7.

1 Brief history of human civilization and development

A civilization is characterized by urban development, social stratification, symbolic

communication forms and domination over the natural environment by a cultural to elite.
Civilizations are ultimately associated with and often further defined to other socio-political-
economic characteristics also including centralization with the domestication of both humans
and other organisms i.e., specialization of labour, culturally ideologies of progress and
supremacism, monumental architecture, taxation, societal dependence on farming as an
agricultural practice, and expansionism. History begins in the Paleolithic Era, which is
followed Neolithic Era i.e., New Stone Age, and the Agricultural Revolution (between 8000
and 5000 BCE ) in Fertile Crescent. The latter period has marked a change in human history
as humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals. Nomadism was continued
in some locations i.e especially in isolated regions with few domesticable plant species.

History of civilization

a) Mesopotamia and Egypt: 3100 BC

In about 3200 BC the two earliest civilizations are developed in the region where southwest
Asia joins northeast Africa. Great rivers are a crucial part of a story. The Sumerians settled
that in what is now southern Iraq, between the mouths of Euphrates and Tigris. Egypt
develops in the long narrow strip of the Nile valley. Rivers offers the two main advantages to
developing civilization. They provided water to irrigate fields and they offered the easiest
method of transport for the society without paved roads. Rivers will play an equally
important role in two other early civilizations i.e., those of the Indus and northern China.
b) The Indus: 2500 BC It is not known Mesopotamia inspires the first civilization in India,
whether it is spontaneous local development but about 2500 BC. Neolithic villages along the
banks of Indus are on the verge of combining into a unified and sophisticated culture also.
The Indus civilization has two large cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro which expand over
a larger region than Egypt and Mesopotamia combined. It will survive in a remarkably
consistent form for about 1000 years.
c) The Aegean: 2000 BC The next region to develop a distinctive civilization centre on the
Aegean Sea. The bays and the inlets of the rugged coastal regions of Greece and many small
islands across this relatively sheltered sed combine to make this an ideal area for trade among
people whose levels of nautical skill make short hops of a necessary
precaution. The Aegean civilization stands at the start of a very lively tradition of
Mediterranean culture. It begins on a large island which is perfectly placed to guard the
entrance to the
Aegean Crete.
d) China: 1600 BC The longest consistent civilization in a human story so far is that of China.
This vast eastern empire seems to be set apart from the rest of the world and fiercely proud of
its traditions resisting foreign influences. Its history begins in characteristically independent
manner. There are no such identifiable precedents for the civilization of the Shang dynasty,
which emerges in China in about 1600 BC. Its written texts introduce characters recognizably
related to Chinese today. This is a civilization that begins as it will continue with
confidence.
e) America: 1200 BC Around the time of the earliest American civilizations have their
beginnings with the Olmecs in Central America and Chavin in the Andes Both of these
cultures develop large towns and are centred on temples. Both are famous for their sculpture
and each in its region is the start of a succession of civilizations leading directly to two which
are discovered and destroyed in the 16th century by the Spanish.
f) The Mediterranean: 1000 BC The first distinctively Mediterranean civilization of Aegean
comes to a sudden and still unexplained end in around 1200 BC. From their base in Lebanon,
they establish colonies along the coast of Africa and even into the Atlantic.
g) Regional civilizations: AD 400 - 1500
With the dominance of Greece and Rome in the west of China in the east and of strong
individual cultures in central and south America each successive civilization in any region
tends at this time to be a variation on local traditions. One such is Islam. The establishment of
the caliphate in Damascus and then in Bagh leads to distinctively Muslim civilizations in an
unbroken belt from North Africa to No India.

Human development It is studies of the human condition with its core being of the
capability approach. Measurement of human development is Human Development Index
(HDI) and formulated by United Nations Development Programme. The index includes
statistics such as life expectancy at birth, an education index and gross national income per
capita. There are six basic aspects of human development: quality, sustainability,
productivity, empowerment, cooperation, and security.

1 Equality is an idea of fairness for every person between men and women. We each
have the right to education and healthcare.
2 Sustainability is that we all have the right to earn a living that can be sustain our lives
and have access to a more even distribution of goods.
3 Productivity states the full participation of people in the process of income generation.
This also means that Government needs more efficient social programs for people.
4 Empowerment is the freedom of people to influence development and decisions that
affect their lives.
5 Cooperation stipulates the participation and belonging to the communities and groups
as means of mutual enrichment and a source of social meaning.
6 Security offers people development opportunities to freely and safely with confidence
that they will not disappear suddenly in the future.

7.2 Ozone layer Depletion

Ozone is a highly reactive molecule that contains three oxygen atoms. It is constantly being
formed and broken down in the high atmosphere. Ozone is a gas composed of three atoms of
oxygen. It is a bluish gas that is harmful to breathe and early 90 % of the Earth's ozone is in
the stratosphere and referred to as the ozone layer. Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet
radiation called U ∨ B. Ozone layer depletion is the reduction of the amount of ozone in the
stratosphere. Depletion begins when CFC's get into the stratosphere. Ultraviolet radiation
which is from the sun breaks up CFCs. The breaking up action releases the Chlorine atoms.
Chlorine atoms react with the Ozone, starting a chemical cycle that destroys the good ozone
in those areas. One chlorine atom can break more than 100,000 ozone molecules. From
industries and our day-to-day life, many gasses like CFC's, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFC's), halons, halogens etc. get evolved in an atmosphere that is mainly responsible for
ozone depletion as it contains or produces Chlorine (Cl) atoms. There is other Ozone
Depleting Substances (ODS) such as methyl bromide which is used in pesticides, halons used
in fire extinguishers, and methyl chloroform. Other chemicals that naturally destroy Ozone
are Noy, Hox, Clx, which belong to Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Chlorine respectively. All we
can do is to be more responsible, with our manufacturing needs.
The reaction involve is:
O 2+ UV →O+OO +O2 →O 3
CFCl3 + electromagnetic radiation → Cl ⋅+⋅CFCl 2
Cl 1+O 3 →ClO+O 2ClO+O 3 →Cl ⋅+2 O2
The Antarctic Ozone Hole As a result of ozone depletion, over Antarctica, the ozone hole is
formed. This ozone caused to melting of the ice of Antarctica which increase the sea level
and other harmful effects on its environment.
Effects of Ozone layer Depletion
Effect on Aquatic System: Affects phytoplankton, fish, and larval crabs. The decrease in the
number of phytoplanktons increases the CO2 in the atmosphere which contributes the
global warming.
Effect on Materials: Degradation of paints and plastic.
Effect on Climate: Global Warming and seasonal variation. Effect on Human Health:
Damage genetic materials in the cells. Leads to more people suffering from Cataracts. 108
depletions in the ozone layer results in 30 % increase in skin cancer infection.

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles:

SOLUTION

● Afforestation
● Low consumption of CFC's and HCFC'S gasses
● Public awareness on this issue
● Strong implementation of Montreal Protocol

Sustainability of ecosystems
The sustainability of the ecosystem becomes essential to support life on earth. The capacity
of the ecosystems to maintain their essential functions, processes and retain their biodiversity
in the full measure over the long term the ecosystem sustainability. It includes the following
things
● Enhanced climate regulation through the rebalancing of the carbon cycle.
● Protection of essential ecosystem including enhanced food and water security, the
public health and societal wellbeing.
● Reduction of risks further ecosystem degradation and subsequent societal disruption.
Preservation of the natural environment is very essential for maintaining economic
sustainability. The component is water, energy, air, climate, biodiversity, land and
forest.
Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability
● For sustainability, ecosystems use sunlight as a non-deplete able nonpolluting form of
energy.
● For sustainability, ecosystems break down and recycle all the wastes as nutrients.
● For sustainability, Herbivorous populations must be kept in check so that
● overgrazing and the destruction of the ecosystem do not occur.
● Biodiversity is healthy for ecosystems.
The need for responsible development practices Every factor which is related to
development should be responsible for responsible development practices to make the
development sustainable.
1. What are greenhouse gases? How does the greenhouse effect take place?

Ans: A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs infrared radiation (IR) and radiates heat
in all directions. Greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere absorb IR from the sun
and release it. Some of the heat released reaches the earth, along with heat from the
sun that has penetrated the atmosphere. Both the solar heat and the radiated heat are
absorbed by the earth and released; some is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases to
perpetuate the cycle. The more of these gases that exist, the more heat is prevented
from escaping into space and, consequently, the more the earth heats. Simply,
greenhouse gases are those gases that trap heat in the atmosphere and the
accompanying greenhouse effect.

The greenhouse gases, listed in order of abundance, include:

i. Water vapor
ii. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
iii. Methane (CH4)
iv. Nitrous oxide(N2O)
v. Ozone, and any fluorocarbons.

Although water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, it is a relatively

ineffective one. Some degree of greenhouse gases in our environment is only natural
-- without the greenhouse effect our ecosystem would not be possible.

GreenHouse Effect:

Sunlight enters the Earth's atmosphere, passing through the greenhouse gases. As it
reaches the Earth's surface, land, water, and biosphere absorb the sunlight's energy.
Once absorbed, this energy is sent back into the atmosphere. Some of the energy
passes back into space, but much of it remains trapped in the atmosphere by the
greenhouse gases. This process of trapping the heat resulting in increasing
temperature of the earth is called greenhouse effect.

This is the completely natural process and without these gases all the heat would
escape back into space and Earth's average temperature would be about 30 degrees
Celsius (54 degrees Fahrenheit) colder. The greenhouse effect is very important
process, because without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would not be warm enough
for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, it could make the
Earth warmer than usual. Even a little extra warming may cause problems for
humans, plants, and animals.

2. Explain the importance of indigenous system of natural resource management

in the context of Nepal.
If you were to look carefully at a map of the world, you would see that many of the
most biodiverse forests overlap with the lands of culturally distinct indigenous
communities. The lands on which they live and the natural resources on which they
depend are inseparably linked to their identities, cultures and livelihoods. Therefore,
even small changes in their environment can have dramatic impacts on their lives.
With the increasing pressure of global development, many countries are conserving
these rich forest areas to protect their nature and biodiversity. These areas are called
protected areas.
In Nepal, rural and urban populations lacking minimal access to water for drinking,
sanitation and irrigation and whose livelihoods depend on agriculture, wage labor,
ecosystem services, rain-fed agriculture, fragile dwellings and those without social
support networks are most likely to be affected by climate change. Large sections of
indigenous and local communities fall into this category and are disproportionately
vulnerable to natural and environmental disasters triggered by both climatic and non-
climatic drivers and changes. Climate change impacts are expected to be visible in
terms of rising temperatures, uncertain and extreme rainfall events, landslides, floods,
droughts and glacier melt. Nepal’s high rates of poverty, erosion and deforestation,
the loss of biodiversity and pollution combined with low institutional capacity to
respond to these changes and inequalities prevailing in Nepalese society have been
responsible for producing climate change vulnerability. These practices, evolved
through generations by testing and learning, help many communities cope with and
adapt to the growing challenges posed by climatic and non-climatic changes. The
diverse ethnic, social and cultural groups across the country have developed rich local
knowledge and practices to support, maintain and improve their livelihoods through
managed use of natural and community-built resources. These knowledge and
practices have sustained the livelihoods of people in diverse physical, social and
ecological contexts, especially where market led opportunities and/or external support
are grossly deficient. Despite the externalities imposed by changes in climate and
other drivers, social groups across the country have adapted to the stresses emerging
from changes of different forms. This has been possible with the comprehensive
understanding of the structure and functions of the interconnected human-
environment systems in which they live. This understanding has led them to secure
food, water, energy, medicines, building materials and other necessities from
ecosystem-based resources. People’s knowledge and skill in accessing and managing
services from ecosystems together with strong social networks that they develop form
an integral part of their adaptive culture, capacity and identity. This cultural
knowledge and learned behavior help them develop mechanisms for adjusting to
stress and improving adaptive capacity. The importance of indigenous system of
natural resources:
1. Local water management
The study identified locally developed water use practices that are climate adaptive.
These adaptive practices were specific to farmer managed irrigation systems,
community managed drinking water systems and traditional water mills. These
practices have highlighted how local knowledge needs to be incorporated into agency
supported intervention programs in traditional water systems; the goal being to ensure
local ownership and sustainability. Many successful indigenous and local water
management practices do not receive due recognition from government and
development organizations. Indigenous water practices follow watershed boundaries
and the success of these practices demonstrate how national and local level water
resources management plans also need to follow basin-wide management approach.
This approach would ensure equitable water allocation that recognizes indigenous use
rights, considers the demand and supply balance as well as establishes the need for
conservation of water sources for sustained water production to support multiple uses
in downstream areas.

2. Forest and pasture management

Indigenous and local forest and pasture management practices have evolved from
cultural norms, traditional values, contextual demand, collective behavior,
community-based institutions and a good understanding of local ecosystems.
Government agencies should, therefore, recognize and promote them as climate
adaptive and resilient practices in climate change adaptation. Indigenous forestry
practices have thrived in locations where access to resources is guaranteed and tenure
security Social and gender inclusion and equity are key to successful indigenous
forest management practices.

3. Rural transport infrastructure

Traditional bridges, trails and tuins (cable river crossing) developed by communities
provide essential transportation and communication links at the local level and
support local adaptation and disaster risk reduction efforts. • Nepal’s indigenous
suspension bridge-building practices are effective climate resilient technologies as
they are low-cost and locally built and their management and upkeep are possible
without much external support. Promotion of these systems can help build community
resilience and adaptive capacity.

4. Settlements and housing

The government should recognize that indigenous and marginalized communities who
have nature-based livelihoods and who are settled on marginal and fragile lands face a
disproportionate risk from climatic hazards and disasters. The resilience-building of
settlements and housing must first focus on human safety and then on improved
access to food, water and low carbon-energy options and the availability of social
support networks. An understanding of local perceptions, culture, economic behavior
and collective action is a prerequisite to the design and development of climate
resilient adaptive housing and settlement.
 Montreal Protocol

Introduction:

Montreal Protocol also known as Montreal Protocol on Substances that

Deplete the Ozone Layer is an international environmental agreement signed in 1987.
It is an outcome of Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer (1985). It
was designed to stop the production of Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) and
reduce its concentration in the atmosphere to help protect earth’s ozone layer. 197
countries have approved this treaty. It is considered to be the most successful
environmental protection treaty.

History:

· 1973: Rowland and Melina gave reaction to ozone depletion.

· 1974: Got their work published in Nature Journal.

· 1976: US National Academy of Science verified their theory.

· 1978: CFC based aerosols were banned in US, Norway, Sweden and Canada.

· 1985: Validation of their work came with the discovery of ‘Ozone Hole’ over
Antarctica by British Anarctic Survey

· 22nd March 1985: Vienna Convention

· 16th September 1987: Montreal Protocol was signed.

· 1st January 1989: Montreal Protocol entered into forces.

The Montreal Protocol sets binding progressive phase out obligations for developed
and developing countries for all the major ozone depleting substances, including
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons and less damaging transitional chemicals such as
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The Montreal Protocol targets 96 ozone
depleting chemicals in thousands of applications across more than 240 industrial
sectors. In 2016 the Montreal Protocol also became responsible for setting binding
progressive phase down obligations for the 18 main hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).
The Montreal Protocol has been further strengthened through six Amendments, which
have brought forward phase out schedules and added new substances to the list of
substances controlled under the Montreal Protocol. The Amendments are:
● London 1990

● Copenhagen 1992

● Vienna 1995

● Montreal 1997

● Beijing 1999
● Kigali 2016

In addition to helping to protect and restore the ozone layer, the Montreal Protocol has
also produced other significant environmental benefits. Most notably, the phase out of
ozone depleting substances, which are often also high global warming gases, has
benefitted the global climate by reducing the amount of greenhouse gas going into the
atmosphere.
Montreal Protocol in Nepal:

Nepal is one of the 197 countries in the world that have signed and ratified the
Montreal Protocol to phase out chemicals that harm the earth's ozone layer by 2015.
Nepal has ratified the Montreal Protocol of 1987 in 1994. Nepal Bureau of Standard
and Metrology is the implementing agency.

In response to the Convention, Protocol and London Amendment 1990, the

Government of Nepal (GoN) formed National Program Preparation Team (NPPT) on
3 October 1996. The NPPT prepared Nepal Country Program for the Phasing out of
the Ozone Depleting Substances and the program was agreed on 19 February 1999.
The GoN assigned the Nepal Bureau of Standard and Metrology (NBSM) as an
Implementing Agency working with the direction of National Ozone Committee
(NOC) which was formed under the joint-secretariat level of the then Ministry of
Population and Environment in o 28 February 2000.

Present Status:

As the focal point of Convention, the MoPE issued a public notice in the National
Gazette on 25 September 2000 releasing the Government decision, on annual
 consumption, import quantity and phase-out rates of ODS. According to this notice,
Nepal has already phased down the import of R-11 and R-12 refrigerant gas.

In 2014 October 26, Government of Nepal published another notice on National

Gazette with phase down plan of HCFC-22 as follows.

20 201 20 20 20 20 20
11- 5 17 20 22 25 30
20
14

23. 20.7 18. 11. 9. 0.5 0

04 36 43 52 26 76
M MT M M M M
T T T T T

Nepal is strictly following this phase-down plan. Currently Ministry of Population

and Environment grants permission for importing HCFC-22 and has allocated
certain quotas for importers. The new importer is allowed to import only One
Metric Ton annually and the old importer is allowed to import 2 Metric Ton
annually. Before importing, the importers should bring lab test report of the
refrigerant gas. With these all provisions, Nepal is committed for implementation of
Vienna Convention and Montreal Protocol and protection of Ozone Layer.

Control of ODS in Nepal

Ozone depleting substances are man-made gases that destroy ozone once they
reach the ozone layer. The ozone layer sits in the upper atmosphere and reduces the
amount of harmful ultra violet radiation that reaches Earth from the sun. Ultraviolet
radiation can have detrimental effects on both humans and the environment. For
instance, inducing skin cancer and cataracts, distorting plant growth and damaging the
marine environment.
 Ozone depleting substances include:
● chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
● hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
● hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs)
● halons
● methyl bromide
● carbon tetrachloride
● methyl chloroform.

They have been used as:

● refrigerants in commercial, home and vehicle air conditioners and refrigerators
● foam blowing agents
● components in electrical equipment
● industrial solvents
● solvents for cleaning (including dry cleaning)
● aerosol spray propellants
● fumigants.

Basic ways to reduce ODS are:

1. Avoid the consumption of gases dangerous to the ozone layer, due to their content
or manufacturing process. Some of the most dangerous gases are CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons), halogenated hydrocarbon, methyl bromide and nitrous oxide.
2. Minimize the use of cars. The best transport option is urban, bicycle, or walking. If
you use a car to a destination, try to carpool with others to decrease the use of cars in
order to pollute less and save.
3. Do not use cleaning products that are harmful to the environment and to us.
Many cleaning products contain solvents and substances corrosive, but you can
replace these dangerous substances with non-toxic products such as vinegar or
bicarbonate.
4. Buy local products. In this way, you not only get fresh products but you avoid
consuming food that has traveled long distances. As the more distance traveled, the
more nitrous oxide is produced due to the medium used to transport that product.
5. Maintain air conditioners, as their malfunctions cause CFC to escape into the
atmosphere.

What do you mean by clean development mechanism (CDM)? How is it helpful

to reduce the carbon emission? [Interpret the concept of clean development
mechanism (CDM) and carbon trading.] What are importance of clean
development mechanism and carbon trading for reduction of greenhouse gases
and climate change mitigation and adaptation?

Clean Development Mechanism is one of the key components of the Kyoto Protocol.
It is a mechanism which is based on understanding among the nations for adopting a
new outlook for economic activities aiming at protecting the world- ecosystem.

The Kyoto Protocol (adopted 1997/12/11, enforced 2005/02/16) is international treaty

that commits State Parties to reduce GHG emissions based on the premise that State
Parties have to reduce GHG emissions based on following understandings:

i. Global Warming exists

 ii. Man-made CO2 emissions have cause it.

Kyoto protocol requires developed countries (Annex-I countries) to reduce their GHG
emissions (CO2 equivalent) at least 5% below to the level of 1990 by 2012 (the first
commitment period: 2008-2012). CDM is one of the Kyoto mechanisms to achieve
the objective of reducing GHG emissions. It allows emission reduction projects that
assist in creating sustainable development in developing countries (non Annex-I
countries) to generate “certified emission reductions (CER)” for use by the investor.

The schematic of CDM can be represented as below:

The aspects of CDM can be described as below:

i. Enables Annex-1 countries (developed countries) to meet their emission

reduction commitments in a flexible and cost-effective manner.

ii. Assist developing countries (non-Annex I or the host countries) in meeting their
sustainable development objectives.

iii. Investors benefit by obtaining Certificates of Emissions Reductions (CER).

iv. Host Countries benefit in the form of investment, access to better technology,
and local sustainable development.

In simple words, developed countries try to reduce the carbon emissions in

developing countries by creating clean and sustainable projects (incorporating
sustainable development practices like renewable energy, waste management,
efficient use of energy etc.) and thus helps in reducing the global net emissions in a
feasible manner.
Another idea that came about in response to Kyoto Protocol is Carbon Trading.
Carbon would be given an economic value, allowing people, companies or nations to
trade it. If a nation bought carbon, it would be buying the rights to burn it, and a
nation selling carbon would be giving up its rights to burn it. This allows developed
nations to buy the emission rights from another nation whose industries do not
produce as much of these gases.

i. The Carbon Trading practice reduces in overall cost of meeting emission

reduction targets.

ii. It creates opportunity to generate income from activities that previously

attracted no additional revenue, such as investment in emission reduction, renewable
energy generation, greenhouse friendly fuels and carbon sequestration.

iii. It provides the ability to use revenue from carbon sequestration to help fund
additional planting of trees and other vegetation, for benefits such as salinity
amelioration, biodiversity enhancement, conversion to greenhouse gas friendly fuels
and energy, and employment and wealth creation in rural areas.

What do you mean by EHV? How does EHV help in making engineering
projects, involving interaction with nature sustainable? Illustrate with examples.

[What do you mean by EHV? How does engineering projects, involving interaction with
nature becomes more sustainable when Project designers are well aware of the need to apply
EHV in dealing with eco-system? Illustrate with examples.]

Education in Human Values (EHV) is a system / concept of integrating human values

or ethics into educational practices. Education in human values integrate learning and
teaching concept obtained from intuition, which has gained wide acceptance around
the world. Education in human values makes the education a forceful tool for
cultivation of socio- moral values.

A good, conceptual, comprehensive and practical knowledge should be in every

human being that creates necessary human capital and knowledge workers who bring
the country to greater heights. By adopting the human values approach with the right
teaching techniques, it has been proven that it is possible to create a balanced
individual and society. A good education system with the education in human values
can make it a reality.

Historically, ethics is not concerned with the natural environment. Instead, it is an

attempt to answer either of two questions: "How ought I to treat others?" and "What
actions that affect others are morally right?" Nature is not included in these
arguments, except as some part of nature that "belongs" to some human being. Today,
however, we realize that we owe responsibility to nature for its own sake, and not just
because it might have instrumental value. We are ill-equipped to make decisions
where the value of nature or other species, or even future generations of humans, is
concerned. We often forget relation of human beings with environment. It also reflect
the degree of civilization in human beings.

Hence, Education in Human Values has been ever important to address following
problems not only for humans but for a sustainable environment and ecosystem:
· Water and air pollution
· Destruction of ecosystem
· Loss of biodiversity
· Global climate
· Depletion of natural resources
· Resources Shortages
1. Oil, coal or gas
2. Water
3. Lithium
· Environmental limits
1. Biodiversity loss-instability
2. Carbon-climate change
3. Environmental footprint
Furthermore, environmental ethics and human values provide the philosophical debate
on the topics like
· Destruction of forest (un-developed country)
· Morally wrong burning fossil fuel
· Development of hydroelectric dam
· Mining of resources

Crude oil production and exploration is one of the typical example of engineering
project involving interaction with nature. With the extraction of more and more oil the
environment gets polluted due to greenhouse gases emission and in other hand this
form of natural resources is also limited, and over exploitation as such would deplete
these resources in future. Hence, Hubbert predicted that the production of oil should
be bound by a bell curve as shown below.
Now, education in human values teaches us to limit our oil consumption so that nature
is not affected adversely to a higher degree. Hence, we need to shift the demand for
oil to be replenished by other forms of renewable energy, and these projects can be
run for a longer time than if we had used oil mindlessly. Furthermore, a certain
portion of a country is used to decrease the carbon content of nature or to decarbonize
nature.

7.7 Sustainability of ecosystems and the need for responsible development

practice

Sustainability of ecosystems

The sustainability of the ecosystem is very essential to support life on earth. Capacity
of the ecosystems to maintain their essential functions, processes and retain
biodiversity in full measure over the long term the ecosystem sustainability. It
includes following things

Enhanced climate regulation through rebalancing of the carbon cycle.

Protection of essential ecosystems including enhanced food and water

security. public health and social wellbeing.

Reduction of risks further ecosystem degradation and subsequent sin

disruptions. Preservation of the natural environment becomes very essential for
maintaining economic sustainability. The components are water, energy, air, climate,
biodiversity. and forest.

Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability

● For sustainability, ecosystems use sunlight as a non-depletable non

polluting energy.
● For sustainability, ecosystems break down and recycle all the wastes as
nutrition
● For sustainability, Herbivorous populations must be kept in check so
overgrazing and the destruction of the ecosystem do not occur.
● Biodiversity is healthy for ecosystems.

The need for responsible development practices Every factor which is related to
development should be responsible for responsible development practices to make the
development sustainability.

Carbon Trading

The carbon trade is an idea that came about in response to the Kyoto Protocol. The ids
behind carton trading are quite similar to the trading of securities.

Carbon Buyers European buyers now represent the bulk of the purchases of emission
reductions with a combined 60% of total volume purchased between January 2004
and April 200 5. Within this group, the Government of the Netherlands (through its
various agencies and intermediaries except the CFB (Center, and programs
established within Rabobank, the International Finance Corporation, European Bank
for Reconstruction and Development, and the Corporation Andina de Foment 0) is the
largest single buyer with 10%, followed by private firms from the United Kingdom
(12%). All other European purchasers combined account for 32% of the total volume
purchased. The share of lipan (mostly private Japanese entities) has diminished from
29% (Jan, 2003 -Dec. 200 4) to 21% (Jan. 2004 - April. 2005). Interestingly, two-
thirds of the volume purchased from Europe was purchased by private firms, against
one-third by governments (mostly The Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and Austria).

Carbon Seller The largest seller of ERs is Asia (45% from January 2004 to April
2005). Latin America is second with 35% of the volume supplied. Projects in OECD
countries which include both Jl projects in New Zealand and voluntary activities in
the U.S. rank third with 14% while transition economies rank fourth at 6%. These
aggregate figures, however, are strongly influenced by the dynamics of HFC23
destruction projects, which are few in number but very large in volume, and for the
moment, to our knowledge at least, all located in Asia. In fact, Latin America is by far
the largest supplier of ERs from projects other than HFC23 destruction (46%). Asia's
share of nothFC-based ERs is stable (28% from Jan. 2004 to April 2005. against 28%
from Jan. 2003 to Dec. 2004), and is lower than Latin America's.

Benefits from Carbon Trading

The benefits of carbon trading are listed below:

The reduction in overall cost of meeting commission reduction targets.

The progressively improved definition of I price for carbon, particularly as the

market becomes more liquid and active with assuming that all Carbon certificate
products are fungible meaning that they are equivalent ways of addressing emission
reduction.

The opportunity to generate the income from activities that previously

attracted no additional revenue such as investment in reduction emission, renewable
energy, greenhouse friendly fuels and carbon sequestration.

7.8 Environmentally Responsible Construction

Construction is the process of building infrastructure or building. It differs from

manufacturing as manufacturing involves mass production of similar items with
designated purchasers while construction takes place at a known place under a certain
client. Environmentally Responsible Construction means construction having little or
no inn on the environment. It refers to doing construction in such a way it has very
little or almost no effect in Environment, Wildlife, and Human beings. Construction is
a major process which consumes natural resources and each time a natural resource is
extracted, processed, manufactured, disposed of, the environment is altered. Green
building refers to both a structure and the use of processes that are environmentally
responsible and resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from sitting to
desi construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.

Current Practices in Nepal Factory and industrial output are mixed with water sources
without refining: Presently Nepal due to lack of proper design of factories and
industries outlets from them are mixed with the water sources without refining which
ultimately leads to the pollution of water resources. Such outlets from factories are to
be refined and processed before mixing

the water sources. No proper method for dumping and burying waste is available:
Present practices in Nepal do not involve proper dumping and burying of waste. The
waste must be collected, divided according to its type and then processed like organic
waste are to be changed into manure, plastics, metal, etc. are to be recycled, and other
waste must be disposed of properly. Due to the lack of this, land pollution is
increasing day by day. This indicates that the amount of waste produced and waste
disposal methods are unsustainable. Proper disposal of radioactive substances and
lead batteries is lacking: Lead batteries radioactive substances produce harmful
radiation which may lead to diseases like cancer. They are not to be taken lightly and
have to be disposed of using proper means. But Nepal, still the processes are missing.
People suffering from Sick Building Syndrome (SBS): Sick Building Syndrome is the
term used to describe office buildings in which employees experience fatigue and
other react to pollutants present in the air. Products and materials traditionally used in
the construct trade include a multitude of hazardous chemicals, many of which can
take years of gas'

Steps of Environmentally Responsible Construction:

● Selection of Raw Materials:

○ Choose renewable over non-renewable
○ Prefer Recycled Content
○ Use remanufactured products
○ Use products that are less toxic
● Maintain proper building Insulation while construction
● Reduce use of products that emit CFC like some blowers.
● Maintaining Airtightness in buildings
● Design of Proper HVACs systems for buildings
● Maintaining Proper Lighting in buildings
● Use of Renewable Energy
● Treatment of Wastewater like waste water treatments plants
● Proper Solid waste management
● Refining waste before excreting it out in the case of industries,
factories, etc.

Use of alternate vehicles with low emissions and fuel-efficient vehicles. The above-
mentioned procedures are for new construction of buildings but they can be applied
during building renovations. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED) is an organization of the US working in this field. Many countries have
adopted the policy of Green Buildings but Nepal has yet to adopt the policy. The
primary factors responsible for this are Cost and Pusblic Awareness. People are not
aware of the benefits of Green Building and overall effect in both cost and health.
More detailed information about Environmentally Responsible Construction can be
gained from LEED Green Building guidelines.