Scope and dynamics of Islamic administration

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Assignment
Spring 2021
Name: ABC
Roll No: XYZ
Course Code: 8605
Course Name: Educational Leadership and

Management
Assignment No: 1
Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

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Q. 1 explain the scope of Islamic administration and discuss the dynamic of Islamic administration.
While the Qur’an and the Sunnah insist on use of ijtihad and achieving excellence, the secularized elite,
unaware of this dynamic Islamic approach, often voice their unfounded fears about the Shari'ah and its
implementation as introduction of centuries old law and fiqh.
‫رہھٹےی‬
‫آپوکہیااسٹنمنئاٹپئرکےنیکابلکلرضورتںیہن۔‬
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‫چ چ‬
‫ااسٹنمنئآرڈررکےنےئلیکامہریربانزےسراہطبرکںی۔‬
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The Qur’an and the Sunnah welcome differences of view, based on reason, logic and facts, in all areas of
human life: 'aqidah (conviction), 'ibadat (devotions, worship), mu'amalat (transactions, dealings) and 'uqubat
(penalties and punishments). It, however, does not allow distortion and concealment of truth.
Intellectual honesty is one of the basic principles in Islamic scholarship. Tampering with truth is seriously
condemned by Islam. Based on analysis one may venture to disagree with certain aspects of the given
knowledge, even legal formulations; but to follow a Eurocentric worldview is to succumb to a neo-colonialist
interpretation of culture and its values. It is taqlid (imitation) of another culture, primarily because it is
dominant, and not because it has proved a greater blessing for humans. Islam holds such a mind-set as poor
and morally dishonest — a reflection of a dogmatic or jahili approach. There is also an inherent contradiction
in the modernist position: on the one hand, they claim that the Qur’an is divine; yet in the same breath, they
suggest that several of its legislations like punishment for theft, defamation and adultery are outdated, even
“barbaric.”
Those who like to see secular common law — a leftover of the British colonialism — think it provides better
protection to the rights of the oppressed gender. For example:
Before this ordinance (i.e. Enforcement of Hudood 1979), the law applicable was the Pakistan Penal Code
1898. Under this law fornication was not a crime. That is, wilful sex between a man and a woman who were
both single was not considered a criminal act and was not punishable.
Adultery was essentially an offense against the husband. Under the Penal Code, it was a criminal offense only
when committed by a man without the connivance of the husband of the female involved. When the husband
allowed another man to have sexual intercourse with his wife, and the wife was willing, adultery was not
punishable.
Since the British, who introduced the Penal Code (I860), as opposed to the Qur’an and Sunnah, did not regard
adultery (with the husband’s consent) an offense, the supporters of the Eurocentric view of law feel
uncomfortable with the Shari'ah. This also makes them think that the Code given by the colonizer is “modern”
while the Qur’anic approach is “primitive.”
The supporters of the colonial legal system use common law as the criterion for legitimacy of any law. While
claiming a “dogmatic” belief in the Qur’an, if not in the Sunnah, they find it difficult to accept the Shari'ah
injunctions as valid to modern times.
Insisting on the women’s right to commit adultery, as recognized in the Penal Code of 1898, they, without any
hesitation, also accept the philosophy behind this legislation. Common law in this respect assumes that a legal
wife is a property of her husband. If the legal husband gives consent to a person to use this property, it is not
adultery. But if a wife “enjoys this human right” without her husband’s consent, she commits adultery! The
“feminist” supporters of secular common law fail to see in such legislation the presence of outrageous male
chauvinism, and also the assumption of woman being a chattel owned by man.
Since the Shari'ah is not gender based or a biased legal system, it regards this “authority” of a husband on his
wife as “exploitation,” inhuman and immoral.
However, Shari'ah has no problem with the adaptation of a law in agreement with its own philosophy.
Adaptations allow room for evolution in a legal system. Such adaptations never cause any problem to the
’aqidah of a Muslim, rather they strengthen one’s conviction in the universality of the Shari'ah.
That the Islamization of society and state is tantamount to the rise and return of “fundamentalism” is a
proposition questioned seriously by world statesmen like Dr Mahathir Muhammad, when he candidly
mentioned, that if fundamentalism means adherence to the fundamentals of Islam, then every Muslim is a
fundamentalist. It is also being questioned by a new generation of Western students of Islam like John
Esposito" and Charles Kennedy.
Methodologically, to equate different models of Islamization (like the Sudan, Pakistan, Iran, Malaysia, or
Algeria) in a monolithic way is academically unfair. These models, while sharing common concerns, represent
different approaches to Islamization, reflecting creative responses to different politico-social contexts. Deeper
analysis reveals even differences in priorities and strategies for social change, acceptable within the matrix of
Islam. However, most discussions on Islamic resurgence and Islamization hardly differentiate between these
models.
This confusion is further confounded by misgivings about the concepts of Shari'ah and fiqh. While the Qur’an
insists on its being comprehensive and universal, the Shari'ah is often understood and talked about, by its
critics, as a local tradition and custom assigned a normative status. Consequently, they refer to a centuries old
fiqh as a “threat” to religious tolerance and liberty. The issue has been addressed by the Qur’an and the
Sunnah at two different levels.
Reflections
I
`When there are three on a journey they should appoint one of them their commander1.' This tradition of the
Holy Prophet spotlights the importance that Islam attaches to organized activity in human life. A religion that
induces administrative order in a group of three persons cannot fail to appreciate the need for regulating
human behaviour on a wider scale. In fact, Islam is by nature administration-oriented, as is borne out by its
rituals like daily congregational prayers and the annual pilgrimage to Mecca. All kinds of practices in Islam
recieve their sanction from certain fundamental value-principles. Confining ourselves to administration, we
can identify four such principles:
A. Ideological Orientation.
B. Primacy of Humanistic Ends.
C. Moral Accountability.
D. Supremacy of Law.
We shall take them up in that order. After we have examined their theoretics in this section, we shall be
concerned in the next with their practical implications.
A. Ideological Orientation
Leiserson and Marx have defined ideologies as `systems of social interpretation' competing for men's
àttention as the most satisfactory method of explaining the facts of a complex world2.' Islam is an ideology in
this sense. It interprets the facts of the world with reference to its three cardinal beliefs: the Oneness of God,
the (Final) Prophethood of Muhammad (pbuh), and the Hereafter. The essence of Islam is bearing obedience
to the One God's commandments as contained in the Holy Quran and illustrated by the Prophet's life, with a
view to upgrading the quality of life on the earthly planet and achieving salvation in the world to come. When
this essence gets into the veins of people and they are motivated to mould their individual and collective lives
in accordance with Islam, we have an ideology in dynamic operation.
An administration is part of the larger societal structure. Like its parent discipline, political science, public
administration in Islam is based on the triad of convictions stated above. From them, therefore, it must take
its spirit, sanction, and strength, and to them must its form, goals, and character conform. This is what Islam
demands generally of administration. There are several specific demands of which only a few will be discussed
in the next section.
B. Primacy of Humanistic Ends
The triumph of mechanistic science in the West was celebrated with a death-bell for the human soul.
Frederick Taylor complacently christened his theory "Scientific Management". Since then public administration
has changed greatly in outlook and method. The human relation school has left an indelible mark on it and
today man is believed to be a distinct and important variable in any organizational set-up.
Islam has approached the human aspect of administration in its characteristic way. It regards man as a
thinking and feeling entity, declares him to be the supreme creation and sets him the highest possible task,
that of achieving moral perfection. This primacy of humanism, in the context of administration, rejects the
exclusively materialistic value-scales and objectives of Western societies. Of its practical consequences we
shall be talking in Section II. Suffice to say here that the Islamic concept of human relations has a clear adge
over its Western counterpart for two main reasons. One, Islam addressed itself to the question long before
the West ever did and supplied a solution whose practicability was proved beyond doubt. Two, Western
human relationing may not be so human after all, for it is as much a grudging concession to the intractable
human nature as a positive recognition of man's greater intrinstic worth. That is why it has become in the
West a saleable art or commodity and is being traded in on the same commercial principle of quid pro quo as
any other. In Islam, on the contrary, it is not an opportunistic device for stepping up the profit margin but a
necessary ingredient of the creed itself; it is an inviolable behavioural tenet, it is a moral imperative.
C. Moral Accountability
Like other systems, Islam provides legal checks and social strictures in order to make administrative
accountability possible. What makes it unique, however, is its emphasis on accountability in the Hereafter.
This stress is ethical in nature and Islam inculcates the sense of responsibility in its adherents by equipping
them with what Reinhold Neibuhr describes as `the passion of moral good will3' and what Marshall Dimock
calls à sense of mission4'. With its techings it strengthens man from within so that he feels impelled---and not
compelled---to do the right and proper thing.
The idea of moral accountability is rooted in the concept of the Hereafter. The omniscient and omnipotent
God will, at an appointed time, cause the Day of Reckoning to come5 when He will justly reward men for their
good and bad deeds and send them either to paradise or to Hell. None will be exempted from the questioning
of that awful Day, not even the prophets6. Accountability is to be individual7, thoroughgoing8, and
unshiftable9. Thus dereliction of duty is not only a crime in law, it is also a sin in religion. Anybody who is put
in a position of trust will have a heavy job accounting for his doings. This is particularly true of rulers and
administrators10.
D. Supremacy of Law
Supremacy of law in Islam should not be mixed up with the English rule of Law. The latter is usually contrasted
with the French Droit Administratif (Administrative Law), but in one sense these two are alike. That is,
although Rule of Law and Administrative Law stand for two different kinds of legal spirit, yet neither of them
points up the presence of any definite body of law. But the Islamic doctrine, besides upholding the cause of
law, also implies the existence of a definite and identifiable corpus juris---the Shariah. Hence supremacy of law
is perhaps better called supremacy of the law.
The Shariah being something recognizable and its supremacy having been conceded, it brings, on being
applied, its own tinge to administrative situations. A test example is the relationship that Islam establishes
between politics and administration. In the Quran we find three guiding principles, those of the delegated
authority of man11, permission of dissent12, and settlement of dispute according to the dictates of Allah and
His Prophets13. All three follow logically from the idea of Allah's sovereignty14. How they work out in
administrative practice will be seen in the following section.
II
We shall now consider the practical implications of the fundamental value-principles.
A. Ideological Orientation
1. Commitment. An ideological state or administration can be run only by ideologically committed persons.
The Quran clearly lays down that only Muslim rulers are to be obeyed1 and that non-Muslims are are not to
be entrusted with positions of authority2 and confidence3. This means that the ideological consideration is
extremely important in matters of appointment and that mere technical knowledge or administrative skill
would not qualify just any man for just any position4.
2. Generalism. Chester I. Barnard says somewhere: `The higher the position in the line of authority, the more
general the abilities required.' In a restricted sense Islam prefers generalists to specialists, particularly at the
higher, policy-making levels of the administrative hierarchy. Generalism in Islam, however, does not imply
distrust of expert knowledge or professional skill. The term makes due allowance for specialist technical know-
how and signifies an awareness of the superior national and ideological objectives and a capacity to translate
that consciousness into administrative practice.
3. Position of Non-Muslims. The non-Muslim citizens of an Islamic state will enjoy the same civil rights as
Muslims but not the same political rights. They shall not, therefore, be appointed to posts carrying political
power or considerable decision-making authority. They can, however, get high-grade posts of experts or
professional provided their role is more or less advisory5. To all non-key positions they shall have an equal
right and may compete with Muslims for them.
B. Primacy of Humanistic Ends
1. In case there is a real conflict between organizational and humanistic objectives, the former will have to be
sacrificed for the sake of the latter.
2. The terms and conditions of administrators and employees must be such as to provide them with means
and opportunities of decent living. This includes reasonable wages and salaries, proper working atmosphere,
and literally everything which contributes to the welfare of the members of an organization7.
3. All those practices which tend to detract from man's humanity and which injure his dignity and honour will
have to be cut out.
4. The legislature of the country will have the right to make, for one or more organizations, laws and
regulations guaranteeing the satisfaction of the basic needs of all the members of an organization. This
practice will be informally reinforced by the idea of ìhsan' or `fadhl8' which exhorts entrepreneurs and
administrators to do `the extra bit' for the workers or employees.
5. Organizations will be expected to create conditions under which the members can grow individually and
become better human beings. This will imply developing in them, through lecture, literature, and actual
example, traits like self-esteem, dutifulness, probity, and cooperativeness.
C. Moral Accountability
Legal accountability in an Islamic state is ensured through administrative measures, social accountability
through popular opinion and pressure, and moral accountability through a fortified conscience.
Administrative integrity is the product largely of early influences, especially those of home and school, of
proper training before administrative jobs are taken up, and, to repeat Dimock's phrase, of a à sense of
mission'. It is necessary, therefore, to impart the teachings of Islam to the young people at educational
institutions and to fix in the minds of prospective administrators the importance of observing the Islamic
injunctions. Training programmes at administrative colleges and academies should lay pronounced stress on a
purposeful study of the Islamic religion, culture, and history, the idea throughout being to understand the
dynamics and calls of the Islamic ideology as applied to administrative phenomena. It is only when they are
convinced of the profound significance of the ethico-ideological considerations that the administrators will rise
above themselves and serve their country devotedly and conscientiously.
D. Supremacy of Law
1. Compliance. Persons in authority must be obeyed9, irrespective of whether one likes them10 and their
orders11 or not. Wilful defiance of superiors is irresponsible and irreligious behaviour.
2. Discretion. But since accountability is individual and untransferable, every person must exercise discretion
before he answers the helm. Compliance may, rather must, be refused when the orders are morally
unjustifiable, evidently wrong, and involve disobedience to God12. There is a famous tradition: `The most
excellent jihad is when one speaks a true word in the presence of a tyrannical ruler.'13
3. Courts and Tribunals. Permission of dissent necessitates the existence of an institution with powers of
arbitration or adjudication between the political and administrative authorities. Ordinary courts can serve the
purpose here, but, if necessary, special administrative tribunals can also be established. Such tribunals must,
in the interest of justice and fair play, be completely free from any kind of executive pressure.
Q. 2 discuss the broad sense of school management. And give suggestions for improving our school
management system.
Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for economical and effective
planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given purposes. It is a dynamic process
consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are different from operative functions like
marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these activities are common to each and every manger irrespective
of his level or status.
Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There are four
fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”.
According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”.
Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S for
Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely accepted
are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL
i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.
For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these
functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other & each
affects the performance of others.
1. Planning
It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding in
advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According
to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap
from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in
problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired
goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-
determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources.
It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion, uncertainties, risks,
wastages etc.
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2. Organizing
It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry
Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw material,
tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a business involves determining & providing human and
non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:
 Identification of activities.
 Classification of grouping of activities.
 Assignment of duties.
 Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
3. Staffing
It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed
greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business,
complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e.
square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & O’Donell,
“Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and
effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”.
Staffing involves:
 Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving
the right place).
 Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
 Training & Development.
 Remuneration.
 Performance Appraisal.
 Promotions & Transfer.
4. Directing
It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for
achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in
motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for
doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with
influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals.
Direction has following elements:
 Supervision
 Motivation
 Leadership
 Communication
Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching &
directing work & workers.
Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive,
negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.
Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of
subordinates in desired direction.
Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to
another. It is a bridge of understanding.
5. Controlling
It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to
ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything
occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations
before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether
or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to
correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction
of performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and
plans desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:
a. Establishment of standard performance.
b. Measurement of actual performance.
c. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.
d. Corrective action.
The term ‘management’ has been used in different senses. Sometimes it refers to the process of planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling, at other times it is used to describe it as a function
of managing people. It is also referred to as a body of knowledge, a practice and discipline. There are some
who describe management as a technique of leadership and decision-making while some others have
analyzed management as an economic resource, a factor of production or a system of authority.
Definitions:
Various definitions of management are discussed as follows:
(A) Art of Getting Things Done:
Mary Parker Follett:
“Management is the art of getting things done through others.” Follett describes management as an art of
directing the activities of other persons for reaching enterprise goals. It also suggests that a manager carries
only a directing function.
Harold Koontz:
“Management is the art of getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups.” Koontz
has emphasized that management is getting the work done with the co-operation of people working in the
organization.
J.D. Mooney and A.C. Railey:
“Management is the art of directing and inspiring people.” Management not only directs but motivates people
in the organization for getting their best for obtaining objectives.
As per the above mentioned definitions, management is the art of getting things done through people who
may be managers or non-managers. At the level of chief executive, the work is got done through functional
managers, at middle level the things are implemented through supervisors and at lower level of management
through workers. Human and technical skills play an important role for getting things done. These definitions
represent the traditional view point of management while workers are treated as a factor of production only.
They are paid wages for doing their work.
This view point suffers from the following deficiencies:
(i) This concept does not specify what type of functions is required to be performed for getting things done
from others.
(ii) Management is treated as an art. These days management has also acquired the status of science.
(iii) The workers are treated as means of getting results. The needs and aspirations of workers are not taken
into account.
Management is much more than just getting the things done through others. Management may be a
technique for getting things done through others by satisfying their needs and helping them grow. Harold
Koontz emphasized the attainment of business goals with the co-operation of people working in the
organization.
(B) Management as a Process:
Some authors view management as a process because it involves a number of functions. Management refers
to all Involves different a manager does. Various functions which are performed by managers to make the
efficient use of the available material and human resources so as to achieve the desired objectives are
summed up as management. Thus, the functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-coordinating
and controlling fall under the process of management.
Henry Fayol:
“To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to co-ordinate, and to control.” Fayol described
management as a process of five functions such as planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and
controlling. Modern authors, however, do not view co-ordination as a separate function of management.
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George R. Terry:
“Management is a distinct process consisting of activities of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling,
performed to determine and accomplish stated objectives with the use of human beings and other resources.”
Though Terry has described four functions to be a part of management process but managerial functions are
classified into five categories.
James L. Lundy:
“Management is principally the task of planning, coordinating, motivating and controlling the efforts of others
towards a specific objective.” Lundy has also specified some functions which management has to perform for
achieving organizational goals.
Louis Allen:
“Management is what a manager does.” This is a broad definition linking all the activities of the manager to
the concept of management. Whatever work is undertaken by a manager forms a part of management. Above
definitions associate management with the functions undertaken for running a business. There may be a
difference as to what functions are required to be taken up by the management but functions such as
planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling form the process of management.
These functions are continuously taken up. On the completion of last function, the first function starts again.
The functions of management are interdependent and interlinked. In order to achieve the objectives, a
manager has to perform various functions simultaneously.
(C) Management as a Discipline:
Sometimes the term ‘management’ is used to connote neither the activity nor the personnel who performs it,
but as a body of knowledge, a practice and a discipline. In this sense, management refers to the principles and
practices of management as a subject of study. Management is taught as a specialized branch of knowledge in
educational institutions. It has drawn heavily from Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology etc. A person
acquiring degree or diploma in management can try for a managerial job.
Management is treated both as an art as well as science. An art is often regarded as the systematic application
of skill or knowledge in effecting accomplishment of results. In management one has to use personal skill and
knowledge in solving many complicated problems to achieve enterprise objectives. Management is regarded
as a science because it has developed certain principles, generalizations and techniques which have more or
less universal application. So management is a study of a specific discipline. When one says that a particular
person is in management stream then it is assumed that he is studying a particular field of learning.
(D) Art and Science of Decision-Making and Leadership:
Decision-making and guiding others is considered an important element of management. A manager has to
take various decisions every day for properly running an enterprise.
Donald J. Clough:
“Management is the art and science of decision-making and leadership.” The author views management as an
art and science of decision-making. The quality of decisions determines the performance of a manager. He has
also to provide leadership to subordinates for motivating them to undertake their work.
Rose Moore:
“Management means decision-making.” Decision-making cannot be the only function of management even
though it is very important.
Stanley Vance:
“Management is simply the process of decision-making and control over the action of human beings for the
express purpose of attaining predetermined goals.” Stanley Vance has emphasized decision-making and
control over the actions of employees for reaching the enterprise goals.
Association of Mechanical Engineers, U.S.A.: “Management is the art and science of preparing, organizing and
directing human efforts applied to control the forces and utilize the materials of nature for the benefit of
man.” The association has given a wide definition where it has emphasized that management controls and
directs human efforts for utilizing natural resources for the benefit of man. The above mentioned definitions
describe management as a science and art of decision making and controlling the activities of employees for
obtaining enterprise objectives.
(E) An Art of Increasing Productivity:
Some authors are of the view that the science of management is used to increase productivity of the
enterprise.
John F. Mee:
“Management may be defined as the art of securing maximum prosperity with a minimum of effort so as to
secure maximum prosperity and happiness for both employees and employer and give public the best possible
service.”
F.W. Taylor:
“Management is the art of knowing what you want to do in the best and cheapest way.”
Management is the art of securing maximum productivity at the minimum of cost so that it helps employers,
employees and public in general. Public is also a stake holder in business, it should also benefit from good
performance of business.
(F) Integration of Efforts:
Management makes use of human and physical resources for the benefit of the enterprise.
Keith and Gubellini:
“Management is the force that factors integrates men and physical plant into an effective operating unit.”
Management integrates physical and human resources for operating the manufacturing process in a better
way.
Barry M. Richman:
“Management entails the coordination of human and material resources towards the achievement of
organizational objectives as well as the organization of the productive functions essential for achieving stated
or accepted economic goals.” Management alms to co-ordinate and integrate various resources in the
organization for achieving enterprise objectives. The thrust of above mentioned definitions is that integration
and co-ordination of various factors of production is essential for running a business properly and this function
is undertaken by management.
(G) Management as a Group of Managers:
The term management is frequently used to denote a Refers to managerial group of managerial personnel.
When one says that personnel management of such and such company is efficient, he refers to the group of
persons who are looking after the working of the enterprise. These persons individually are called managers.
“Management is the body or group of people which performs certain managerial functions for the
accomplishment of pre-determined goals.”
All managers perform managerial functions of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. These
persons collectively arc called ‘body of managerial personnel.’ In actual practice the term ‘management’ is
used to denote top management of the organization. Top management is mainly concerned with
determination of objectives, strategic planning, policy formulation and overall control of the organization.
Concept of Management:
Objectives of Management:
The primary objective of management is to run the enterprise smoothly. The profit earning objective of a
business is also to be kept in mind while undertaking various functions.
Following are the broad objectives of management:
1. Proper Utilization of Resources:
The main objective of management is to use various resources of the enterprise in a most economic way. The
proper use of men, materials, machines and money will help a business to earn sufficient profits to satisfy
various interests. The proprietors will want more returns on their investments while employees, customers
and public will expect a fair deal from the management. All these interests will be satisfied only when physical
resources of the business are properly utilized.
2. Improving Performance:
Management should aim at improving the performance of each and every factor of production. The
environment should be so congenial that workers are able to give their maximum to the enterprise. The fixing
of objectives of various factors of production will help them in improving their performance.
3. Mobilizing Best Talent:
The management should try to employ persons in various fields so that better results are possible. The
employment of specialists in various fields will be increasing the efficiency of various factors of production.
There should be a proper environment which should encourage good persons to join the enterprise. The
better pay scales, proper amenities, future growth potentialities will attract more people in joining a concern.
4. Planning for Future:
Another important objective of management is to prepare plans. No management should feel satisfied with
today’s work if it has not thought of tomorrow. Future plans should take into consideration what is to be done
next. Future performance will depend upon present planning. So, planning for future is essential to help the
concern.
Scope or Branches of Management:
Management is an all pervasive function since it is required in all types of organized endeavour. Thus, its scope
is very large.
The following activities are covered under the scope of management:
(i) Planning,
(ii) Organization
(iii) Staffing.
(iv) Directing,
(v) Coordinating, and
(vi) Controlling.
The operational aspects of business management, called the branches of management, are as follows:
1. Production Management
2. Marketing Management
3. Financial Management.
4. Personnel Management and
5. Office Management.
1. Production Management:
Production means creation of utilities. This creation of utilities takes place when raw materials are converted
into finished products. Production management, then, is that branch of management ‘which by scientific
planning and regulation sets into motion that part of enterprise to which has been entrusted the task of actual
translation of raw material into finished product.’
It is a very important field of management ,’for every production activity which has not been hammered on
the anvil of effective planning and regulation will not reach the goal, it will not meet the customers and
ultimately will force a business enterprise to close its doors of activities which will give birth to so many social
evils’.
Plant location and layout, production policy, type of production, plant facilities, material handling, production
planning and control, repair and maintenance, research and development, simplification and standardization,
quality control and value analysis, etc., are the main problems involved in production management.
2. Marketing Management:
Marketing is a sum total of physical activities which are involved in the transfer of goods and services and
which provide for their physical distribution. Marketing management refers to the planning, organizing,
directing and controlling the activities of the persons working in the market division of a business enterprise
with the aim of achieving the organization objectives.
It can be regarded as a process of identifying and assessing the consumer needs with a view to first converting
them into products or services and then involving the same to the final consumer or user so as to satisfy their
wants with a stress on profitability that ensures the optimum use of the resources available to the enterprise.
Market analysis, marketing policy, brand name, pricing, channels of distribution, sales promotion, sale-mix,
after sales service, market research, etc. are the problems of marketing management.
3. Financial Management:
Finance is viewed as one of the most important factors in every enterprise. Financial management is
concerned with the managerial activities pertaining to the procurement and utilization of funds or finance for
business purposes.
The main functions of financial management include:
(i) Estimation of capital requirements;
(ii) Ensuring a fair return to investors;
(iii) Determining the suitable sources of funds;
(iv) Laying down the optimum and suitable capital
Structure for the enterprise:
(i) Co-coordinating the operations of various departments;
(ii) Preparation, analysis and interpretation of financial statements;
(iii) Laying down a proper dividend policy; and
(iv) Negotiating for outside financing.
4. Personnel Management:
Personnel Management is that phase of management which deals with the effective control and use of
manpower. Effective management of human resources is one of the most crucial factors associated with the
success of an enterprise. Personnel management is concerned with managerial and operative functions.
Managerial functions of personnel management include:
(i) Personnel planning;
(ii) Organizing by setting up the structure of relationship among jobs, personnel and physical factors to
contribute towards organization goals;
(iii) Directing the employees; and
(iv) Controlling.
The operating functions of personnel management are:
(i) Procurement of right kind and number of persons;
(ii) Training and development of employees;
(iii) Determination of adequate and equitable compensation of employees;
(iv) Integration of the interests of the personnel with that of the enterprise; and
(v) Providing good working conditions and welfare services to the employees.
5. Office Management:
The concept of management when applied to office is called ‘office management’. Office management is the
technique of planning, coordinating and controlling office activities with a view to achieve common business
objectives. One of the functions of management is to organize the office work in such a way that it helps the
management in attaining its goals. It works as a service department for other departments.
The success of a business depends upon the efficiency of its administration. The efficiency of the
administration depends upon the information supplied to it by the office. The volume of paper work in office
has increased manifold in these days due to industrial revolution, population explosion, increased interference
by government and complexities of taxation and other laws.
Harry H. Wylie defines office management as “the manipulation and control of men, methods, machines and
material to achieve the best possible results—results of the highest possible quality with the expenditure of
least possible effect and expense, in the shortest practicable time, and in a manner acceptable to the top
management.”
Q. 3 differentiate the inspection and supervision and discuss the characteristics of supervision.
According to Adams and Dickey, “Supervision is a planned programme for the improvement.” It exists in their
opinion for one reason only to improve teaching and learning. So it is mainly concerned with “development of
teachers and pupils.”
The dictionary of education defines supervision as “all efforts of designed schools towards providing
leadership to teachers and other educational workers in the improvement of instruction ; involves the
stimulation of professional growth and development of teachers, the selection and revision of educational
objectives, materials on instruction and methods of teaching and the evaluation of instruction.” Here the word
“supervision” means to guide and stimulate the activities of teachers with a view to improve them, i.e.,
teaching as well as instruction and promoting professional growth.
Now-a-days the concept of supervision has been changed. It is not concerned merely with improvement of
teachers as it was conceived in the previous days, when the supervisory activities were directive and
prescriptive. But now according to some experts, supervision requires a super plus vision a superior
perspective attended by special preparation and position. To them the primary function of supervisors of all
types is leadership, encouragement and recognition of leadership in any other person either in the
professional staff or among the community participants.
Therefore they designate the supervisor as a leader who has possession of the following two qualities:
1. A clear perspective of the school’s goals and awareness of its resources and qualities and another is,
2. The ability to help others, contribute to this vision and to perceive and to act in accordance with it.
So it is now clear that the modern concept of supervision centres round the basic concept of instructional
improvement through leadership and co-operation of all the agencies concerned.
Keeping this in view Neagly and Evans have strongly viewed that, “Modem supervision in school is positive
democratic action aimed at the improvement of classroom instruction through the continued growth of all
concerned – the educed, the teacher, the supervisor, the administrator and the parents of others interested
lay person.”
Supporting this Barr and Burton have rightly stated that, “No doubt the aim of supervision is the improvement
of teaching but this can be facilitated through the development of the teacher, the growth of the pupil and the
improvement of the teaching-learning process as a whole.
It has been clearly visualized that the supervision seeks to be democratic in nature out and out which
demands constant efforts on the part of inspecting officers. They have to stimulate co-ordinate, guide for
continued growth of the teacher in a school, both individually and collectively in better understanding and
more effective performances of all teaching activities.
As a result of which teachers may be better able to stimulate and guide the continued growth of every pupil
towards the most intelligent participation in modern democratic society. This new concept is based on the
belief that inspection and supervision are a co-operative enterprise in which both the teacher and inspecting
officers have to participate actively.
From this discussion the term inspection has got priority in supervision which was not stressed on in earlier
days because the degree of success of any supervisory activity or programme depends upon the degree of
inspection done by the inspecting officials. Because they are the real supervisors of the educational
programme. As both supervision and inspection are meant for the same purpose and inspection covers almost
all the areas of supervision there is no necessity of bringing difference between supervision and inspection.
Scope of Supervision:
The scope of supervision is very wide which can be proved from the following aspects of education as the
scope of supervision in education:
1. The Instructional Work:
The first and foremost task of the supervisor is how to improve the instruction.
For this, he supervises:
a. Method of teaching employed for different subjects.
b. Audio-visual aids used.
c. The time table.
d. The distribution of work among teachers.
e. The written work of students and its correction.
f. Teachers lesson diaries and scheme of work.
2. Co-Curricular Activities:
The supervisor supervises the organisation of various co- curricular activities keeping in view their need and
importance.
These co-curricular activities are:
a. Games and sports
b. Dramatics
c. School magazines
d. Library services
e. Educational tours
f. Field trips and
g. Picnics
3. Records and Registers:
The supervisor has to supervise all the records and registers of an educational institution or school by
examining the following type of records:
a. Admission Register
b. Attendance Register
c. The cash book
ADVERTISEMENTS:
d. The log book
e. The Stock Register and
f. The Receipt Book
4. The School Environment:
The school environment has a profound role bringing over an improvement of educational process
For this the supervisor has to supervise the following aspects of the school environment:
a. School Discipline
b. Relationship between the head of the institution and his staff, between staff and students
c. Emotional climate of the school
d. General behaviour of students
e. Cleanliness of the surroundings
f. Goodwill of the self-government formed by students
g. Plantation of trees
h. Morale of the classroom
i. Relationship among teachers
j. Hygienic conditions of the toilet, canteen and water supply
k. Relationship of the head of the institution or school with the community members
l. Beautification of the campus
5. Management:
Supervision of management is also another aspect of the scope of supervision in education without which the
overall improvement of teaching-learning process will never be successful.
The supervision of the management of the educational institution includes the following aspects with it:
a. Co-operation of teachers and community members.
b. The ability of the headmaster to run the school or institution.
c. Co-operation, co-ordination and responsibility between teachers and headmaster in organizing any
programme.
d. Duties and responsibilities rendered by the teachers as the members of different sub-committees for
different programmes.
e. Problems with the managing committee.
f. Achievements and failures of the school.
6. Guidance to Teachers:
The supervisor has not only to supervise but also guide the headmaster and teachers in their efforts for
ensuring qualitative improvement of education.
For this supervision includes the following things in its jurisdiction:
a. Innovations in teaching
b. Remedial instruction
c. Community mobilization and support
d. Conducting seminars, conferences, meetings and workshops to discuss about problems and their solution.
7. Developmental Activities:
The supervisor supervises the developmental activities of the school in the following heads:
a. Justification of developmental activities, proposals for extension of the school building.
b. Allotment receipt and the progress made. Difficulties faced and the steps taken by the headmaster to wipe
out the difficulties, and
c. Construction of the new building and its progress.
Q. 4 describe the concept of educational planning. Also highlight the different types of educational
planning.
There are conflicting ideas about the aims or purposes of education. These disagreements have existed since
early times, relative to philosophical stands, specific contexts, and historical periods. For example, the purpose
of education in the New England colonies was to prepare the child to read the bible in order to be able to seek
salvation. Which of the aims below do you believe to be the most important? Why?
Intellectual Achievement: To provide students with academic knowledge and skills in order to prepare them
for post-secondary education or the workforce. This has been the most agreed upon aim of education. Most
parents want their children to reach high standards in math, English, history, and science.
Prosocial Values: To train students for responsible citizenship and prepare them for adulthood through
socializing them in the norms and values of society. Teachers, who symbolize authority to the child, emphasize
the values of a democratic society, such as patriotism, obedience, honesty, cooperation, competitiveness, and
moral responsibility.
Economic Competitiveness (social efficiency): To provide students with skills and knowledge needed to be
competitive in a global economy; become an effective and efficient work force; and prepare workers with
values and socialization needed in the workplace through developing attitudes such as punctuality,
cooperation, and following rules.
Personal Growth: To help students find self-fulfillment, personal relevance, clarification of personal values,
communication and self-expression skills, and development of effective learning styles. Student interests and
feelings are emphasized. The curriculum is created collaboratively between teachers and students to help
students reach their potential.
Socialization and Culture: To impart culture to students through great ideas of western culture, such as works
of art, literary classics, and basic skills so that they are literate and cultured citizens and can participate
intelligently in American society. Schools are places where students from diverse language and cultural
backgrounds learn English and learn about American traditions, holidays, historical figures, geography, and
democracy.
Social Change: To help students become productive citizens that are capable of changing the social order
through emphasis on social issues and solving of social problems. Students are provided with the knowledge
and skills to improve society and are given opportunities to see themselves as both individuals and
contributing to the group and the larger society. They are encouraged to participate in community service or
service learning, so that they become reflective and responsive about the needs and problems in their
community. A purpose of education is to advance social mobility, rather than perpetuate the status quo.
Equal Educational Opportunity: To ensure that all students have a free education, common curriculum,
opportunities for diverse students to attend the same school, and equality of financial expenditure in a given
locality. There is clear evidence that certain groups in American society are denied equal opportunity
economically, socially, and educationally. It is essential that all children, regardless of race, ethnic background,
gender, religion, socioeconomic level, or language, receive a quality education. A balance between diversity
and unity is needed in schools.
Problem Solving: To teach students how to learn through the development of thinking, research, and study
skills so that they become excellent problem solvers and creative thinkers who are capable of dealing with
change. The rapidity of change today, technological advances, and the explosion of information require that
students develop tools for lifelong learning.
‘Self-realization’ is the development and expression of characteristic attributes and potentials in a fashion
which comprehensively discloses their subject’s real nature. Usually, the ‘self’ in question is the individual
person, but the concept has also been applied to corporate bodies held to possess a unitary identity.
What constitutes the self’s ‘real nature’ is the key variable generating the many conceptions of self-realization.
These can be grouped broadly into two types: (1) the ‘collectivist’, in which the self-realizing lifestyle, being
either the same for all or specific to a person or subgroup of people, is ultimately definable only in the context,
and perhaps with reference to the common purposes, of a collective social body; (2) the ‘individualist’, in
which a person’s self-realization has no necessary connection with the ends of a particular community.
As an ethic, self-realization can be proposed as the means to achieve a life identified as good by some criterion
independent of the self-realizing process, or held to be that which actually defines the good. Its critics typically
argue that human nature is such that any equation of ‘self-realization’ and ‘goodness’ is implausible or
undesirable.
When one practices and can successfully exist without any thought then one exists as a nameless, formless,
Concentrating Entity, Consciousness, Chit Shakti (Sentient Energy), Atman (Self). This is called Self-Realization.
The Self-Realization is important because one gets to discover one’s true nature, true Self, gains the
knowledge of the only single, unchanging, ever present, Ultimate Reality, Atman / Brahman, becomes selfless
and a godly human being.
Oneness and Peace
When the knowledge of Brahman / Atman (Self-Realization) dawns, greed and selfishness would vanish.
Morals and ethics would spring from within. It promotes kindness, open-heartedness, love and compassion.
The prevailing “Profit Mentality” would give way to “Service Mentality”.
Knowledge of Brahman promotes Oneness and Peace, Unity in Diversity, Universal Brotherhood. Once we find
individual peace, we can gallop towards establishing World Peace (Vishwa Shanti) and work towards Global
Well-being (Loka Kshema). When all the people in the world live peacefully as one Global Family, it is
called Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (Maha Upanishad 6.72).
Due to Self-Realization, when we see Oneness everywhere then each one of us would be comprehensively
winning this game of life hands down and would be glad to help others win it too. Can there be any greater
success than this? Can their be any loftier ideal than this? Now can we appreciate and understand how
important the Self-Realization is. This is what Advaita Philosophy is all about.
Q. 5 critically examine the techniques and principles of classroom management. Also give suggestions for
improving our classroom management system.
According to modern educational thinking the meaning of discipline is taken in wide spread form. Today,
where the objective of education has been understood to develop qualities of successful citizenship and
sociability in child, at the same place, school discipline is meant internal and external discipline which should
develop physical, mental, social and ethical values.
Modern concept of discipline is one in which self-discipline and social disciplines are stressed especially or
particularly. The great educationist John Dewey has influenced sufficiently. He says that according to
maximum modem thoughts, the meaning of discipline is to prepare children for life in democratic society, to
provide help to man in achieving knowledge, strength, habits, interest and ideas which are envisaged for the
up-gradation of self, his companies and whole of the society.
Importance of Discipline:
Discipline is very much important in life. In absence of it man cannot utilize powers properly given by nature
(God). Through discipline only man can attain power and by this power he becomes capable of developing of
his natural tendencies with personal view point. Along with it, discipline is also very much important from
social view point. The great philosopher, Aristotle said, “A nation is not built by mountains and trees, for
withstanding it is built by character of its citizens”.
This statement is completely true. When the citizens of some country would be disciplined they would be
capable of taking their country on the path of progress. A disciplined person is of good character, and pious by
mind, words and actions. In this way, it is clear that for nation or entire society discipline is very important.
This fact can be made clear with the help of history also.
The history is witnessed to the time, when some country becomes prey of indiscipline; it had to accept slavery
of external powers. Through discipline, a man and entire society or nation get alert. In want of it, this power
perishes which results severe consequences. In this way, what a man, what a nation and what a society,
personality of all is made by the great by discipline.
Discipline in Educational Institution:
Discipline in schools generally means, “Orders and system in doing things, regularity and obedience to
commands.” But discipline is not synonymous with class order. It should be identified with orderly behaviour
in the classroom and other forms of school activities. Outward show of order can also be maintained by force
of fear. That is not real discipline. Real discipline implies persuasion while order implies compulsion.
It is therefore important that school discipline or discipline in the educational institution should be there for a
gradual building up of habits, self-control and co-operation and carried out pupils, not because it is imposed
from above, but because of the recognition by its necessity and value. So, discipline in educational institution
or school should imply the cultivation of certain desirable attitudes, habits and values in pupils.
Components of Discipline:
Some of the most important components of discipline which are used in educational institutions are as
follows:
The foundation of discipline is deeply rooted in the total school programme and classroom situation.
It has a set of components, these are as follows:
(i) Head of the Institution:
The success or failure of any educational institution depends upon the personality of the head of that
educational institution. He must possess some philosophy of discipline. He must have some well grounded
fundamental principles which guide him to his treat the teachers and students.
(ii) The Teacher:
The teacher is the fountain head of discipline and character formation. With good teachers, half the problem
of school discipline disappears. Besides, his cleverness and originality, every teacher should be a good
disciplinarian himself. This will depend on his keen insight, patience, sympathy, love, justice and impartiality.
(iii) Co-curricular Activities:
Sports, Scouting, N.C.C., Social Service and community activities of the type, develop in students a sense of
self-control and self-confidence, which is the cornerstone of discipline. Such activities give our students
practical lessons on the basis of their will. Social co-operation, respect for authority and leadership training
can pave the right way of instructing them in the fundamentals of true discipline.
(iv) Building up Traditions:
It is already known to every-body that the higher and nobler the traditions built-up by a school, the greater
the efforts on the part of students and teachers to maintain those traditions. Traditions are transmitted from
one generation of students to the other and as such, if properly guided, students would never try to lower the
noble traditions built by those who have gone before them.
(v) Teaching Methods:
If appropriate methods of teaching are employed, the chances of students getting in-disciplined or going
astray, will be few and far between. Classroom methods should be directed towards producing well-adjusted
and self-disciplined individuals and towards the building up of a high morale.
(vi) Self-Government in Schools:
In every secondary school, students should be properly associated with the administration of discipline as well
as with the health, sports, dramatics and other school activities. Such an association will make them obedient
to rules and regulations far more real, meaningful and willing than when the same is imposed from above.
(vii) A Good School Environment:
Every educational institution or school should prepare its calendar in the beginning of new educational
session, giving a clear idea of the aims, the courses of study, administrative rules and regulations, as well as
the plans of curricular and co-curricular activities of the institution,
(viii) Judicious use of Rewards and Punishments:
Meritorious and successful efforts on the part of students, must be recognized and rewarded. But rewards
must not encourage unhealthy competition among students. These should be very few and administered, in a
manner that may appeal to the higher motive of students.
(ix) Effective Team-Workers:
A sense of unity, co-operation and fellow feeling, prevailing among the school staff is sure to reflect upon the
pupils. The young pupils in schools watch very minutely the activities of their teachers and try to imitate them
for good or bad, as the case may be. It is therefore necessary that in order to promote discipline among pupils,
it must first be established and maintained among the members of school-staff.
Principles for Maintaining Discipline:
(1) The base of discipline should be love, trust and goodwill as fear or doubt based discipline is quite
temporary or momentary. For maintaining true discipline, there should be love for each other among school
authorities like principal, teachers and students. Love originates trust and sets the foundation of discipline.
(2) Good discipline should be based on co-operation. It is most essential to keep and maintain co-operation
between principal and teachers, teachers and lady teachers, teachers and pupils, teachers and guardians and
students and students. If there would be no co-operation it would be very difficult to maintain good discipline.
For this we have to establish rapport among all necessarily.
(3) For maintaining discipline, punishment should not be used. If someone does not leave his bad habits in any
way only then its use would be necessary. If punishment is used again and again, it may create various kinds of
complexes in the mind of pupils. Due to this their personality might be imbalanced. Hence, punishment should
not be used as far as possible.
(4) The entire climate of school should be made beautiful and coordinating. This responsibility should not be
borne by teachers and authorities alone. Rather for creating this type of atmosphere the students, guardians
and whole of the society will have to take responsibility.
(5) Various creative activities should be given place in the school or educational institution, so that, children
may derive mental and emotional satisfaction by doing the various activities according to their interests. For
this there will be no possibility of creating problems of indiscipline.
(6) The children should be imparted knowledge about the importance of discipline. For this, only discourses
are not enough through the examples of the various great persons. Rather the knowledge regarding this
should be imparted to the children and the principal himself and teachers should produce their examples
before them.
(7) Sufficient liberty and facilities should be given to the students and teachers for doing their duties in the
educational institution or in the school.
(8) The guardians should be encouraged for making family life beautiful and comfortable as the child passes
most of his time in home. If the family life is not appropriate rather it is contaminated, there would be
possibility of failure of good efforts of school. Thus, through various means, the guardians should be
motivated for making their family life healthy and adaptable.
School discipline is the system of rules, punishments and behavioral strategies appropriate to the regulation
of children and the maintenance of order in schools. Its aim is to create a safe and conducive learning
environment in the classroom.
School discipline has two main goals: (1) ensure the safety of staff and students, and (2) create an
environment conducive to learning. Serious student misconduct involving violent or criminal behavior defeats
these goals and often makes headlines in the process. However, the commonest discipline problems involve
noncriminal student behavior (Moles 1989).
It is important to keep the ultimate goal in mind while working to improve school discipline. As education
researcher Daniel Duke (1989) points out, "the goal of good behavior is necessary, but not sufficient to ensure
academic growth." Effective school discipline strategies seek to encourage responsible behavior and to
provide all students with a satisfying school experience as well as to discourage misconduct.
The word “discipline’ is derived from the Latin root “disciples” meaning a pupil or disciple. Naturally, the
problem of discipline was taken to consist in bringing the conduct of the pupils into conformity with ideas and
standards of the master. The pupil had to develop the virtue of docility and plasticity so that the teacher might
impress his personality on them and mould them in his own image. This was the conception of the relationship
between pupil and teacher everywhere. Its modern concept is very broad and inclusive one. It does not
recognize difference between mental and moral behavior for the purpose of control, nor, in fact for any other
purpose.
In fact, the individual mind is conceived of “as a function of social life-as not capable of operating by itself but
as requiring continual stimulus from social agencies and finding its nutrition in social purpose”.
Modern view of discipline is to bring the same unity in the educative process and educative material as we
find in real life. School must be a social organism in which social situations should be provided to stimulate
and direct the impulses of the pupils in the pursuit of the common purposes through cooperative or shared
activity. To obtain good result is also another view. Cooperation should improve the intellectual, moral, social
and physical activities of the students in school environment and these must be directed towards the
realization of the certain goals.
Purpose of the discipline is also develop the attitudes, habits, ideas, and code of conduct through the medium
of the social life of the school which should be organized on a cooperative basis and inspired by higher ethical
teaching of religion.
The purpose of discipline is to help the individual to acquire knowledge, habits, interests and ideals which
conduce to the well being of himself, his fellows and society as a whole. It gives realization to the school that it
must be reconstructed on the lines of the development and conscious pursuit of common ends in a
cooperative spirit, each member contributing to the common good in accordance with special gifts. Life in the
school thus organized becomes similar to the, and continuous with, life in democratic society, and discipline
becomes co-extensive with the whole of school life.
Main points
1. Discipline gives children a feeling of security by telling them what they may and may not do.
2. It helps children to avoid from frequent feelings of guilt and shame for misbehavior-feelings that
inevitably lead to unhappiness and poor adjustment.
3. Discipline enables children to live according to standards approved by the social group and thus to win
social approval.
4. Through discipline, children learn to behave in a way that leads to praise that, they interpret as
indications of love and acceptance which is essential to successful adjustment and happiness.
5. Discipline serves as an ego-bolstering motivation, which encourages children to accomplish what is
required of them.
6. Discipline helps children to develop a conscious the “internalized voice” that guides them in making
their own decisions and controlling their own behavior.
References:
1. Mingst, K. "Cases and the Interactive Classroom", International Studies Notes, 1994, 19 (2):1-6.
2. Naumes, William, Art and Craft of Case Writing, Sharpe Reference; 2nd Edition (March 30, 2006).
3. Ortmayer, L. L. "Decisions and Dilemmas: Writing Case Studies in International Affairs", International
Studies Notes, 1994, 19 (2): 28-33.
4. Rohdes, Carolyn, Pivotal Decisions: Selected Cases in Twentieth-Century International Politics, Fort
Worth: Harcourt College Publishers, 2000.
5. Robyn, D. "What Makes a Good Case?" Kennedy School of Government Case Program, 1986, N15-86-
673.
6. Rukstad, M. G. Macroeconomic Decision-Making in the World Economy, Fort Worth, Texas: Dryden
Press, 1992.

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Scope and dynamics of Islamic administration

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Course Code: 8605

Course Name: Educational Leadership and

Allama Iqbal Open University Islamabad

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