieving some
freedom for relative expansion under transient temperature conditions.
Bleed belts are cast in the bottom half, giving provision for two points of
extraction (Fig. 48).
The interstage nozzle diaphragms are of welded construction and centre
line supported, and the diaphragm glands and the main glands are of the
spring-backed type.
The turbine exhausts from a branch on the top half to an up and over
cross-over pipe to the L.P. turbine.
The first stage nozzle valves are operated by hydraulic ram supplied by
a variable displacement pump worked by the control system (Fig. 49).
The L.P. turbine casing is of fabricated construction with inlet on the
top and downward exhaust to thecondenser (Fig. 50). Generous bleed belts
are provided, and an interesting innovation is the conical piece extending
beyond the plane of the last blade with the intention of reducing exhaust
losses. The astern turbine is housed within the exhaust space at the forward
end, with its exhaust end facing the ahead exhaust in the orthodox manner.
Good features are the all-round admission belt of the astern first stage and
the piston-type connecting tube between outer casing and inner. An arrange-
ment of struts stiffens the exhaust space and provides support and location
for the astern cylinder.
The rotor is a solid forging with all discs machined integrally. All blades
are of robust proportions, tapered and twisted* in the later stages. Also, in
the later stages, are elaborate water drainage arrangements with the object of
reducing the rate of erosion on the blade inlet edges.
Details of the earlier (1959) General Electric designs can be found in
Ref. 10 and the newer reheat H.P. and J.P. turbine is shown in Fig. 51.
2.4. THE SINGLE CYLINDER TURBINE

For small and moderate powers, and exceptionally for large powers,
there has been a market for single cylinder turbines. Most of these have been
for turbo-electric ships, of which the most outstanding was the Canberra,
of 29828 kW (40000 shp) per shaft. The T2 tankers which were built in large
numbers in the post war years also had this type of machinery. There has
• All moving rows of L.P. turbines are designed nowadays on the "vortex" principle, with blade
inlet and .discharge angles arranged to take advantage of the different pressure and flow con-
ditions arising between root and tip diameter.
been a much smaller number of mechanical geared applications of single

cylinder turbines, mostly for twin screw ships such as cross-channel steamers,
and more recently for container ships.
2.4.1. Cross-channel Type Single Cylinder Tlrhine

This unique desig:! developed by T. ia proved very suitable for
its purpose, which was to be a quick startmg, reliable turbine of moderate
efficiency.
It is of the double casing type (Figs. 52 and 53) with fabricated outer
casing, and cast steel inner casings, supported from the outer casing by
brackets. The steam inlet is between the ahead and astern turbines, so that
the exhausts are at opposite ends of the turbine, leading the steam direct to
the underslung condenser through the large rectangular opening at the
bottom.
The blading is of the impulse type throughout, with machined-type,

first stage nozzle plate and brazed segmental-type nozzle diaphragms for the
other stages. The later versions have spring backed gland segments, but the
earlier versions relied on solid glands having the fins formed as an integral
part of the rotor.
As a matter of routine such turbines are capable of being ready for
power within 20 min of lighting up the boilers, and operating at full power
within a further 10 min. Manoeuvring ability is excellent, and under crash
astern conditions, a cross-channel type ship has been stopped from full
ahead at 41 kmfhr (22 knots) within four ship lengths.
A derivative of such a design has been proposed for combined steam
and gas turbine arrangements, leading to excellent fuel rates (Ref. 11).
2.4.2. Container Ship Type Single Cylinder Turbine

This single cylinder turbine, as developed by GEC Turbine Generators
Ltd. for container ships, is illustrated in Fig. 54. It is suitable for up to
55
3. CLEANLINESS OF THE MACHINERY
AND ITS CONNECTING PIPEWORK
Reputable turbine manufacturers have very thorough quality control

procedures which include attention to cleanliness in manufacture and in the
final assembly processes. They also have final checking procedures to ensure
that extraneous objects such as tools, wedges and swarf are not left inside
the machinery. These checking procedures must be followed in all subsequent
machinery surveys which involve opening up the turbines. The principle
should be observed that it is easier to keep foreign bodies out than to remove
them once they have been allowed to get in. The use of heavy quality trans-
parent polythene tents over the opened up machinery is a great help in
achieving this object.
57
4. AVOIDANCE OF CONTAMINATION
OF THE WORKING FLUIDS
4.1. INTRO!)
Inevitably, after all the scouflng, :.L;;am cleaning and oil flushing carried
out by the manufacturer, there will be some dirt particles which will only be
dislodged by a period of actual running. Filters are therefore necessary.
4.2. THE LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

It is particularly important to pay attention to the filters in the early
life of the machinery, to ensure that filter cartridges are replaced or the inter-
nals cleaned whenever the makers' maximum permissible pressure drops
across the elements have been reached. The system should clean up during
the progress of the trial trip, but recording of the pressure drop across filter
elements and inspection of H'..1g11cticfilters should form part of the mainten-
ance routine. It is essential to maintain the lubricating oil in good condition.
Most marine systems include centrifugal separators and purifiers, arranged
to operate on a proportion of the system oil bypassed through them. These
will remove most of the water and adventitious particles, but for complete
protection, every system should include a full flow fine filter, capable of
removing particles down to a size of 15 ~m.
a) Fresh Water Contamination

Contamination of the oil by water should be avoided as much as
possible. Fresh water, in itself, is not dangerous, but it can lead to
rusting within the system, and iron oxide has a catalytic effect in the
formation of sludge in the oil. Certain types of extreme pressure
additive, not now recommended, can hydrolyse in the presence of
water and lead eventually to corrosive attack.
The source of fresh water contamination may be condensation
of escaping gland vapour, in which case the gland steam system
should be adjusted to prevent the escape. It may also come from
sweating or condensation on the inside surfaces of the gearcase,
possibly due to ventilation air blowing directly onto the outer surface.
This should be remedied. If ventilation pipes are fitted to the gearcase,
which is not recommended by all manufacturers, a water trap should
be incorporated to prevent condensed vapour from running back
into the gearcase.
58
AVOIDANCE OF CONTAMINATION 59
In the event of water remaining a serious problem, it would be

advisable to fit a coalescing-type filter in the system to remove it.
b) Salt Water Contamination

The presence of salt water in the oil is very serious indeed and must
be eliminated. This implies finding the source of contamination (e.g.
lubricating oil cooler) and eliminating the defect, and initiating a
washing and purifying procedure involving the addition and removal
of fresh water in the purifying system until all trace of salt has been
eliminated. A defect known as tin oxide corrosion gave cause for
concern in the period 1957 to 1965. It was characterized by the for-
mation of a very hard, dark skin on the surface of the white metal.
It was so hard that even a file would not mark it. Eventually pieces
of the surface layer would break away and cause severe scoring of
the opposing surfaces. This hardening was due to electro-chemical
attack on the tin matrix of the white metal, converting it to stannous
oxide and stannic oxide. Research eventually revealed that the
presence of an electrolyte was required, and salt water contamination
provided this (Ref. 12). It was also found that fresh water could turn
into an electrolyte by leaching out some of the additives in the oil
(Ref. 13).
Figures 55(a) and (b) show examples of damage to a thrust collar caused
by the so-called machining type failure which afflicted the marine industry
some years ago. This came into prominence at the time of the maiden voyage
of the Northern Star (Ref. 7). It has now been established beyond doubt that
certain types of oil, in combination with certain alloy rotor materials, can
lead to accelerated thrust and bearing damage if triggered off by the presence
of dirt particles or other unusual circumstances (Refs. 14, 15 and 16). This
reinforces the importance of effective filtration, which should intercept all
particles of 15 microns (J-Lm) and above. It is also important not to change the
type of oil used, unless the replacement oil is on the makers' recommended
list.
4.3. THE hc .!
Modern boilers demand a high degree of water punty, and methods of
water treatment have been firmly established to keep the water at the correct
pH value. Nevertheless, accumulations of oxides and sediment can occur
and should be controlled by boiler blow down. It has been known that
excessive boiler compound and dissolved -lids could be carried 01';, tliLO
the turbine either in priming, or in fact dissolved in the steam. This causes
build-up on turbine nozzles and blades to such an extent that power and
efficiency could be seriously affected; Fig. 56 shows such an example. It has
also been known that such build-up of solids could lead to thrust overload
because of the restriction of flow area through the blades. It can also lead to
rough running due to imbalance caused by unevenness of deposits. Another
method of controlling suspended solids is to fit a condensate filter in the feed
system, either before the L.P. heater or between the heater and de-aerator
(Ref. 17).
4.4. THE CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM

There is little the operating engineer can do about the quality of sea
water the ship passes through, except to exercise care and watchfulness
during periods in harbour or river waters. One problem is the amount of
floating debris that somehow finds its way through the strainer grid and into
the water box. Plastic sheeting is a menace in this respect, as it can effectively
blank off several tubes.
Polluted waters can be very corrosive in condenser tubes, and condensers
should never be allowed to remain full of such waters for any length of time.
Tubes have been known to corrode through when not running and containing
polluted water during the fitting out period in dock. Protective measures will
be more fully discussed in a later part of this series dealing with condensers,
but briefly, the situation can be controlled by the injection of ferrous sulphate
solution, which helps to form a protective coating on the tubes particularly
during the early life of the machinery. (For an expert's opinion on these
matters, see Ref. 18.)
The presence of partial obstructions in tubes can lead to further settle-
ment of deposits with probable corrosive attack under the deposits. Such
obstructions should be searched out and removed periodically, either by
rod ding through or firing through a brush from a special gun.
4.5. THE FUEL SYSTEM

The effect of fuel contamination is most serious in the boiler, but in so
far as it affects the efficiency of the plant. it is important with regard to the
turbine operation. The principal contaIr , aIts are rust and sea water, and
these should be excluded as much as po:>sible.
In theory, contamination of feed water by oil fuel is something that
should never happen. Unfortunately, it has happened, and on more than one
occasion. Foolproof steps should be taken to prevent such contamination
as corrective measures at a later stage can be very expensive and time
consuming. The interfaces at which such contamination has been known to
take place are oil bunker and settling tank or service tank heating coils, and
;team assisted burners.
5. OPERATING PROCEDURES
5.1. INTRODUCTION
The following is intended to provide guidance about those matters
affecting the safe and efficient running of turbines, gearing and condensers.
Different turbine designs may require slightly different treatment, but the
principles are the same, namely:
1) Lubrication must be provided;
2) The turbines must be warmed through in an approved manner;
3) The turbine drains must be open during warming through;
4) The steam from the boiler must be of the correct quality and free
from water carryover;
5) The propeller must be free to turn;
6) The condenser must be circulated with cooling water.
5.2. THE OBJECTS OF WARMING THROUGH

The first object of the warming through procedure is to maintain the
straight condition of the rotors. This depends upon a negligible temperature
gradient across the rotor shaft, i.e. the temperature must not be higher at the
top surface than it is at the bottom, otherwise the rotor will "hog" or bend
upwards. This would be the natural situation, due to convection, if hot steam
were introduced with the rotor stationary. Therefore, the rotors must be
rotated during the warming through process in order to ensure an even
temperature across the rotor. Figure 57 illustrates this point on a power
station rotor (Ref. 19), showing that only a small temperature difference is
required to produce a bend. As a measure of the importance of avoiding
bends in the rotor, a radial displacement of the centre of mass by as little as
0·102 mm (0·004 in) would produce at 3000 rev/min a centrifugal force equal
to the weight of the rotor.
The second object is to avoid distortion of the casings as far as possible,
and here again, rotation of the rotors keeps the steam adequately mixed and
therefore the temperature is evenly distributed from top to bottom. However,
one qualification is that in an L.P. turbine, with the condenser underneath,
it is difficult to avoid a temperature difference from top to bottom because
of the cold condenser. In this respect, the separate condenser is better.
The third object is to minimize the stresses caused by temperature
gradients across thick sections of materials. In the cas~ of a thick cylinder,
63
if the temperature at the bore is greater than that at the outside, a compressive
stress is set up at the inside, and a tensile stress at the outside. The greater the
temperature difference, the higher is the stress. The same applies at the thick
and wide flanges at the horizontal bolted joint, but to a greater degree.
However, this can be alleviated somewhat by placing vertical slots at strategic
points in the flange, mainly to split it into shorter lengths so that the dis-
tortion effect is not cumulative over the full length of the flange. Such flange
distortion can also make the cross section of the casing distort into an oval
form, with the minor axis vertical, thus reducing tip clearances at top and
bottom. This is particularly relevant in open ended cylinders, such as occur
in double casing designs (Re( 20).
Heat transfer from steam to casing bore is greatest when the steam is
condensing on the surface, and the temperature at which condensation takes
place is governed by the local pressure. The local pressure is in turn governed
by the amount of steam flowing, and time must be allowed for the heat to
soak through the cross-section of the casing before proceeding to the higher
pressure level.
When first admitting steam for warming through, the pressure within
the casing is atmospheric pressure and the temperature cannot rise to higher
than 100°C (212°F) until the pressure rises above atmospheric; in other words,
not until the steam flow is increased.
It will be realized that complete warming through of the H.P. turbine
cannot take place until a high level of power is readicd. Therefore, there is no
point in persisting with a longer period of warming through than is necessary
OPERA TING PROCEDURES 65
other than to raise the temperature to that corresponding to atmospheric

pressure, i.e. 100°C.
At the same time, there would be no point in raising the whole of the
L.P. turbine to that temperature, since the normal running temperature for
a large part of the L.P. turbine would be much lower.
Therefore, a long period of warming through is neither necessary nor
desirable. For medium to large powered machinery of a modern design, the
flow rate of steam for warming through should be adjusted to obtain a
temperature of 82°C (180°F) at the L.P. turbine inlet belt in 25 to 30 minutes.
Good practical information on this subject is contained in Ref. 21, from
which Figs. 58 and 59 are reproduced, and in Ref. 22.
5.3. STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARATION FOR WARMING THROUGH

It should be assumed that the boilers have been commissioned and that
steam is available up to the boiler stop valve.
Procedure
1) Note sliding feet cold settings. Check that turbine feet are lubricated and
free to slide. Be aware of the expansions to be expected at full power.
2) Remove any water which may have accumulated in the lubricating oil
tanks, either by hand pump provided, or by drain. Check drain tank
and gravity tank levels, and top up if necessary.
3) Switch on lubricating oil low level alarms where provided, i.e. gearcase
sump, gravity tank and stern tube header tank.
4) Check that the lubricating oil cooling water can be circulated when
required. Shut off the cooling water. If provision is made for the
lubricating oil to be pre-heated raise its temperature to approximately
38°C (lOO°F),where necessary.
5) Check that the mechanical and magnetic suction strainers and fine
full flow discharge filters are in place and are clean.
6) Start up one lubricating oil pump and check for availability of the
standby unit. Check for correct functioning of the low pressure trip
switch.
7) Check that lubricating oil is flowing freely to all bearings and sprayers
by examining sight glasses on supply and return lines. Vent filter air
releases.
8) If a gravity tank is provided, it is important to ensure that the overflow
is returning to the lubricating oil drain tank.
9) Check all pressures throughout the lubricating oil system, especially
the main filter unit pressure drop. If the manufacturers' recommended
pressure differential across the working element is exceeded, then the
unit should be changed over to the standby element and the contamin-
ated cartridge cleaned and/or replaced.
10) Examine the lubricating oil system for leaks. Switch on low pressure
and high temperature alarms, on lubricating oil supply to all bearings
and sprayers, including the high temperature alarm at the stern tube.
OPERATING PROCEDURES 69
11) Verify that all turbine casing drains and bleed pipe drains are open.
These would normally be left open at "Finished with Engines" but it is
essential to check this.
12) Open all manoeuvring valve drains. Where provision is made for
remote control of turbine drains, satisfactory operation must be proved.
13) Open all main steam line drain valves. Prove satisfactory operation of
all bled steam valves and then shut them again.
14) Contact bridge and check that propeller is clear for turning. Engage
turning gear and rotate. Check that all parts can rotate freely in both
directions then turn engine ahead. Any upsurge in turning motor
current reading should be investigated at once as this in an indication
of interference. Any unusual noise should also be investigated.
NOT E: If the bridge does not permit CONTI N U 0 US rotation of the
main shaft then permission should be obtained to rotate it by the gear
a fraction of a revolution every 3-5 min. If this is not permitted, adopt
the emergency procedure (Section 5.15).
15) Check that manoeuvring valves are free to operate by opening and
closing them. It is essential that there should be no steam in the line
between the main stop valves and the manoeuvring valves when this
step is taken.
5.4. WARMING THROUGH WHEN A BYPASS LINE IS AVAILABLE

This mode of warming through is strongly recommended particularly
for units of double casing construction, as the heating steam is admitted
through the first stage nozzles. In such designs, the older practice of using
gland packing steam for warming through does not allow sufficient penetra-
tion of the steam into the inner casing. The line referred to bypasses the ahead
manoeuvring valve, and has a small control valve. It is specifically provided
for warming through purposes.
Manoeuvring valves should be shut and interlocks should be on.
Procedure
1) Observe the movement of sliding feet at regular intervals.
2) Rotate the machinery ahead continuously using turning gear.
3) Start up the main circulating pump on slow speed, put one extraction
pump into service with the standby pump on "Automatic Start".
Ensure that the sealing line to the pump gland is open. Open the
recirculating valve in the closed feed system.
4) Open the boiler stop valve and the quick closing emergency valve and
admit steam up to the manoeuvring valves.
5) Manually operate trip gear to test the self-closing valve, then reset.
6) Open all nozzle control valves.
7) Main steam line drains and manoeuvring valve drains (automatic
control gear permitting) can be set to the "Cracked Off" position
after a lapse of 10 min.
8) Open the warming through bypass steam line to allow steam flow to
the H.P. turbine ahead nozzles. The rate of flow of warming through
steam should be adjusted according to experience to obtain a tempera-
ture of 82°C (180°F) at the L.P. turbine inlet after 25-30 min.
9) Open up the gland steam supply and check that the trapped drain is
bypassed. Adjust the controller to maintain pressure 0·05-0·1 bar
aIt Ibjin2 g) at the gland steam reservoir.
NOTE: In setting this pressure the proximity of the gauge to the gland
steam reservoir should be taken into account and allowance made for
any "built-in" water leg.
to) Commission the air ejector. Raise the main condenser vacuum to
10-15 in Hg. Start the glands condenser aspirator. Shut down the warm-
ing through bypass after about 15 min.
11) Stop the turning gear and disengage. Continue raising vacuum. Ensure
that trapped air is released from the condenser water boxes. Open the
ahead manoeuvring valve to admit just enough steam to turn the
turbine rotor. Close the ahead valve and repeat the operation using
astern manoeuvring valve to check rotor and turn in the astern direction.
Do not exceed 5-7 revjmm of the main shaft.
In some installations, normal operation of the manoeuvring valves
is governed by lever or push-button control. At this stage ofthe warming
through procedure it would be advantageous to test the facilities pro-
vided for direct hand operation of the manoeuvring valves as would
be required in the event of failure of any remote control apparatus
fitted.
12) Continue to admit short gusts of ahead steam, braking with astern
steam, at three minute intervals while raising vacuum. Time required
for "puffing" ahead and astern will be about to min.
13) Test the system by raising to full vacuum then report engines ready for
sea. Reduce the .acuum to 25 in Hg, and continue to puff ahead and
astern at three minute intervals.
14) On receipt of "Standby" signal increase vacuum to design pressure.
The time for the warming through sequence from admission of warming
steam to reporting engines ready for use should be not less than 20 min.
Do not attempt to warm through with the turbine rotors stationary.
5.5. WARMING THROUGH WHEN A BYPASS LINE IS NOT AVAILABLE
Procedure
1) Observe the movement of the sliding feet at regular intervals.
2) With the manoeuvring valves shut and interlocks on put the turning
gear into continuous ahead operation.
3) Open all the nozzle control valves.
4) Check that the trapped drain is bypassed. Open up the gland packing
steam supply to maintain 0·05-0·1 bar
reservoir sealing pockets.
aIt Ibjin2 g) at the gland steam
5) Cammissian the air ejectar and raise vacuum to' 5-10 in Hg.
6) After 10-15 min with anly gland steam supplied disengage the turning
gear. Maintain the candenser vacuum at 10 in Hg.
7) After 2-3 min, admit gusts af steam via the ahead manaeuvring valve
to' turn the rotars. Repeat this aperatian with gusts af astern steam.
Do. nat allaw the propeller shaft speed to. exceed 5-7 rev/min.
8) Cantinue to. admit shart gusts af ahead steam, braking with astern
steam, at intervals af 2-3 min far a periad af 10-15 min. At the same
time, raise the vacuum slawly to. full far testing purpases. Then reduce
the vacuum to. 25 in Hg after which the turbines may be reparted
ready far use.
5.6. "STANDBY" CONDITION

Procedure
I) On receipt af the "Standby" arder, raise vacuum to. the design value.
2) Main steam line and manaeuvring valve drains may be c1ased, but all
turbine drains shauld remain apen.
3) During "Standby", the machinery shauld be rotated at 5-7 rev/min.
with gusts af ahead steam, braked by astern steam, at intervals af nat
mare than 3 min. As steam gusting maintains steady canditians this is
the best methad af standing by when the turbines might be required to.
praduce pawer at shart natice.
4) If the installatian is provided with autamatic steam blast rotating gear
this can be put into. use and left in aperatian until the first engine
mavement is telegraphed. The fallawing must be abserved.
i) When the turbines are stapped far langer than three minutes the
autamatic blasting gear shauld be set to. ratate the turbines alter-
nately ahead and astern.
ii) Check far carrect functianing af the pro.tectian gear which shauld
c1ase the steam blast valves after 20 sec in the event af the shaft nat
turning. Failure to.turn will lead to.seriaus averheating and distartian
af the turbine cylinders and bawing af the turbine spindles.
iii) With the abave gear in use the casing high temperature alarms must
be switched an.
iv) Care shauld be taken that the averriding cantral and aiarm are
active'ta prevent aperatian af the aut a-blasting gear during periads
af maaring, etc. when unexpected propeller turning might cause an
accident.
5.7. MANOEUVRING CONDITION

Procedure
1) Manaeuvre the machinery in accardance with the telegraph arders.
2) When a "Stap" arder is received, c1ase the ahead manaeuvring valve
as quickly as passible and brake the shaft by admitting astern steam at
a pressure af 7 bar (100 Ib/in 2 g),
3) Do not open the astern valve fully while the shaft is rotating ahead or
rotating at low astern revolutions.
4) Do not allow ahead and astern throttles to remain open simultaneously
under any condition of operation.
5) Check the lubricating oil pressures and temperatures.
Circulate the lubricating oil cooler, if the lubricating oil is warming
up, to maintain an oil outlet temperature of 46--49°C (l15-120°F) from
the cooler.
5.8. WORKING UP AFTER "FULL AWAY" ORDER
Procedure
1) Shut the turbine drains and the recirculating valve.
2) Check that the astern manoeuvring and double shut-off guardian valves
are tightly closed.
3) Adjust the first stage nozzle control valves, which should have remained
open during manoeuvring, to meet the desired steady steaming power
conditions.
4) Examine the astern casing instrumentation. A continuing rise in
temperature beyond 260°C (500°F) is indicative of steam leakage past
the astern valve. The vacuum gauge will also indicate the occurrence of
steam leakage. Signs of leakage must be viewed seriously and measures
must be taken to correct the condition.
5) Increase the boiler superheat to give design temperature at the turbine
inlet. Under normal circumstances, full power and temperature should
be reached 50 to 60 min after "Full Away".
6) Open up the turbine bled steam valves as required.
7) Carry out all round check of entire instrumentation.
8) Investigate any unusual noise or vibration (see Section 6.3).
5.9. INCREASING TO MAXIMUM POWER

Although bypass valves and associated steam piping are usually self
draining, care should be exercised when opening up to maximum or overload
power.
Procedure
1) Close ahead throttle slightly.
2) Open up bypass valves sufficiently to give the designed overload power.
3) Open up ahead throttle to "Full Open" position.
4) Re-adjust bypass valve setting to obtain desired power.
5) Carry out all round check of enti~ntation.
6) Investigate any unusual noise or :e Section 6.3).
5.10. ON VOYAGE
Procedure
1) Check the lubricating oil system regularly, examining lubricating oil
filter pressure drop, bearing temperatures and pressures, sight flow
indicators, etc. Run the centrifuge regularly, and check for presence of
water.
2) Maintain oil temperature at cooler outlet at 46-49°C (115-120°F).
However, it may be necessary to modify this temperature if the bearing
temperatures are not within the usual operating range.
3) Maintain the turbine steam inlet pressure and temperature and the
main condenser vacuum at the design values.
4) In the general interest of economy, it is important that auxiliary
machinery having a controlled speed should not be run faster than is
necessary for the purpose it is fulfilling. In particular, the main circu-
lating water supply should be regulated to avoid undercooling of the
condensate below the temperature corresponding to the vacuum.
5.11. MANOEUVRING AFTER A SEA PASSAGE
Procedure
1) On receipt of "Standby" reduce speed to full speed manoeuvring
revolutions.
2) Reduce the superheat over the period of time recommended by the
boiler manufacturers.
3) Before manoeuvring open the astern guardian valve, shut down the
bleeds in use, open all turbine drains.
4) Open the recirculating valve at the commencement of manoeuvring.
5.12. ASTERN RUNNING

Steam should be admitted to the astern turbine at a pressure of 7 bar
(100 IbJin2 g) to brake the shaft (if still going ahead) and then increased to
give the astern power required. The astern manoeuvring valve must not be
opened fully while the turbines are rotating in the ahead direction or before
they have attained some speed in the astern direction.
Most designs require a reduction in steam temperature of about 38°C
(100°F) for astern operation. The {iuration of maximum astern power at full
steam conditions should be limited to 30 min to prevent overheating in the
ahead blading. Further attemperation should be employed for periods in
excess of 30 min.
For continuous operation at low astern power, attemperation should
be employed if the exhaust steam temperature exceeds 204°C (400°F). Main
condenser vacuum should be reduced to 24 in Hg to minimize the possi-
bility of distortion of the L.P. turbine casing and condenser shell.
5.13. EXTENDED NOTICE OF SAILING

If the vessel is to be under way in 6 hours or less, the main condenser
vacuum should be reduced to 15 in Hg and the turning gear should be
engaged to rotate the turbine in the ahead direction. Approximately 20 min
before "Standby", the warming through procedure detailed in 7) and 8) of
Section 5.5 should be adopted. If automatic steam blast rotating gear is
fitted this may be engaged to rotate the turbines.
If the machinery is to be held at instant readiness the vacuum should
be reduced to 20 in Hg and the rotors turned by steam gusting every 3 min.
If the vessel is to be under way in over 6 hours and the turbines are to be
shut down, the electric turning gear should be engaged, the vacuum released
and the engines turned throughout the cooling period of 4-5 hours. Towards
the end of the cooling period turning may be intermittent, say every 15 min.
The main circulating pump should be left in operation until the turbines and
main steam system are thoroughly drained. The lubricating oil services
should be maintained until the oil return temperature indicates that the
rotors have cooled down.
5.14. SHUTTING DOWN THE MAIN MACHINERY
Procedure
1) Close the manoeuvring valves, astern guardian and bulkhead stop
valves.
2) Open the manoeuvring valve drains, check that the turbine drains are
fully open.
3) Engage the turning gear and rotate ahead continuously. If this is not
possible, turn the propeller shaft a part revolution every 5 min, lengthen-
ing the interval as the machinery cools.
4) Maintain the lubricating oil service.
5) Release the vacuum when the turning gear is engaged. Leave the main
circulating pump in use.
6) Shut down the gland steam system. Maintain reduced ejector steam to
dry out the internals.
7) When the turbines and main steam system are drained and dry shut
off the air ejector. Shut down the main circulating and condensate
pumps.
8) Maintain the lubricating oil services until the return temperatures
indicate that the rotors are cool. This will take approximately 4 to 5
hours. Towards the end of this period turning may be intermittent, say
every 15 min.
9) Stop and secure the turning gear.
10) Close the gravity tank valves and stop the lubricating oil pump.
11) For prolonged shut-down the lubricating oil coolers should be drained
on the water side. Rotate the turbines part of a revolution per day.
OPERA TING PROCEDURES 75
12) For prolonged shutdown in estuarial waters or dockside waters the

main condenser should be emptied on the sea water side, to prevent
corrosIOn.
5.15. EMERGENCY PROCEDURE FOR GETTING UNDER WAY

For an urgent start requirement when it is necessary to be under way
urgently from a normal extended notice condition or within a few hours of
shutting down, special caution is required to minimize the risk of thermal
distortion.
Procedure
1) Stop and disengage turning gear.
2) Rotate turbine rotors by gusts of steam several times in each direction.
At the same time raise vacuum slowly to 20--25 in Hg.
3) When under way raise vacuum to 28t in Hg. Spend 20--30 min at low
power (50--55 rev/min).
4) Investigate any unusual noise or vibration.
5.16. PROLONGED OPERATION AT Low POWER

In the event of prolonged running at less than about 30 rev/min, it will
be found that the turbine exhaust temperature tends to rise due to the low
efficiency at which the turbine is operating. This, combined with a high
vacuum may cause excessive differential expansion between the L.P. rotor
and casing and, in the case of an underslung condenser, cause hogging of the
cylinder due to the large temperature gradient from the top of the casing to
the main condenser flange. In the case of axial admission condensers, the
turbine hogging will be less pronounced.
Notice of this situation will be given by the differential expansion
indicators and high temperature alarms, where fitted, and the following
action should be taken.
Procedure
1) Reduce the superheat as far as possible.
2) Reduce the gland steam to a minimum.
3) Reduce the ejector steam pressure and allow vacuum to fall to 10--15 in
Hg (with attention to the low vacuum alarm).
4) If permissible, admit a series of short bursts of steam at intervals of
3-5 min or as convenient to the bridge in preference to continuous low
running.
5) On increasing power, operate at moderate power for some time (say
30 min) before increasing vacuum. This will allow the L.P. rotor to cool
off and reduce the differential expansion. Check the differential expan-
sion and casing temperature indicators regularly, if fitted.
5.17. CRASH STOPS

If "Full Astern" is signalled when proceeding at normal full speed, the
following procedure is considered to give the best stopping effect.
1) Close the ahead manoeuvring valve immediately. Alternatively, the
emergency trip can be operated and ahead valve shut, the trip then
being reset.
2) Open the astern isolating or guardian valve and then open the astern
manoeuvring valve rapidly to about one third of the boiler pressure at
the astern receiver. Hold this pressure until the shaft almost stops.
3) Increase the astern steam pressure and work up to full astern pressure
and power as rapidly as permitted by the boiler take-off, but without
racing the propeller.
4) Open the turbine drains at earliest opportunity.
5.18. TURBINE BREAKDOWN

In case either the H.P. or L.P. turbine becomes inoperative due to
vibration or other obvious sign of distress, pipe connexions are provided to
permit the faulty turbine to be disconnected and the other to operate alone.
5.18.1. H.P. Turbine Inoperative

Follow the maker's instructions for isolating the turbine, but the
following is a typical procedure.
1) Remove the coupling cover at aft end of RP. turbine and break the
connexion between turbine and pinion by removing the coupling sleeve.
2) Replace the coupling cover.
3) Close the receiver pipe from H.P. to L.P. turbine by means of the blank
provided.
4) Blank off the main steam inlet and gland steam connexions and remove
the blank from the emergency flange on the steam inlet pipe.
5) Connect the emergency steam line and restricting orifice between the
emergency flange and the emergency inlet flange provided on the L.P.
turbine inlet belt.
6) Use de-superheated steam according to the maker's instructions and
take care to avoid overheating the L.P. turbine.
5.18.2. L.P. Turbine Inoperative

Again, follow the maker's instructions, but the following is a typical
procedure.
Procedure
1) Remove the coupling cover at the aft end of the L.P. turbine and break
the connexion between turbine and pinion by removing the coupling
sleeve.
2) Remove the H.P. turbine exhaust receiver and the blank flange from
the emergency exhaust connexion to the condenser.
3) Install the emergency receiver between the H.P. turbine exhaust flange
and the condenser emergency flange.
4) Blank off the L.P. turbine inlet flange and the gland steam connexions.
5.18.3. Astern Emergency Connexions

In an installation with only one astern turbine within the L.P. casing,
it is not possible to obtain astern propulsion while the L.P. turbine is dis-
connected. However, where two astern turbines are fitted, similar emergency
piping arrangements to those described for ahead turbines are provided for
use should it become necessary to take either turbine out of service.
5.18.4. A Few Cautionary Notes are Required for Emergency Operation

Remembering always that there is an emergency situation, operate the
plant with care and deliberation. The object will be to get the ship safely to
port without further mishap, and to this end the maker's instructions about
pressure and temperature limits, power limitations, inclusion of orifices in the
pipe lines, and use of emergency waters prays where provided, should be
strictly adhered to.
6. OPERATING TROUBLES
6.1. ELECTRICAL BLACKOUT
An electrical failure may last only for several seconds, but on the other
hand, in the case of serious trouble occurring, an appreciable period of time
may elapse before emergency power is supplied or the main circuits are
restored. In the event of a sudden blackout occurring and as it is virtually
impossible to estimate the length of time the vessel will be without power for
essential services, the following procedure is recommended to avoid damag-
ing the main machinery.
6.1.1. Procedure Ahead Running

1) Close ahead manoeuvring valve immediately. Alternatively, the
emergency trip can be operated and the ahead valve closed, the trip
then being reset.
2) Open astern guardian or isolating valve, then open astern manoeuvring
valve rapidly to about one third of the boiler pressure at the astern
receiver. Hold this pressure until the main shaft stops.
3) Open turbine drains and shut bled steam valves.
4) Shut off air ejector and gland steam.
5) If electrical power has not been restored within 10 min, rotate turning
gear by hand to turn the rotors a part revolution every three minutes.
6) Steering motor should normally become available automatically with
restoration of main or emergency power but this should be checked.
7) When power is restored, supplied either by the main or emergency
generator, start up or attend to the following:
Forced lubricating oil pump;
Turning gear;
Oil fuel unit;
Forced draught fan;
Flash up the boilers;
Extraction pump;
Circulating water pump;
Electro feeder (if fitted);
Engine and boiler rooms vent fans;
Re-commission the turbo-alternator.
78
OPERATING TROUBLES 79
8) Pump up gravity tank to normal overflow level.

9) If the turbines have been stopped long enough to have cooled down the
warming through procedure should be adopted (see procedure for
shutting down main machinery).
10) With engines on turning gear raise vacuum to 508 mbar (15 in Hg).
11) Disengage turning gear and continue to raise vacuum while carrying
out steam blasting ahead and astern alternately.
12) Turn engines ahead on steam at 40 rev/min for 10 min.
13) Raise full vacuum and increase ahead revolutions.
6.2. CARRY OVER OF BOILER WATER

Carryover or priming of boiler water from the steam drum can result
in serious damage to the superheater, piping and turbines. Turbine damage
can include bent rotors and distorted discs, damaged thrust bearings, and
permanently distorted casings.
It is most important that the correct water treatment of boilers is main-
tained, and also the correct water level, particularly during manoeuvring.
Avoid, if possible, rapid changes of power, i.e. an over-rapid rate of opening
of the manoeuvring valves. Try to match the boiler rate of increase of output.
6.3. NOISE AND VIBRATION

The Operating Engineers must always be on the alert for increase in
noise level or an increase in the vibration level of the machi 'ery. This cannot
readily be observed from the control room, so occasional tours of the engine
room should be made on each watch.
The first sign of any trouble will usually be indicated by an increase in
noise, and a more precise assessment can be made by touching the bearing
housings. If the machinery is running well, the vibration felt in this way
should be very small.
However, if deterioration is gradual, it may not be easy to perceive by
these means, and no two engineers will have the same idea of acceptability.
It is better to rely on simple portable instruments for measuring noise and
vibration. Readings of vibration measured at the bearings, recorded and
compared with readings measured on trials at similar power levels, are the
best way of keeping a check on the state of the machinery. Care must be
taken, however, to ensure that such instruments are kept in good condition,
with attention to batteries and periodic calibration by experts.
The most convenient way of assessing the quality of running of machin-
ery by instrument is to measure the velocity of vibration (Ref. 23). Other
criteria are displacement of vibration and acceleration. A well balanced rotor
at full speed might exhibit a vibration velocity up to 5 mm/sec (0·2 in/sec).
Concern should be felt if the velocity exceeds 15 mm/sec (0·6 in/sec) and
speed should be reduced ifthe vibration velocity becomes as high as 25·4 mm/
sec (1 in/sec). Inevitable damage to bearing white metal will arise from
prolonged operation at this or higher levels of vibration. There is also the

possible danger of exciting blade vibration in certain rows at this level of
excitation. Figure 60 is a suggested chart for assessment of vibration accept-
ability (Ref. 24; see also Ref. 25).
OPERATING TROUBLES 81
The above values are expressed as root mean square (RMS) values,
denoting an averaged value rather than a peak value.
Vibration is usually caused by temporary distortion of the main turbine
rotors resulting in out of balance.
The following action should be adopted.
1) Reduce speed until the vibration becomes tolerable.
2) Maintain the reduced speed for 15 min.
3) Increase speed slowly and check for vibration.
4) If vibration is still present reduce speed for a further period.
5) Again increase speed slowly and recheck for vibration.
6) If vibration persists, suspect machinery damage and if conditions allow
disconnect the suspect turbine. If this turbine may not be disconnected
maintain a speed at which the vibration is tolerable.
6.3.1. Other Causes of Vibration

Out of balance effects are produced by fracture and shedding of turbine
blades. They can also be caused by fracture of coupling bolts and shedding
of bolt heads or nuts.
Vibration can also be caused by misalignment at the flexible coupling
outside the normal limits.
6.3.2. Types of Vibration

Vibration due to out of balance will be characterized by a fundamental
frequency of once per revolution or whole number multiples thereof in
decreasing severity. Out-of-balance due to a bend in the rotor might produce
an "elbowing" effect, with a principal frequency at twice per revolution, and
the vibrations at the bearings out-of-phase with each other. Vibration due
to instability in the oil film is not likely to be a problem in service, nor are
critical or whirling speeds. For an introductory discussion on these aspects
see Ref. 30.
A simple frequency measuring device, such as a reed vibrometer, is
invaluable in determining the source and severity of vibration.
7. MAINTENANCE AND ADJUSTMENT
7.1. AT SEA
A complete log of all pressures, revolutions and temperatures, should
be kept and compared, from time to time, with design and trial conditions.
Given similar weather, draught, state of hull, and general conditions,
the revolutions obtained when carrying a certain pressure on the H.P.
turbine should always be approximately the same. An increase of pressure
over that previously obtained for the same revolutions and number of
nozzle groups in use indicates that something requires attention.
In addition, the deterioration of the condition of the hull, which is a
continuing process only partly corrected by hull cleaning and painting,
requires an increase in power to maintain revolutions. This can, of course,
be checked by torsionmeter.
The change in pressure may be caused by damage to, or deposits on the
turbine blading and excessive gland wear, possibly indicating wear in a
bearing, damage to propeller, etc. It should be appreciated that a change of
pressure of 1 or 2 per cent, particularly if it continues to change in the same
direction, is usually an early indication that something is wrong. It should,
however, always be borne in mind that a pressure gauge is liable to go out
of order, and in case of doubt should be calibrated or changed.
Data should be taken as far as possible under steady steaming con-
ditions at the important operating powers. In making comparisons with
previous records, due allowance must be made for changes in bled steam
usage.
The forced lubrication system should be regularly examined to see
that the oil levels in the drain tanks are in order, whether any leakage is
taking place, or if water is collecting in the system. The oil sight fittings on
the bearings should frequently be checked in order to ascertain that oil is
flowing freely to each bearing. The temperature of the oil should be noted.
The oil pressure at the pump should be noted when starting up with
filters clean, and the pressure drop across the filters should be frequently
observed as a primary check on the condition of the filters. In any case, the
oil filter should be frequently examined and elements changed as experience
indicates.
If the oil discharge pressure is low, examine the suction strainers and
oil level in drain tank.
82
MAINTENANCE AND ADJUSTMENT 83
If the supply of oil should fail due to breakdown of the service pump, the
standby lubricating oil pump should start automatically and restore the
supply. In the case of total failure of lubricating oil, the bulkhead emergency
stop valve will close. Modern practice is that this closure will only operate
on the ahead steam, leaving astern steam available to bring the shaft to rest.
If astern braking steam is not available, the forward motion of the ship will
keep the propeller turning for 30 min or more, and will prejudice the safety
of the bearings if the oil is not available. In this event, every effort should be
made to maintain a state of oiliness in the bearings, by hand supply, during
the running down period. In the case of designs with engine driven pumps,
this situation is unlikely to arise.
Measurements should periodically be taken at the finger pieces to
verify that the rotor is in its correct position in relation to the cylinder, and
to ascertain whether wear is taking place in the thrust blocks. A differential
expansion indicator is titted for the purpose of indicating the axial position
of the rotor relative to the casing.
If the thrust failure indicators go to a state of alarm, immediate action
should be taken to reduce the steam flow and bring the turbines to rest.
7.2. IN PORT
The rotors should be turned each day-by means of the turning gear-
through about one half of a revolution of the main shaft. Oil should be run
through the bearings at the same time.
All oil strainers should be examined and cleaned where necessary. Oil
sprayers for the gearing should be removed and cleaned as experience
indicates. Oil wells in way of all bearings should be examined and cleaned,
as sediment collects in these parts.
At the first opportunity, a quantity of lubricating oil should be drawn
from the bottom of the drain tank to ascertain its condition, and if becoming
thick it should be removed. If it is still serviceable, it should be pumped into
the settling tanks and allowed to stand for at least one day or as long as
possible and then the water and sludge may be drained off to bilge. Full use
should be made of the centrifuging and treatment plant to cleanse the oil of
impurities and water. The oil should regularly be tested by an oil chemist as a
check on deterioration.
The gear case access doors should be removed at three monthly intervals
and the gearing examined for wear or deterioration, great care being taken
that no foreign bodies are allowed to fall into the gear case.
No Naked Lights must be used because of the danger of explosion.
Steam strainers should be opened out and examined annually. Before
closing them up it should not only be seen that they are clean, but it should
also be ascertained that no parts of them are liable to become detached and
carried into the turbine.
When any part of the machinery is opened up, the openings should be
immediately blanked off and so maintained until fittings are replaced, in
order to ensure that no loose materials such as waste, studs, nuts, wood
blocks, etc. are allowed to enter tl "I king parts.
Bridge gaugings of all tm L bearings should be taken at yearly
intervals to ascertain the actual wear down, and the particulars so obtained
should be noted for further reference and guidance. The oil clearance of the
adjusting blocks should also be checked to see that no undue wear has
taken place in the blocks. Any black markings on the pads should be viewed
with suspicion.
Flexible couplings should be examined to ensure that they are receiving
ample lubrication, that they have their full designed fore and aft play and
that they are free to move. '1he couplings are normally fitted with tooth
back-lash of 0·2544)·381 mm (10-15 thousandths of an inch). Much larger
clearances are not necessarily detrimental but a watch should be kept for
signs of rapidly increasing back-lash. Inspection of the teeth should be done
at three monthly intervals, and signs of surface deterioration reported.
7.3. OPENING UP OF TURBINES

The opening up of any turb ••,,, . "'''!lures expert attention and should not
normally be carried out by ship's staff.
Before opening up, the listed drawings and operating instructions
should be examined carefully to see whether the lift is clear, and to ascertain
the correct procedure.
7.3.1. Procedure
The inner Cel .gs of some L.P. turbines are arranged to lift with the
outer casings and require the removal of all internal joint nuts.
The guide columns for use when lifting should be screwed into place.
Before lifting L.P. top halves, the top, bottom, and side tip clearances of the
last ahead moving blades should be checked.
Starting screws are fitted and should be made use of until the joint is
clearly open. Care must be taken that the cover is lifted equally at all corners,
the guide columns being graduated for this purpose.
When the cover has been lifted and propped up by the support columns,
the side tip clearances of the rotor blades should be measured to ascertain
whether the rotor is central in the turbine casing, and leads taken of the
bottom clearances as a check on bridge gauge readings.
Palms, keys, etc. should be inspected for positive signs of free movement
arising from thermal expansion.
To lift the rotor, remove the bearing and thrust block keeps. Fix into
place the rotor guide columns and lift rotor until clear of the bearing. Take
care that the rotor is lifted evenly. When high enough, place the cotters
provided for supporting the rotor in the guide columns and lower the rotor
into place.
The blading of casings and rotors may now be readily examined, Special
care should be taken to ascertain whether there are any cracked blades,
MAINTENANCE
ANDADJUSTMENT 85
loose or distorted shroud bands, signs of casing rubs, gland and diaphragm
rubs, foreign bodies, etc.
The gland strips should be carefully examined for freedom of movement
and a check should be made to see that all drain holes and connexions are
clear.
The cylinder and all pockets should be searched for foreign matter, and
all dirt, scraps of jointing, etc. which may have fallen into the cylinder casing
should be cleaned out.
Remove the bottom half of the rotor bearings and thrust bearing and
clean out all oil wells and passages, taking care not to force any dirt into the
oil supply connexions.
7.3.2. List of Drawings to be referred to when opening up Main Machinery
for Overhaul
The procedures to be carried out when overhauling and lifting main
machinery items should normally be detailed on the following typical
dra wings:
Arrangement of main engine lifting gear;
H.P. turbine rotor lifting guides;
H.P. turbine arrangement and details of inner casing guide brackets;
L.P. turbines tie plate for lifting top half casing;
Details of lifting guides and support columns for L.P. turbine;
Main engine lifting gear-details of shackles, slings, etc;
Arrangement and details of lifting gear for primary wheels;
Arrangement and details of lifting gear for primary wheels and secondary
pInIOns;
Removal of main wheel bearing keeps and covers.
Note: Attention should be paid to the instruction plates on the turbines
which indicate the positions of any internal bolts which must be removed
before lifting the top half casings.
It is imperative that the relevant drawings be consulted before any part
of the main machinery is lifted or removed from the ship and that the slings
labelled for each lift be used only for the appropriate lift.
7.4. RE-ASSEM/JL Y OF TURBINES

1) First, replace the bottom half bearings and thrust blocks, and secure
them in position by set screws. When replacing the set screws care
should be taken to ensure that their heads are below the surface of the
joint, otherwise oil leakage might take place through the joint.
2) Thoroughly clean the rotor and then lower into the bearings, fit the
adjusting gear and adjust as described below.
3) Lower the cover into place taking care that it is lowered evenly.
4) All bolts should be replaced in the same position from which they were
taken, according to the number stamped on them, and care should be
taken whilst tightening them to see that the nuts are gradually hardened
up in the specified rotation and to the required tightening angle.
At the same time, the axial clearances between blade shrouding and
nozzle segments should be checked and, similarly, the clearance between
rows of reaction blading.
Reference should be made to the schedule of clearances supplied with
the installation, which shows final clearances as taken after shop test run.
With the double casing design the rotor position is fixed by the rotor
thrust block situated in the outer casing. When the turbine is running, the
rotor is hotter than the outer casing and expands relative to the casing so
that the end remote from the thrust blocks extends out of the casing by the
amount of this differential expansion.
The clearances are designed to accommodate this with a suitable
margin, but in some cases it is necessary to arrange the position of the gland
strips off-centre from the gland collars in the cold condition. Such setting
of the glands will be noted on the turbine basis plans and should be adhered
to when any work is done on the glands.
If any correction is necessitated by wear of the turbine block the rotor
should be drawn hard forward and a gauge reading taken at the finger piece.
Should the reading not correspond to the given reading, the rotor should be
moved aft and the adjusting block keeps removed and new liners of suitable
thickness fitted at the forward end of the block.
If necessary, the after liners should now be corrected in thickness to give
an oil clearance of 0·254--0·381mm (1(}-15thousandths of an inch). The type
of adjusting gear supplied is shown in Fig. 62 and comprises a screw jack
device which may be set up on the forward pedestal of the L.P. turbine and
the after pedestal of the H.P. turbine. The purpose of the gear is to enable
the rotor to be moved positively through small distances in the fore and aft
direction for the purpose of adjusting axial clearances, etc. as above.
7.6. BRIDGE GAUGES AND THEIR USE

Bridge gauges are provided for the purpose of ascertaining the wear
down of the bearings.
Figure 63 illustrates the normal type of gauge.
feelers are inserted to determine the amount of wear. Label plates are
stamped with the clearances observed on assembly of the turbine in the shop.
Checking gauges are furnished with the bridge gauges to determine any
change in the gauges. The pin lengths are the lengths from the gauge pin to
a flat checking table.
Great care should be observed in the storage, handling and use of these
gauges in view of their importance.
When using the gauge, the faces of the turbine or gear case should be
carefully cleaned and wiped free of all grit; the base of the gauge should also
be wiped to ensure that no grit is adhering.
After re-metaIling the bearings, a bridge gauge is used to ensure that
the rotor is placed in its correct position relative to the turbine casing. This
will be so when tQe bridge gauge reading of each bearing taIlies with that
taken when the machinery was new.
The bridge gauge can only be used to verify the accuracy of the setting
of the pinion bearings after remetaIling. To ensure that the position of the
pinion in the bearings is always approximately the same the gearing should
be rotated in the ahead direction before readings are taken.
The direction of the resultant load on gear wheel and pinion bearings
diverges from the horizontal and vertical centrelines. Consequently, measure-
ment of wear by means of bridge gauges would not be reliable especially in
the case of bearings where the load normally acts in an upward direction.
In the case of gear bearings it is therefore necessary that bridge gauge
readings be supplemented by measurements made by means of leads. The
leads should be applied to the top half of the journal and should extend
round as far as practicable.
All bearings are originally bored out slightly larger than the journal to
provide the necessary running oil clearance. The amount of wear on the
bearing will therefore be obtained by deducting the thickness of the original
oil clearance from the thickness of the leads taken from the bearings.
7.7. TEST GLANDS

Test glands are supplied for use when testing the cylinder or condenser
under water pressure. They consist of a steel band and a soft split rubber ring
of suitable section. The rubber ring is fitted round the rotor at the outer end
of the gland at each end of turbine and the steel band is then tightened up on
the rubber ring making a watertight joint between the rotor and casing. The
arrangement is clearly shown in Fig. 64.
7.8. EARTHING BRUSHES

Earthing brushes (Fig. 65) are fitted to Pametrada turbines with the
object of providing a leakage path for stray electrostatic current generated
by the flow of wet steam through the turbine passages. It is important to
ensure that there is a satisfactory electrical connection in order to avoid the
possibility of pitting damage to the turbine bearings.
7.9. EMERGENCY STEAMING CONNEXIONS

In case the high or low pressure turbine of either set becomes inoper-
ative, pipe connexions, orifices and special fittings are provided to permit
the inoperative turbine to be disconnected and the other to be placed in
operation alone. The drawing of emergency steaming connexions should be
referred to.
The purpose of the orifice to be placed in the H.P. exhaust line, ahead
and astern, is to maintain the exhaust pressure and thus safeguard the last
stage against excessive pressure drop.
The purpose of the orifice in the L.P. ,inlet branch, ahead and astern, is
to reduce the inlet pressure with maximum steam flow, and ensure that
eJl,cessive torques do not arise in the transmission under emergency con-
ditions.
If the L.P. turbine is taken out of service, the rotor should be discon-
nected from the pinion by removing the sleeve of the flexible coupling shown
in Fig. 66. The cover should then be replaced.
In the designs with single casing L.P. turbines, a bypass pipe is provided
to lead the exhaust from the H.P. turbine to the condenser. A blanking plate
has to be fitted over the L.P. inlet. In double casing L.P. turbines, a different
arrangement is possible and the drawings should be referred to.
The appropriate orifice must be fitted in the H.P. ahead exhaust line and
similar arrangements are made for the H.P. astern exhaust, with its orifice in
place.
If the H.P. turbine is taken out of service, the flexible coupling should
be disconnected, the steam supply to and exhaust from H.P. ahead and
astern turbines blanked off, and the restriction orifices fitted at the inlet end
of the L.P. emergency steam supply pipes. The water spray fittings should
be connected up for the L.P. ahead turbine.
When either turbine is taken out of service, the gland steam connexions
must also be blanked off.
7.10. GEARING MAINTENANCE

Caution: Oil vapour is present at all times in the gear cases, and every
precaution against explosion should accordingly be taken whenever work
is done on or around the gear units.
7.10.1. Introduction
The gear teeth should be inspected at regular and frequent intervals
through the handholes in the casing, taking great care that only one handhole
be open at a given time and this be closed as soon as possible and before the
next is opened.
Burred or roughened tooth surfaces may be honed but this should only
be done under expert supervision.
It is important that gearing should be given a running-in period in
service before full load is applied, both when gearing is new and after any
work has been done on the teeth. The duration of this period should, within
reason, be as long as possible, and no severe manoeuvring be carried out
during it.
The flexible couplings should be examined at least four times a year
and cleaned as necessary, since accumulated sludge will seriously impair
their flexibility and their lubrication. (This does not apply to diaphragm type
couplings, which are sometimes fitted.)
The oil sprays should be inspected regularly and the spray nozzles
should be cleaned at the slightest evidence of obstruction. The importance
of keeping these nozzles open cannot be emphasized too strongly.
7.10.2. Dismantling of Gearing

Caution: The propeller shafting must be locked rigidly before any
bearing of the reduction gear is opened up.
Extreme care should be exercised in the dismantling operations to
avoid bruising or otherwise marring the finely finished surfaces of the gear
teeth, journals and bearings. Slings should be well padded with thick cloth.
When the casings are open care should be taken to keep out dirt and other
foreign substances.
Lifting gear supplied by the manufacturers should be used. The dummy
bearings for use in supporting the rotors when the journal bearings are out
should be sild into p;acc und':;i WtO ~n..•/t juurnals as the lower halves of the
bearings are slid out, and they should be well oiled before they are used in
order to guard against scoring of the shaft journals.
The thrust bearings can be completely dismantled without the need for
disturbing any part of the gear assembly other than the bearing housings
and the bearing itself.
7.10.3. Re-assembly of Gearing

Before commencing re-assembly, it should be definitely ascertained that
the interiors of the casings are clean, that all tools or other foreign objects
which may have found their way into the casing have been removed. The
gears, bearings and other parts should be inspected carefully, cleaned and
painted with marking as described below before they are re-assembled, and
the metalled surfaces of the bearings should be well oiled.
of the gears before the gears are run. The marking should be of oilproof type
and not transfer marking, e.g. Tudor Blue is suitable.
In addition to providing evidence of the meshing accuracy on first
installation this permanent marking provides a ready means of observing
that no misalignment has arisen due to gear case distortion, bearing wear,
etc. in subsequent operation.
A permanent record can be retained for future reference by uplifting the
marking by means of transparent adhesive tape and transferring it to plain
white paper.
7.11. LUBRICATION
The life and reliability of the installation depends on good lubrication.
The oil pressure at the bearings should be not less than 0·7 bar (to
lbjin2). The oil temperature should be from 46-49°C (115 to 120°F) at inlet
to the bearings, sprayers, etc. If it is too low, the temperature in the drain
tank will also be too low, and any water which may have entered the lubri-
cating system will not be precipitated. If it is too high, the life of the oil may
be shortened by excessive oxidation. The temperature of oil leaving the
bearings should not normally exceed 89°C (180°F), but it should be empha-
sized that the bearing white metal surface shells themselves may be at a
considerably higher temperature with safety.
Water carried in suspension in the oil causes corrosion offerrous parts
such as bearing journals and gear teeth, and also lowers th~ lubricating value
of the oil. Salt water emulsifies fairly readily with lubricating oil. Fresh water
is more easy to separate from oil.
Care must therefore be taken that no salt water enters the oil via leaks
in the oil coolers. In operation the oil pressure will normally be higher than
the sea water pressure and the tendency will be for oil to be lost to the sea;
but when shut down, the reverse will take place and dangerous quantities
of salt water may enter the lubricating system.
As a precautionary measure, the water in the oil cooler should be drained
if the machinery is idle for a long period, and the drain cocks should be left
open. To check for leaks the oil pump should be started with the oil cooler
in this condition. Should leaks be present, oil will drip from the drain cocks.
Any such leak should be remedied immediately.
Other means by which water may enter the oil are leakage of steam from
glands into bearings (which ought to be eliminated by the proper use of the
glands condenser) and inevitable condensation from the atmosphere.
The oil treatment plant and purifiers provided will largely eliminate the
accumulation of significant amounts of water and sludge in the system.
Any deficiency of oil due to evaporation and leakage should be made
up from a clean oil storage tank.
Full flow filters should be checked daily, and the elements replaced
whenever the pressure drop exceeds the limiting figure. Attention should be
paid to the nature of the dirt filtered out. 'is this may be the first clue to
developing trouble.
The physical properties of a typical oil suitable for the turbines and
gears of a marine installation are given below.
Viscosity 82-92 cSt at 38°C (lOO°F).

8·2 cSt (min.) at 99°C (210°F).
Specific Gravity 0·88 to 0·92
Viscosity Index 50 (min.)
Pour Point - 7°C ( + 20°F)(max.)
Flash Point 166°C (330°F)(min.)
Demulsification No. 300 (max.)
Miscellaneous tests The oil must show no corrosion in a copper strip
test, must pass a foaming test, a 48 hour salt water
corrosion test at 60°C (140°F) on steel after
washing the oil with water, and an oxidation test.
Inorganic acidity Nil.
Organic acidity (max.) 0·20 mg/g KOH
7.12. CONDENSER MAINTENANCE AND DEFECTS

The most important defects in the machinery operation which can be
attributed to the condenser are, sudden and serious loss of vacuum, a gradual
but slight deterioration in vacuum and an increase in feed water salinity.
7.12.1. Sudden Loss of Vacuum

This will most probably ar i:;e from the incidence of an air leakage, but
could also be due to a rapid, though unlikely, reduction in the cooling water
rate or to deterioration in air ejector performance.
Sources of leakage which should be investigated are the small bore
piping connexions between the condenser and the kenotometer and defects
in any of the joints on the pads and flanges mounted on the condenser casing.
a) Cooling Water Circulation

Failure of the pump or even uncontrolled partial reduction in the
cooling water flow rate is not considered a normal hazard but block-
age has been known to occur due to weeds or polythene sheeting.
Vacuum will deteriorate rapidly if the flow rate is not maintained and
this condition may normally be detected by a substantial increase in
the cooling water temperature rise across the condenser. In systems
where, under steady operating conditions, the cooling water rate is
automatically controlled to maintain the vacuum at a predetermined
value, any sudden failure or involuntary reduction of sea water
circulation will be recorded by alarm signal.
b) Air Ejector
Failure of the air ejector will most likely be due to reduction in the
flow of driving steam to th,~ejt ·:lor nozzles. '"nce efficient perform-
ance of an air ejector is inherently somewhat critical for a particular

design duty, partial blockage of the nozzles due to small flakes of
scale or other material can curtail performance sufficiently to result
in serious loss of vacuum.
7.12.2. Gradual Deterioration of Vacuum

Gradual, though slight deterioration of vacuum over a relatively long
period, is almost certainly due to reduction of the heat transfer rate between
the cooling water and the tubes. This arises from a slow build up of deposits
which foul the inside tube surface. The rate of fouling will mainly depend on
the sea trade route. If such condition is suspected, the tubes may be brushed
using nylon bristles. The frequency at which attention is given must be
largely governed by experience.
7.12.3. Salinity of Feed Water

If the degree of feed water salinity exceeds the permissible amount, a
leakage of sea water into the steam side of the condenser may be suspected.
Leakage can occur due to tube rupture caused by erosion and by failure
of tube end packing rings if fitted. Tube erosion is usually most severe near
to the water entry end of the tube, but may not be easily detected without
water test. Tubes which are known to be damaged may be temporarily
plugged, pending replacement at the earliest opportunity.
7.12.4. Additional Inspection and Maintenance

In addition to the foregoing possible defects arising during service,
routine inspection inside the water boxes should be carried out by examina-
tion of the tube plate for signs of tube or tube packing failure and erosion
pitting of the tube plate surface.
One should also examine the mild steel anti-corrosion plates. In the
case of fabricated mild steel water boxes, which are protected by rubber
lining, an excessive rate of wastage may be due to a defect in the rubber
lining. The plates should be cleaned of corrosion products and organic
growth every 3 to 4 months. They should be replaced if they reduce to
50 per cent of the original size.
The rubber lining of the water boxes and doors should be checked to
ensure that it-shows no signs of having "lifted off" the parent metal and that
it has not ruptured. Any such defects should be rectified at the earliest
opportunity. The same remarks apply to epoxy coatings. Remove sludge
accumulation from water boxes.
7.12.5. Ferrous Sulphate Protection

The beneficial effect of the anti-corrosion plates is increased by dosing
the cooling water with ferrous sulphate (5 ppm equivalent to 4·5 kg (101b)
per 909 200 I (200 000 gal of cooling water) injected as a solution under
minimum flow conditions, for one hour, once per week (Ref. 26).
8. PAPERS FOR FURTHER STUDY
8.1. ADVANCES IN STEAM TURBINES FOR MARINE PROPULSION
A. D. Somes (General Electric Co.) (Ref. 10).
This paper considers advances in the design and construction of steam
turbines up to 1959, and is of particular interest because it gives information
on what was then a new philosophy on rotor critical speeds for marine
applications.
8.2. THE INFLUENCE OF THERMAL EFFECTS ON THE MANOEUVRABILITY OF

MARINE TURBINE MACHINERY
B. J. Terrell (Pametrada) (Ref. 20).
This paper discusses the peculiar requirements of marine turbine
machinery during manoeuvring, when changes of temperature raise prob-
lems. It records some of the fundamental thinking which tried to quantify
the thermal effects (such as differential expansion and distortion) and the
stresses induced during the warming through process. The theoretical
figures are substantiated by test results. There is a good discussion with
further useful information.
8.3. MARINE STEAM TURBINE DESIGN AND OPERATION

A. F. Veitch (Pametrada) (Ref. 22).
The first part of this paper is concerned with the design aspects of
marine turbines, and recounts some of the dilemmas facing the turbine
designer and reasons for their particular solutions. It compares earlier
Pametrada designs (1952) with later higher temperature designs (1960), and
gives details of the Prototype I machinery which operated at 55 bar (800
Ib/in2 g) and 557°C (1035°F). It then gives advice on operation- of marine
turbines. There is an interesting discussion.
PAPERS FOR FURTHER STUDY 97
Llangorse turbines. Trials of hydraulic transmission and boiler commission-

ing trials are also described and the paper concludes with the trials of
machinery for the British Bombardier. In each case, the requirements of the
trials, some of the findings and the developments of special instruments are
described. Arising from this, general findings are given as to warming through
and control of turbine machinery during rapid transient conditions caused
by manoeuvring requirements. This paper is full of useful information and
also has a useful discussion.
8.5. PAMETRADA STANDARD TURBINES, PRESENT POSITION AND FUTURE

OUTLOOK
R. Coats (Pametrada) (Ref. 6).
This paper by the present author describes what at that time was the
recently introduced Standard Range of Pametrada turbine machinery.
Many of the illustrations are included in this Part and show soundly based
designs now in successful service. It records that 447 ships having Pametrada
machinery totalling 5 594470 kW (7 100000 shp) had gone into service since
1944. The paper includes information on measured steam rate from test bed
trials, the effect of using a vacuum higher than design, and gains from using
reheat. There is a most useful and informative discussion.
8.6. 30000 SHP UNITIZED REHEAT STEAM TURBINE PROPULSION

T. B. Hutchison (Esso Petroleum) (Ref. 33).
Drawing attention to the increasing size and power demand of tankers,
this paper compares the thermal efficiency then achievable in power station
machinery with the lower values achieved in marine applications. It pro-
pounds that "unitized" design of the complete power plant is the right way
to achieve better efficiency and greater reliability. The author's definition of
unitization is "the optimization of requirement, the design of equipment to
meet that requirement and the full and exclusive employment of the equip-
ment for the single purpose intended".
The paper also draws attention to the gains to be expected from using
low speed, large diameter propellers, the use of scoop circulation for the main
condenser, and gains to be expected from even higher steam inlet and reheat
conditions. It is a well presented and useful paper, supported by operational
and research experience, and every junior engineer would derive great
benefit from reading it.
8.7. MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED STEAM CONDITIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE

ON OPERATION OF MARINE TURBINE AND BOILERS
H. E. C. Hims and S. H. Frederick (Pametrada) (Ref. 34).
The first half of this paper discusses the metallurgical problems associ-
ated with the selection of materials and their fabrication in manufacture.
The second half is devoted to the effects of such materials on operation,
covering most points between the first admission of steam to an installation
and the end of the cooling down period after operation. Both parts contain
most useful background information-including sections on distortion and
on cylinder joint bolt tightening-up stresses-which every operating engineer
would find most useful.
8.8. Northern Star: EVOLUTION AND OPERATION

G. S. Jackson and C. Winyard (Shaw Savill) (Ref. 7).
This paper is a description of the evolution of a high class passenger
liner, its machinery and equipment, and its service operation during its first
five round-the-world voyages. A detailed description of the main turbine
propulsion machinery is given, together with details of the heat balance
diagram, closed feed system, electrical installation, lighting system and air
conditioning machinery. The operational part of the paper gives detailed
information on the unfortunate H.P. turbine thrust failures which occurred
on two separate occasions.
The investigations and remedial measures taken make very interesting
reading. The failures were shown to be part of a pattern which afflicted the
marine industry at about this time. These proved to be due mainly to the
growing use of oils containing extreme pressure additives, some of which
were not compatible with the thrust collar and pad materials under adverse
conditions, e.g. the presence of a foreign particle between the working
surfaces. The discussion to this paper really started the public debate on this
machining type thrust failure.
8.9. MARINE TURBINE THRUSTS

R. Coats (Pametrada) (Ref. 14).
This paper records the case histories of ten engines affected by severe
thrust collar wear (one of which was of the Northern Star mentioned above),
reviews the general design aspects of the problem, and discusses the influence
of types of oil and cleanliness of oil systems. It discusses the possibility of
cavitation being the common link connecting the troubles, associated in
some way with the more general use of extreme pressure oils. It concludes
that the most important factor leading to the severe form of damage illustra-
ted is the use of extreme pressure oils, associated with cavitation arising from
turbulence due to the presence of dirt, inadequate oil supply pressure or
local reduction in oil pressure due to the complex flow conditions within the
block.
The paper is well illustrated with examples of the type of failure and
there is an excellent discussion.
8.10. ENGINEERING TESTS FOR MARINE TURBINE LUBRICATING OILS

R. F. Darling and T. Isherwood (B.S.R.A.) (Ref. 15).
Drawing attention to the universal practice of providing a common oil
supply for lubricating both turbines and reduction gearing, this paper
reports on engineering tests which were developed ill Pametrada and B.S.R.A.
for evaluating the suitability of lubricating oils. This had particular reference
to some scuffing troubles which occurred in double reduction gearing in the
immediate post war years.
Much useful information is recorded giving comparative performance
of through hardened combinations, and case hardened gears, and also for a
standard OM100 specification oil and various extreme pressure oils. Cor-
relation between such tests and full scale reduction gears is shown to be good.
The second part of the paper is devoted to tests for propensity to
machining type thrust failures, using a full scale bearing test machine. The
test results are freely recorded and there are good illustrations of the typical
damage to the white metal surfaces. The conclusions are that the propensity
to machining type failure is a characteristic of the combination of lubricating
oil and thrust collar material, the oil being the preponderant factor.
There is a full and interesting discussion which should be of interest to
all operating engineers.
8.11. MARINE STEAM TURBINES AND THEIR .LUBRICA TION

G. H. Clark (Burmah Oil Trading Ltd.) (Ref. 16).
A most useful review of recent practice and operating experience with
marine turbines, with particular reference to the lubricating aspects of the
turbines and gearing. Interesting information is given on gearing defects
(covering tooth fracture, pitting, scuffing and other forms of wear), on corro-
sion of white metal, and with further information on thrust bearing failures.
8.12. MARINE STEAM TURBINES-SOME POINTS OF DESIGN AND OPERATION

K. M. B. Donald (Lloyd's Register of Shipping) (Ref. 24).
This paper stresses the importance of reliability in marine turbines and
mentions most of the defects which have ever given trouble-blade erosion,
blade fouling with deposits, gland rubbing, blade tip rubbing, blockage of
drains, lacing wire brazing failure, thermal shock effects, horizontal joint
warpage and consequent leakage, effect of hull deflections and machinery
misalignment, blade and disc vibrations, and rotor vibration. There is a
valuable section on the balancing of flexible rotors, a description of what
happens. theoretically when passing through a critical speed, and of the
modal balancing technique. There is also a section on vibration limits in
marine turbines, and a chart relating measured vibration levels to acceptable
or unacceptable criteria.
8.13. VIBRATION DIAGNOSIS IN MARINE GEARED TURBINES

H. G. Yates (first Chief Designer of Pametrada) (Ref. 23).
This paper, delivered in 1949, is a classic which should be read by anyone
interested in understanding more about the fundamentals of vibration and
how the causes can be diagnosed. Special instruments and techniques
devised for this purpose are described, together with simpler instruments of
pocket size.
8.14. BLADE FAILURES IN THE H.P. TURBINES OF R.M.S. Queen Elizabeth 2

AND THEIR RECTI FICA TION
R. Fleeting and R. Coats (Ref. 39).
The H.P. turbines of Queen Elizabeth 2 both suffered from blade failures
on the proving voyage prior to acceptance by the owners.
The failures were recognized to be due to fatigue and investigations
took place to establish the cause. The paper records the history of the
operation of the engines up to lhe lime of failure, which had included trials
up to the fuII power of 82 027 kW (110 000 shp) and reports on the damage
sustained.
It reviews the blade vibration aspects, establishing the theoretical
backgound and discussing the response to external and steam excitation.
The rectification of the fault by a redesign, incorporating a binding wire,
is described.
This paper must be of considerable interest to anyone interested in the
design and operation of steam tal Oli!" machinery. Necessarily, the treatment
of the vibration problem is very techmcal, but there is a useful correlation
between the theoretical treatment and the practical results. There are many
helpful diagrams and photographic illustrations, with an interesting dis-
cussion and the paper is recommended for detailed study.
8.15. MARINE BEARINGS

A. Rose (MichelI Bearings) (Ref. 26).
Although this excelJent paper is essentially on design, it wilJ be of great
value to the operating engineer in giving him an understanding of the
principles of operation.
WelJ established methods are given for calculating film thickness and
power losses of fluid film hen rings, and nomograms and charts are given to
facilitate this. These meli,. ,;"er plain journal bearings as welJ as three
pad half bearings and six pad fulJ bearings.
Methods and a chart are given for determination of oil film thickness,
power loss, oil flow and temperature rise in the oil.
There is a section on high speed bearings as used for turbines, which
discusses the difference between zero speed oil flow and maximum speed
hydro dynamic flow, and gi-ves methods for calculation.
Design criteria are given for turbine thrust bearings, and an interesting
curve is given showing the effect of various degrees of misalignment on
thrust pad pressures.
There are good descriptions on the various types of bearing failures,

covering wiping of white metal, electrical damage, fatigue, machining type
as previously discussed, and tin oxide corrosion.
There is also a helpful section on materials and manufacture, including
the specialized business of white-metalling bearings.
As usual, there is a most useful discussion and correspondence which
add to the value of the paper.
8.16. M.S.T. 14, A PROTOTYPE FOR MARINE STEAM TURBINE PROPULSION

SYSTEMS
J. W. Mann (GEC) (Ref. 4).
This paper describes the General Electric Co. 1965 steam plant designed
to meet the marine industry's need for ratings between 14914 and 37 285 kW
(20000 and 50000 shp) and includes the application of reheat, shaft driven
auxiliaries and other advanced concepts. In designing this plant, a key
parameter was low specific fuel consumption without compromising the
ease of maintenance and reliability of the plant.
8.17. RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN FOR MARINE PROPULSION

GEARED STEAM TURBINES
K. Brownlie and I. T. Young (English Electric-AEI) (Ref. 28).
This review of turbine and gearing developments also makes reference
to detail design features included in the marine propulsion sets of the
company's design and manufacture. This is the only British firm now
designing and manufacturing marine steam turbines. The paper refers to
the single cylinder steam turbine for moderate powers, and the extension to
higher powers by the use of multi exhausts for the last two stages. Information
is given on erosion of low pressure end blades and reference is made to the
attachment of erosion shields by electron beam welding. There is also a
description of turbine control equipment and the partially pressure balanced,
single seat venturi type manoeuvring valves.
The rest of the paper is devoted to gearing developments.
8.18. THERMAL STRAIGHTENING OF TURBINE ROTORS

H. G. Yates (Pametrada) (Ref. 35).
This paper gives an excellent explanation of the way in which a rotor
develops a permanent bend as the result of interference between the shaft
and the gland strip or any other stationary part.
The rest of the paper is devoted to the thermal straightening processes
which can be judiciously applied to rotors which have suffered such a
permanent bend, a process of considerable interest, but one which should
properly be left to the expert.
102 MARINEENGINEERINGPRACTICE
8.19. MITSUBISHI ~AR'NE STEAMTURBINE

Mitsubishi Heavy 1Ildu:;lries Ltd. (Ref. 36).
This excellent brochure describes the full range of Mitsubishi Escher
Wyss Turbines, of the power range 7457kW (IOOOOshp) (MT-lOO) to
2~828kW (40000shp) (MT-400). It is well illustrated with pictures of
completed machines and major components at various manufacturing
stages.
8.20. A 36000 SHP MARINE STEAMTURBINE WITH MAIN TURBINE DRIVEN

AUXILIARIES
S. Yamate (Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.) (Ref. 37).
This paper describes the 26845 kW (36000 shp) at 90 rev/min steam
turbine propulsion unit built for a mammoth tanker.
There is an interesting table showing the fluctuation in propeller revolu-
tions measured in a 156500 dwt tanker at sea.
8.20.1. Recent Developments of Marine Turbine Technology in Japan:
Section 2, Steam Turbines (Ref. 38).
Information is given of recent developments in marine steam turbine
machinery and a table summarizes the particulars for three different types
of reheat cycle plant IHI R-804, Kawasaki UR and Mitsubishi MR. There
are illustrations of recent installations.
8.21. DEVELOPMENTOF A JAPANESE DESIGN OF MARINE STEAM TURBINE

PLANT
Y. Takeda (Kawasaki) (Ref. 31).
This paper records the progress of Kawasaki marine steam turbines and
gives a great deal of useful material which forms the background of this
development. There is a useful discussion with examples of blade failures due
to corrosion, splitting and cracking.
8.22. DEVELOPMENTSIN MARINE STEAMTURBINE DESIGN

T. W. F. Brown (Ref. 30).
This paper discusses the necessity for research as a means of refining
design. Many lines of research can be actively pursued which in the aggregate
lead to great improvement in reliability and economy at any temperature
level. There are good illustrations of Pametrada practice for both steam
turbines and gearing, but the most interesting section of the paper is the
description of research work which led to changes in the detailed design-
such as in welded diaphragms, flexible couplings including the effect on co-
efficients of friction of different surface treatments, through hardened and
surface hardened gears, hydraulic reversing transmission, blade windage,
turbine distortion, and L.P. blading and erosion shields. There is an inter-
esting section on the whirling of rotors and oil whip (or oil whirl), the name
given to a certain type of vibration sometimes experienced by a rotor running
in oil-film bearings.
REFERENCES 103
Since this paper was written considerable advances have been made in
the certainty of the bearing oil film effect and the pedestal flexibility effect
which enable such calculations to be carried out with assurance.
8.23. MARINE MACHINERY FAILURES

B. K. Batten (Lloyd's Register) (Ref. 32).
In common with most accounts of failures, this paper is of great interest,
and includes a few items relating to turbines, gears and clutches. There is a
good illustration of a blade fatigue failure in way of a lacing wire when the
blades were of chrome stainless steel while the wire was non-magnetic
austenitic stainless steel.
There is also information on a bent H.P. rotor and a fracture in way of a
separate shrunk-on thrust collar due to fretting and bending fatigue.
The discussion adds greatly to the value of the paper, in giving further
examples of machinery failures. Also in the discussion is an illustration of a
triple reduction gear arrangement of the Stal-Laval/W. H. Allen design.
REFERENCES
I. "Advanced Propulsion Systems". 1968. Stal-Laval Publication.
2. Jung, I. 1969. "Steam Turbine Machinery". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 81,
pp. 137-161.
3. "MST 13 Marine Steam Power Plant for Turbine Driven Tanker".
1962. General Electric Company (USA) Publication.
4. Mann, J. W. 1969. "MST 14-A Prototype for Marine Steam Propul-
sion Systems". Proc. IMAS 69, Section 4d, pp. 24-35.
5. "Pametrada Geared Turbines". 1966. Pametrada Publication.
6. Coats, R. 1965. "Pametrada Standard Turbines, Present Position and
Future Outlook". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 77, pp. 327-352.
7. Jackson, G. S. and Winyard, C. 1964. "Northern Star: Evolution and
Operation". Trans. /. Mar. E. Vol. 76, pp. 229-265.
8. Brown, T. W. F. 1957. "Propulsion of Ships by Steam Turbine
Machinery". De Laval Memorial Lecture.
9. General Electric Company. 1972."Marine Propulsion Steam Turbines".
First International State of the Art Seminar.
10. Somes, A. D. 1959. "Advances in Steam Turbines for Marine Propul-
sion". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 71, pp. 211-232.
II. Coats, R. 1971. "Modem Marine Steam and Gas Turbines". MER
Dec., pp. 14-20.
12. Brown, J. F. C. and Goundry, E. E. 1967. "Bearing Whitemetal
Corrosion-An Electrochemical Explanation". B.S.R.A. Report NS
153.
13. Landsdown, A. R. and Hurricks. P. L. 1973. "Interaction of Lubricants

and Materials". Trans. /. Mar E Vol. 85, pp. 157-168.
14. Coats, R. 1965 "Marine Turbin" Thrusts". Trans. NECIES Vol. 81,
pp. 305-338.
15. Darling, R. F. and Isherwood, T. 1967. "Engineering Tests for Marine
Turbine Lubricating Oils". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 79, pp. 25-50.
16. Clark, G. H. 1973. "Marine Steam Turbines and their Lubrication".
MER Jan., pp. 17-20; Feb., pp. 35-40; March, pp. 31-34.
17. Quinlan, J. J. and McAllister, F. G. 1971. "The Case for Condensate
Filtration in Marine Steam PC'wef Plants". MER Sept., pp. 20--21.
18. Gilbert, P. T. 1970. "Corrosion Problems in Condensers and Heat
Exchanges". MER July, pp. 6-10.
19. Ashworth, J. L., Hall, J. S. and Gray, A. H. 1954. "The Electrical
Measurement of Steam Turbine Rotor Movements, with Special
Reference to the Operation and Design of Modern Power Plant".
Proc. J.E.E. Vol. 102A, pp. 131-146.
20. Terrell, B.J. 1954."The Influence of Thermal Effects on the Manoeuver-
ability of Marine Machinery". Trans. NECIES Vol. 71, pp. 51-66.
21. Brown, T. W. F. 1963. "Shore Trials of Marine Steam Turbine Machin-
ery". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 75, pp. 261-296.
22. Veitch, A. F. 1961. "Marine Steam Turbine Design and Operation".
Trans. NECIES Vol. 77, pp. 225-248.
23. Yates, H. G. 1949. "Vibration Diagnosis in Marine Geared Turbines".
Trans. NECIES Vol. 65, pp. 225-262.
24. Donald, K. M. B. 1973. "Marine Steam Turbines-Some Points of
Design and Operation". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 85, pp. 25-50.
25. Carmody, T. 1972. "The Measurement of Vibration as a Diagnostic
Tool". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 84, pp. 147-159.
26. Stal-Laval. 1968. "The Treatment of Condenser Cooling Water by
Ferrous Sulphate".
27. Rose, A. 1967. "Marine Bearings". Trans. /. Mar. E. Vol. 79, pp.
233-268.
28. Brownlie, K. and Young, L. T. 1969. "Research, Development and
Design for Marine Propulsion Geared Steam Turbines". Proc. IMAS
69 Section 4d, pp. 48-64.
29. Platt, E. H. W. 1965. "Marine Engineering in the Royal and Merchant
Navies". (The 24th Andrew Laing Lecture) Trans. NECIES Vol. 82,
pp. 17-40.
30. Brown, T. F. W. 1960. "Developments in Marine Steam Turbine
Design". Trans. I.E.S. Scotland Vol. 104, pp. 82-173.
31. Takeda, Y. 1970. "Development of a Japanese Design of Marine
Steam Turbine Plant". Trans. /. Mar. E. Vol. 82, pp. 153-170.
32. Batten, B. K. 1972. "Marine Machinery Failures". Trans. I. Mar. E.
Vol. 84, pp. 271-292.
REFERENCES 105
33. Hutchison, T. B. 1966. "30000 shp Unitized Reheat Steam Turbine

Propulsion". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 78, pp. 109-181.
34. Hims, H. E. C. and Frederick, S. H. 1961. "Materials for Advanced
Steam Conditions and their Influence on Operation of Marine Turbines
and Boilers". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 73, pp. 325-347.
35. Yates, H. G. 1954. "Thermal Straightening of Turbine Rotors".
Trans. /. Mar. E. Vol. 66, pp. 77-79.
36. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd. 1964. "Mitsubishi Marine Steam
Turbine" .
37. Yamate, S. 1969. "A 36 000 shp Marine Steam Turbine Driven Auxili-
aries". Trans. IMAS 69 Section 4d, pp. 15-23.
38. "Recent Developments of Marine Turbine Technolo,gy in Japan.
Section 2. Steam Turbines". 1972. International Symposium on Marine
Engineering, Tokyo.
39. Fleeting, R. and Coats, R. 1970. "Blade Failures in the H.P. Turbines
ofr.m.s. Queen Elizabeth 2". Trans. I. Mar. E. Vol. 82, pp. 49-74.
40. Crowdig, E. P. and Pearson, H. M. 1966. "Machinery for Fleet Re-
plenishment Tankers". Trans. NECIES Vol. 82, pp. 59-141.

Marine Steam Turbines: Evolutionary Changes and Modern Designs

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MARINE ENGINEERING PRACTICE

MARINE STEAM TURBINES

R. COATS, C.Eng., F.I.Mar.E., M.I.Mech.E.,

THE INSTITUTE OF MARINE ENGINEERS

2.1. GENERAL ASPECTS

Manufacturer Standard Inlet Conditions

Several firms have standard reheat designs introduced after Pametrada

2.2. TURBINE AND GEARING ARRANGEMENTS

enveloping turbine exhaust. The major difference is in the type of gearing,

2.3. CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

2.3.1. Pametrada Turbines

All of these features were incorporated in the turbines for Queen

2.3.2. Stal-Laval Turbines

2.3.3. General Electric Turbines

2.4. THE SINGLE CYLINDER TURBINE

been a much smaller number of mechanical geared applications of single

2.4.1. Cross-channel Type Single Cylinder Tlrhine

The blading is of the impulse type throughout, with machined-type,

2.4.2. Container Ship Type Single Cylinder Turbine

Reputable turbine manufacturers have very thorough quality control

4.2. THE LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM

a) Fresh Water Contamination

In the event of water remaining a serious problem, it would be

b) Salt Water Contamination

4.4. THE CIRCULATING WATER SYSTEM

4.5. THE FUEL SYSTEM

5.2. THE OBJECTS OF WARMING THROUGH

other than to raise the temperature to that corresponding to atmospheric

5.3. STEPS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARATION FOR WARMING THROUGH

5.4. WARMING THROUGH WHEN A BYPASS LINE IS AVAILABLE

5.5. WARMING THROUGH WHEN A BYPASS LINE IS NOT AVAILABLE

5.6. "STANDBY" CONDITION

5.7. MANOEUVRING CONDITION

5.8. WORKING UP AFTER "FULL AWAY" ORDER

5.9. INCREASING TO MAXIMUM POWER

5.11. MANOEUVRING AFTER A SEA PASSAGE

5.12. ASTERN RUNNING

5.13. EXTENDED NOTICE OF SAILING

5.14. SHUTTING DOWN THE MAIN MACHINERY

12) For prolonged shutdown in estuarial waters or dockside waters the

5.15. EMERGENCY PROCEDURE FOR GETTING UNDER WAY

5.16. PROLONGED OPERATION AT Low POWER

5.17. CRASH STOPS

5.18. TURBINE BREAKDOWN

5.18.1. H.P. Turbine Inoperative

5.18.2. L.P. Turbine Inoperative

5.18.3. Astern Emergency Connexions

5.18.4. A Few Cautionary Notes are Required for Emergency Operation

6.1.1. Procedure Ahead Running

8) Pump up gravity tank to normal overflow level.

6.2. CARRY OVER OF BOILER WATER

6.3. NOISE AND VIBRATION

prolonged operation at this or higher levels of vibration. There is also the

6.3.1. Other Causes of Vibration

6.3.2. Types of Vibration

7.3. OPENING UP OF TURBINES

7.4. RE-ASSEM/JL Y OF TURBINES

7.6. BRIDGE GAUGES AND THEIR USE

7.7. TEST GLANDS

7.8. EARTHING BRUSHES

7.9. EMERGENCY STEAMING CONNEXIONS

7.10. GEARING MAINTENANCE