COMPONENT DETAILS

1) REGULATOR IC 7805

Features

 5V Positive Voltage Regulator

 Minimum Input Voltage is 7V
 Maximum Input Voltage is 25V
 Operating current(IQ) is 5mA     
 Internal Thermal Overload and Short circuit current limiting protection is available.
 Junction Temperature maximum 125 degree Celsius
 Available in TO-220 and KTE package

Voltage regulators are very common in electronic circuits. They provide a constant
output voltage for a varied input voltage. In our case the 7805 IC is an iconic regulator IC that
finds its application in most of the projects. The name 7805 signifies two meaning, “78” means
that it is a positive voltage regulator and “05” means that it provides 5V as output. So our 7805
will provide a +5V output voltage.

The output current of this IC can go up to 1.5A. But, the IC suffers from heavy heat loss
hence a Heat sink is recommended for projects that consume more current. For example if the
input voltage is 12V and you are consuming 1A, then (12-5) * 1 = 7W. This 7 Watts will be
dissipated as heat. 
 2) DRIVER IC ULN2003

Features

 Contains 7 high-voltage and high current Darlington pairs

 Each pair is rated for 50V and 500mA
 Input pins can be triggered by +5V
 All seven Output pins can be connected to gather to drive loads up to (7×500mA) ~3.5A.
 Can be directly controlled by logic devices like Digital Gates, DRIVERS, PIC etc
 Available in 16-pin DIP, TSSOP, SOIC packages

ULN2003 IC is one of the most commonly used Motor driver IC. This IC comes in handy
when we need to drive high current loads using digital logic circuits like Op-maps, Timers,
Gates, DRIVERS, PIC, ARM etc. For example a RELAY that requires 12V and 300mA to run
cannot be powered by an PIC I/O hence we use this IC to source enough current and voltage for
the load. This IC is commonly used to drive Relay modules, Motors, high current LEDs and even
Stepper Motors. So if you have anything that anything more than 5V 80mA to work, then this IC
would be the right choice for you.

The ULN2003 is a 16-pin IC. It has seven Darlington Pairs inside, where each can drive
loads up to 50V and 500mA. For these seven Darlington Pairs we have seven Input and Output
Pins. Adding to that we can a ground and Common pin. The ground pin, as usual is grounded
and the usage of Common pin is optional. It might be surprising to note that this IC does not
have any Vcc (power) pin; this is because the power required for the transistors to work will be
drawn from the input pin itself.

3) PIC16F886 – 8 Bit Microcontroller

 PIC16F886 is microcontroller from ‘PIC16F’ family and is made by MICROCHIP
TECHNOLOGY. It is an 8-Bit CMOS Microcontroller with nano-Watt Technology. This
microcontroller is popular among hobbyists and engineers due its features and cost.

PIC16F886 Microcontroller Overview

PIC16F886 is a microcontroller good for experimenting and developing applications

because it has high flash memory rewrite cycle. Also there are a lot of tutorials and support
available online. The controller has 16KBytes flash memory which is enough for many
applications. Along with 24 programmable Input/output pins which are developed to handle
20mA current (direct LED driving capability) the system can interface many peripherals easily.
With Watchdog timer to reset under error automatically the controller can be used to develop
applications of permanent installation.

How to Use PIC16F886 Microcontroller

Like any other microcontroller, PIC16F886 needed to be programmed before getting the
chip working. So for working of PIC16F886, first we need to save the appropriate program file
in the controller FLASH memory. Once power is provided, the controller executes this code
saved in FLASH memory to create the response.

Pin Configuration
PIC16F886 is a 28 pin IC and each pin can perform multiple functions as shown in above
PIC16F886 pin diagram. The description for each of these pins is given below.

Pin Pin Name Description

Number

1 RE3/MCLR/VPP RE3: Pin3 of  Port E

MCLR: Master Clear Input or Reset pin
VPP: Programming voltage

2 RA0/AN0/ULPWU/C12IN0- RA0: Pin0 of Port A

AN0: Analog input 0
ULPWU: Ultra Low-Power Wake-up input
C12IN0-: Comparator C1 or C2 negative input

3 RA1/AN1/C12IN1- RA1: Pin1 of Port A

AN1: Analog input 1
C12IN1-: Comparator C1 or C2 negative input

4 RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF/C2IN+ RA2: Pin2 of Port A

AN2: Analog input 2
VREF-: A/D reference voltage (low) input
CVREF: Comparator voltage reference output
C2IN+: Comparator C2 positive input

5 RA3/AN3/VREF+/C1IN+ RA3: Pin3 of Port A

AN3: Analog input 3
VREF+: A/D reference voltage (high) input
C1IN+: Comparator C1 positive input

6 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT RA4: Pin4 of Port A

T0CKI: Timer0 external clock input
C1OUT: Comparator C1 output

7 RA5/AN4/SS/ C2OUT RA5: Pin5 of Port A

AN4: Analog input 4
SS: SPI slave select input
C2OUT: Comparator C2 output

8 VSS Ground

9 RA7/OSC1/CLKIN RA7: Pin7 of Port A

OSC1:Oscillator pin 1
CLKI: External clock source input

10 RA6/OSC2/CLKOUT RA6: Pin6 of Port A

OSC2: Oscillator pin 2
CLKO: Clock source output

11 RC0/T1OSO/T1CKI RC0: Pin0 of Port C

T1OSO :Timer1 oscillator output
T1CKI: Timer1 external clock input

12 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2 RC1: Pin1 of Port C

T1OSI: Timer1 oscillator input
 CCP2:Capture 2 input/Compare 2 output/PWM2 output

13 RC2/P1A/CCP1 RC2: Pin2 of Port C

P1A: PWM output
CCP1: Capture 1 input/Compare 1 output/PWM1 output.

14 RC3/SCK/SCL RC3: Pin3 of Port C

SCK: SPI clock
SCL: I2C clock

15 RC4/SDI/SDA RC4: Pin4 of Port C

SDI: SPI data input
SDA: I2C data I/O

16 RC5/SDO RC5: Pin5 of Port C

SDO: SPI data out

17 RC6/TX/CK RC6: Pin6 of Port C

TX: EUSART asynchronous transmit
CK: EUSART synchronous clock

18 RC7/RX/DT RC7: Pin7 of Port C

RX: EUSART asynchronous receive
DT: EUSART synchronous data

19 VSS Ground

20 VDD Positive Power Supply

21 RB0/AN12/INT RB0: Pin0 of Port B

AN12: Analog input 12
INT: External interrupt

22 RB1/AN10/P1C/C12IN3- RB1: Pin1 of Port B

AN10: Analog input 10
P1W: PWM output
C12IN3-: Comparator C1 or C2 negative input

23 RB2/AN8/P1B RB2: Pin2 of Port B

AN8: Analog input 8
P1B: PWM output

24 RB3/AN9/PGM/C12IN2- RB3: Pin3 of Port B

AN9: Analog input 9
PGM: Low-voltage ICSP Programming enable pin
C12IN2-: Comparator C1 or C2 negative input

25 RB4/AN11/P1D RB4: Pin4 of Port B

AN11: Analog input 11
P1D: PWM output

26 RB5/AN13/T1G RB5 Pin5 of Port B

AN13: Analog input 13
T1G: Timer1 Gate input

27 RB6/ICSPCLK RB6: Pin6 of Port B

 ICSPCLK: Serial Programming Clock

28 RB7/ICSPDAT RB7: Pin7 of Port B

ICSPDAT: ICSP Data I/O

4) LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY(LCD)

Features of 16×2 LCD module

 Operating Voltage is 4.7V to 5.3V

 Current consumption is 1mA without backlight
 Alphanumeric LCD display module, meaning can display alphabets and numbers
 Consists of two rows and each row can print 16 characters.
 Each character is build by a 5×8 pixel box
 Can work on both 8-bit and 4-bit mode
 It can also display any custom generated characters
 Available in Green and Blue Backlight

Brief Description on LCD modules

LCD modules are very commonly used in most embedded projects, the reason being its
cheap price, availability and programmer friendly. Most of us would have come across these
displays in our day to day life, either at PCO’s or calculators. The appearance and the pinouts
have already been visualized above now let us get a bit technical.
16×2 LCD is named so because; it has 16 Columns and 2 Rows. There are a lot of
combinations available like, 8×1, 8×2, 10×2, 16×1, etc. but the most used one is the 16×2 LCD.
So, it will have (16×2=32) 32 characters in total and each character will be made of 5×8 Pixel
Dots.  A Single character with all its Pixels is shown in the below picture.
 Now, we know that each character has (5×8=40) 40 Pixels and for 32 Characters we will
have (32×40) 1280 Pixels. Further, the LCD should also be instructed about the Position of the
Pixels. Hence it will be a hectic task to handle everything with the help of MCU, hence
an Interface IC like HD44780is used, which is mounted on the backside of the LCD Module
itself. The function of this IC is to get the Commands and Data from the MCU and process
them to display meaningful information onto our LCD Screen. You can learn how to interface an
LCD using the above mentioned links. If you are an advanced programmer and would like to
create your own library for interfacing your Microcontroller with this LCD module then you
have to understand the HD44780 IC is working and commands which can be found its datasheet.

5) RELAY
How to Use a Relay.

Relays are most commonly used switching device in electronics. There are two important
parameters of relay, first is the Trigger Voltage, this is the voltage required to turn on the relay
that is to change the contact from Common → NC to Common → NO. The other parameter is
your Load Voltage & Current, this is the amount of voltage or current that the NC, NO or
Common terminal of the relay could withstand, in our case for DC it is maximum of 30V and
10A. Make sure the load you are using falls into this range.

The above diagram is for relay triggering circuit. Since the relay has 12V trigger voltage
we have used a +12V DC supply to one end of the coil and the other end to ground through a
switch. For switching we are using a transistor as a switching device. You can also notice a diode
connected across the coil of the relay, this diode is called the Fly back Diode. The purpose of the
diode is to protect the switch from high voltage spike that can produced by the relay coil. As
shown one end of the load can be connected to the Common pin and the other end is either
connected to NO or NC. If connected to NO the load remains disconnected before trigger and if
connected to NC the load remains connected before trigger.

6 TRANSFORMER (CENTER TAPPED)

Specifications

 Step-down Centre tapped Transformer

 Input Voltage: 220V AC at 50Hz
 Output Voltage: 24V, 12V or 0V
 Output Current: 1A
 Vertical mount type
 Low cost and small package

A centre-tapped transformer also known as two phase three wire transformer is

normally used for rectifier circuits. When a digital project has to work with AC mains a
Transformer is used to step-down the voltage (in our case, to 24V or 12V) and then convert it to
DC by using a rectifier circuit. In a center-tapped transformer the peak inverse voltage is twice as
in bridge rectifier hence this transformer is commonly used in full wave rectifier circuits.

How to use Center Tapped Transformer

The operation and theory behind a Center tapped transformer is very similar to a normal
secondary transformer. A primary voltage will be induced in the primary coil (I1 and I3) and due
to magnetic induction the voltage will be transferred to the secondary coil. Here in the secondary
coil of a centre tapped transformer, there will be an additional wire (T2) which will be placed
exactly at the center of the secondary coil, hence the voltage here will always be zero.

If we combine this zero potential wire (T2) with either T1 or T2, we will get a voltage of
12V AC. If this wire is ignored and voltage across T1 and T2 is considered then we will get a
voltage of 24V AC. This feature is very useful for the function of a full wave rectifier.

SERVO
Wire Configuration

Wire Wire Colour Description

Number

1 Brown Ground wire connected to the ground of system

2 Red Powers the motor typically +5V is used

3 Orange PWM signal is given in through this wire to drive the motor

TowerPro SG-90 Features

 Operating Voltage is +5V typically

 Torque: 2.5kg/cm
 Operating speed is 0.1s/60°
 Gear Type: Plastic
 Rotation : 0°-180°
 Weight of motor : 9gm
 Package includes gear horns and screws

Servo motors operates from 4.8V to 6.5V, the higher the voltage higher the torque we can achieve, but most
commonly they are operated at +5V.  Almost all hobby servo motors can rotate only from 0° to 180° due to
their gear arrangement so make sure you project can live with the half circle if no, you can prefer for a 0° to
360° motor or modify the motor to make a full circle. The gears in the motors are easily subjected to wear and
tear, so if your application requires stronger and long running motors you can go with metal gears or just stick
with normal plastic gear.
Next comes the most important parameter, which is the torque at which the motor operates. Again
there are many choices here but the commonly available one is the 2.5kg/cm torque which comes with the
Tower pro SG90 Motor. This 2.5kg/cm torque means that the motor can pull a weight of 2.5kg when it is
suspended at a distance of 1cm. So if you suspend the load at 0.5cm then the motor can pull a load of 5kg
similarly if you suspend the load at 2cm then can pull only 1.25. Based on the load which you use in the
project you can select the motor with proper torque. The below picture will illustrate the same.
How to use a Servo Motor
After selecting the right Servo motor for the project, comes the question how to use it. As we know there are
three wires coming out of this motor. The description of the same is given on top of this page. To make this
motor rotate, we have to power the motor with +5V using the Red and Brown wire and send PWM signals to
the Orange colour wire. Hence we need something that could generate PWM signals to make this motor work,
this something could be anything like a 555 Timer or other Microcontroller platforms like Arduino, PIC, ARM
or even a microprocessor like Raspberry Pie. Now, how to control the direction of the motor? To understand
that let us a look at the picture given in the datasheet.

From the picture we can understand that the PWM signal produced should have a frequency of 50Hz that is the
PWM period should be 20ms. Out of which the On-Time can vary from 1ms to 2ms. So when the on-time is
1ms the motor will be in 0° and when 1.5ms the motor will be 90°, similarly when it is 2ms it will be 180°. So,
by varying the on-time from 1ms to 2ms the motor can be controlled from 0° to 180°
 

Applications

 Used as actuators in many robots like Biped Robot, Hexapod, robotic arm etc..
 Commonly used for steering system in RC toys
 Robots where position control is required without feedback
 Less weight hence used in multi DOF robots like humanoid robots

 
MOTOR DRIVER IC L293D
Features

 Can be used to run Two DC motors with the same IC.

 Speed and Direction control is possible
 Motor voltage Vcc2 (Vs): 4.5V to 36V
 Maximum Peak motor current: 1.2A
 Maximum Continuous Motor Current: 600mA
 Supply Voltage to Vcc1(vss): 4.5V to 7V
 Transition time: 300ns (at 5Vand 24V)
 Automatic Thermal shutdown is available
 Available in 16-pin DIP, TSSOP, SOIC packages

Where to use L293D IC

The L293D is a popular 16-Pin Motor Driver IC. As the name suggests it is mainly used to drive motors. A
single L293D IC is capable of running two DC motors at the same time; also the direction of these two motors
can be controlled independently. So if you have motors which has operating voltage less than 36V and
operating current less than 600mA, which are to be controlled by digital circuits like Op-Amp, 555 timers,
digital gates or even Micron rollers like Arduino, PIC, ARM etc.. this IC will be the right choice for you.

How to use a L293D Motor Driver IC

Using this L293D motor driver IC is very simple. The IC works on the principle of Half H-Bridge, let us not
go too deep into what H-Bridge means, but for now just know that H bridge is a set up which is used to run
motors both in clock wise and anti clockwise direction. As said earlier this IC is capable of running two motors
at the any direction at the same time, the circuit to achieve the same is shown below.
 All the Ground pins should be grounded. There are two power pins for this IC, one is the Vss(Vcc1)
which provides the voltage for the IC to work, this must be connected to +5V. The other is Vs(Vcc2) which
provides voltage for the motors to run, based on the specification of your motor you can connect this pin to
anywhere between 4.5V to 36V, here I have connected to +12V.
The Enable pins (Enable 1,2 and Enable  3,4)  are used to Enable Input pins for Motor 1 and Motor 2
respectively. Since in most cases we will be using both the motors both the pins are held high by default by
connecting to +5V supply. The input pins Input 1,2 are used to control the motor 1 and Input pins 3,4 are used
to control the Motor 2. The input pins are connected to the any Digital circuit or microcontroller to control the
speed and direction of the motor. You can toggle the input pins based on the following table to control your
motor.

Applications

 Used to drive high current Motors using Digital Circuits

 Can be used to drive Stepper motors
 High current LED’s can be driven
 Relay Driver module (Latching Relay is possible)

 
L298 - Dual Full-Bridge Driver IC

L298 is a high power version of L293 motor driver IC. It is a high voltage, high current,
dual full-bridge driver designed to accept standard TTL logic levels (Control Logic) and drive
inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, DC and Stepper motors. Two enable inputs are
provided to Enable or disable the device independently of the input signals. The emitters of the
lower transistors of each bridge are connected together and the corresponding external terminal
can be used for the connection of an external sensing resistor.

Features and Specifications

 Operating voltage range: +5 to +46V

 Maximum supply voltage:50V
 Maximum Input and Enable Voltage:+7V
 Maximum current allowed to draw through each output: 3A
 TTL control inputs
 Total power dissipation:25W
 Operating temperature: -23°C  to 130°C
 Storage Temperature: -40°C  to 150°C

Whereto Use L298 IC

Here are few areas where L298 is preferred:
 L298 is basically used where H- BRIDGE is required.
 Where a high power motor driver is required. In the marked there are H-bridges like
L293 which are used for low powered application while L298 is specially designed for high
power applications.
 Where current control and PWM operable single chip device is needed.
 The chip is preferred when control unit can only provide TTL outputs
Also the chip does not need any additional components to be installed for operating.
How to Use L298 IC

For understanding the working of L298 IC, consider the simple circuit configuration shown
below.

Here we are using one of H-BRIGES of l298 IC. As shown in circuit we have two push
buttons Q1 and Q2 which act as controls inputs for bridge-A. These logic inputs are provided by
Microcontroller or Microprocessor in application circuits. The four diodes are FLYBACK
diodes used for protecting the IC form inductive voltage spikes. The enable pin is pulled high
through a resistor so bridge-A will be functioning all the time. If it’s pulled to ground the bridge-
A will be disabled no matter the input control logic.

After all the circuit is setup we need to press the buttons Q1 and Q2 to change the flow of current
between pins OUT1 and OUT2. 
IRFZ44N N-Channel Power MOSFET

The IRFZ44N is a N-channel MOSFET with a high drain current of 49A and low Rds value of
17.5 mΩ. It also has a low threshold voltage of 4V at which the MOSFET will start conducting.
Hence it is commonly used with microcontrollers to drive with 5V. However a driver circuit is
needed if the MOSFET has to be switched in completely.

Features
• Small signal N-Channel MOSFET
• Continuous Drain Current (ID) is 49A at 25°C
• Pulsed Drain Current (ID-peak) is 160A
• Minimum Gate threshold voltage (VGS-th) is 2V
• Maximum Gate threshold voltage (VGS-th) is 4V
• Gate-Source Voltage is (VGS) is ±20V (max)
• Maximum Drain-Source Voltage (VDS) is 55V
• Rise time and fall time is about 60ns and 45ns respectively.
• It is commonly used with Arduino, due to its low threshold current.
• Available in To-220 package

How to use IRFZ44N MOSFET

Unlike transistors MOSFET’s are voltage controlled devices. Meaning, they can be turned on or
turned off by supplying the required Gate threshold voltage (VGS). IRFZ44N is an N-channel
MOSFET, so the Drain and Source pins will be left open when there is no voltage applied to the
gate pin. When a gate voltage is applied these pins gets closed.
If it is required to be switched with Arduino, then a simple drive circuit using a transistor will
work to provide the required gate voltage to trigger the MOSFET to open fully. For other
switching and amplifying applications, a dedicated MOFET Driver IC is required.

Applications

 Switching high power devices

 Control speed of motors
 LED dimmers or flashers
 High Speed switching applications
 Converters or Inverter circuits
SG3524 Regulating Pulse Width Modulator IC

The SG3524 IC incorporates all the functions required in the construction of a regulating power
supply, inverter, or switching regulator on a single chip. SG3524 also can be used as the
control element for high-power-output applications.

SG3524 Specifications & Features

 Supply Voltage: 8V to 40V

 Output Voltage: 4.6 V to 5.4 V
 Output Current: 50 mA
 Number of Outputs: 2 Output
 Topology: Boost, Buck, Fly-back, Forward, Push-Pull
 Switching Frequency: 722 kHz
 Duty Cycle - Max: 45 %
 Fall Time: 100 ns
 Rise Time: 200 ns
 Available in 16-pin PDIP, PDSO, and SOIC Packages
 ACCELEROMETER ADXL 335

The ADXL335 is a small, low power, complete 3-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage outputs.
It can measure the static acceleration of gravity in tilt-sensing applications, as well as dynamic acceleration
resulting from motion, shock, or vibration.
 

ADXL335 Pinout Configuration

Pin Name Description

VCC The Vcc pin powers the module, typically with +5V

GND Power Supply Ground

X X-axis Analog Output Pin

Y Y-axis Analog Output Pin

Z Z-axis Analog Output Pin

ST Self-Test Pin. This pin controls the Self-Test feature.

Accelerometer Module Features & Specifications

 Operating Voltage: 3V to 6V DC
 Operating Current: 350μA
 Sensing Range: ±3g
 3-axis sensing
 High Sensitivity for small movements
 Needs no external components
 Easy to use with Microcontrollers or even with normal Digital/Analog IC
 Small, cheap and easily available

Brief about Accelerometer Module

 This ADXL335 Accelerometer module consists of an ADXL335 Accelerometer IC,
Voltage Regulator IC, resistors, and capacitors in an integrated circuit. Different manufacturers
use a different voltage regulator IC. Most of the modules use XC6206P332MR (662K) IC.
ADXL335 IC from Analog Devices is the brain of this module. The ADXL335 is a small,
thin, low power, complete 3-axis accelerometer with signal conditioned voltage outputs. The
product measures acceleration with a minimum full-scale range of ±3 g.
Apart from ADXL335 IC this module also consists of a 3.3V voltage regulator IC.  

How to Use the ADXL335 Accelerometer Module

ADXL335 Accelerometer module consists of six pins i.e. VCC, GND, X, Y, Z, and ST.
Using the Accelerometer module with a microcontroller is very easy. Connect VCC and GND
pins to 5V and GND pins of Microcontroller. Also connect X, Y, and Z pins to the Analog pins
of Arduino. The basic structure of the accelerometer consists of fixed plates and moving plates.
When the acceleration is applied on an axis capacitance between fixed plates and moving plates
is changed. This results in a sensor output voltage amplitude which is proportional to the
acceleration.

GSM MODEM
The SIM900A is a readily available GSM/GPRS module,used in many mobile phones and PDA. The module
can also be used for developing IOT (Internet of Things) and Embedded Applications. SIM900A is a dual-
band GSM/GPRS engine that works on frequencies EGSM 900MHz and DCS 1800MHz. SIM900A features
GPRS multi-slot class 10/ class 8 (optional) and supports the GPRS coding schemes CS-1, CS-2, CS-3 and
CS-4.

SIM900A GSM MODULE Features

 Single supply voltage: 3.4V – 4.5V

 Power saving mode: Typical power consumption in SLEEP mode is 1.5mA
 Frequency bands:SIM900A Dual-band: EGSM900, DCS1800. The SIM900A can search the two
frequency bands automatically. The frequency bands also can be set by AT command.
 GSM class: Small MS
 GPRS connectivity:GPRS multi-slot class 10 (default) , GPRS multi-slot class 8 (option)
 Transmitting power: Class 4 (2W) at EGSM 900, Class 1 (1W) at DCS 1800
 Operating Temperature: -30ºC to +80ºC
 Storage Temperature: -5ºC to +90ºC
 DATA GPRS: download transfer max is 85.6KBps, Upload transfer max 42.8KBps
 Supports CSD, USSD, SMS, FAX
 Supports MIC and Audio Input
 Speaker Input
 Features keypad interface
 Features display interface
 Features Real Time Clock
 Supports UART interface
 Supports single SIM card          
 Firmware upgrade by debug port
 Communication by using AT commands

GPS MODULE
 A GPS (Global Positioning System) module and is used for navigation. The module
simply checks its location on earth and provides output data which is longitude and latitude of its
position.It is from a family of stand-alone GPS receivers featuring the high performance 65
positioning engine. These flexible and cost effective receivers offer numerous connectivity
options in a miniature (16 x 12.2 x 2.4 mm) package. The compact architecture, power and
memory options make CH-65 modules ideal for battery operated mobile devices with very
strict cost and space constraints. Its Innovative design gives CH-65 excellent navigation
performance even in the most challenging environments.

Features and Electrical Characteristics

 Standalone GPS receiver

 Anti-jamming technology
 UART Interface at the output pins (Can use SPI ,I2C and USB by soldering pins to the
chip core)
 Under 1 second time-to-first-fix for hot and aided starts
 Receiver type: 65 Channels - GPS L1 frequency  - SBAS (WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS,
GAGAN)
 Time-To-First-fix:  For Cold Start 32s, For Warm Start 23s, For Hot Start <1s
 Maximum navigation update rate: 5Hz
 Default baud rate: 9600bps
 EEPROM with battery backup
 Sensitivity:  -160dBm
 Supply voltage: 3.6V
 Maximum DC current at any output: 10mA
 Operation limits: Gravity-4g, Altitude-50000m, Velocity-500m/s
 Operating temperature range: -40ºC TO 85°C

This module is one of popular GPS modules on the market and is also cheap to buy. The
location data provided by it is accurate enough to satisfy most applications. And for it to be
included in smart phones and tablets design points out its efficiency. This module is famous
among hobbyist and engineers altogether who want to work on applications involving
navigation.
 

How to use the GPS Module

 Getting this module to work is very easy. For the application circuit below we have
connected the power to board and interfaced the output to the microcontroller UART to get it
done.

After circuitry you need to set the baud rate of the controller matching the module, if it’s
not matched you will get error. With baud rate setting done you can read the serial data directly
from the module. This data will be longitude and latitude values and the user can play with them
as desired.
The raw values provided by the module are cumbersome to read directly and so a simple
decimal calculation can be done in programming for getting easy to read values.

RFID READER
 The term RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification, as the name defines the
operation of the device is based on the Radio frequency signals. The RFID systems consists of
RFID Reader and a tag which is normally used in identification and tracking of objects. Before
discussing more about the RFID, let’s see the uniqueness of this technology and its general
application. Today in most cases barcodes are used for identifying an item in a warehouse or a
supermarket using a barcode scanner, this existing system can be upgraded with the RFID
technology. Similar to barcode the RFID can also give unique identification number to all
products but the added advantage is unlike the barcode system’s line of sight, this system can
detect the RFID tag within its proximity range. Meaning you do not need a human to search for
the barcode and point the barcode scanner on it. With this feature most of the system can be
automated and human intervention can be minimized because the tag can be scanned and billed
automatically when it reaches the RFID reader. RFID door locks and RFID attendance
system are very popular now days and many hotels provide provide RFID tag to their customer
to lock and unlock the door.

RFID System Construction

Any RFID System will consist of a RFID reader and a RFID tag. The tag will often be small and
portable with little to no electronics in it. We will learn more about the tags later in this article, a
simple RFID system can be represented using the below block diagram.

RFID Reader
It is a device which consists of an antenna, transceiver and a decoder.
 Transceiver: It can be used either as a transmitter or a receiver. It consists of an oscillator
to generate a continuous signal which is modulated to a required frequency and then
transmitted into air through an antenna.
 Antenna: It is a device which converts the electrical signal into electromagnetic signal
which is efficient in propagating the signal in air.
 Decoder: When a RF signal is detected at the antenna from a tag, the decoder helps in
retrieving the data.

How does RFID work? Working principle of RFID system

A RFID reader stays powered on all the time and is normally powered from an external
power source. So when it is ON, the oscillator in it generates a signal with a desired frequency
but as the signal strength will be very less (which may lead to fading off the signal if it is
transmitted directly) it has to be amplified which can be done using an amplifier circuit, inorder
to propogate the signal to a longer distance we need to modulate the signal which is done by a
modulator. With all these improvements the signal is now ready to be transmitted which can be
done by an antenna which converts the electrical signal into a electromagnetic signal.
The RFID reader signals are everywhere with it’s promity to detect a tag. When a RFID
tag comes in the proxmity of the RFID reader the tag detects the readers signal through a coil
present in it which converts the received RF signal into a electrical signal. This converted signal
alone is sufficient to power up the microchip present in the tag. Once the microchip gets powered
up, its function is to send the data (unique ID) which it is stored in it. The same way the signal
came in, it is sent out through the same coil into the air.
As discussed earlier the RFID reader also has a transceiver in it. When the signal comes
back from the tag through the antenna of RFID reader it is fed to the demodulator and then
decoded by a decoder where the original data can be obtained and then further processed by
a microcontroller or a microprocessor to perform a specific task.
Note that the above explanation is for a passive RFID tag. In case of an active RFID tag it
detects the signal from the reader only to trigger the circuit and make the tag ready to send the
data to the reader, since active tags have built-in power source.

Frequency Range used by RFID Technology

We know that the Radio frequency range is from 3 kHz to 300 GHz but the RFID
generally uses Radio frequencies in ranges within the Radio frequency (RF) band categorized as
below:

 Low frequency RFID: Its range is in between 30 kHz to 500 kHz but the exact frequency
used by it is 125 kHz. Its detection range is 10 -15 cm.
 High frequency RFID: Its range is in between 3 MHz to 30 MHz, the exact frequency
used by the module is 13.56 MHz. Its detection range is up to 1.5 meters.
 Ultra High frequency RFID: Its range is 300 MHz to 960 MHz but the exact frequency
used is 433 MHz. The detection range is up to 20 meters.         
 Microwave RFID: It uses a frequency of 2.45 GHz and the detection range is up to 100
meters far.
So based on the application and the detection range required the suitable RFID should be chosen.
The detection range varies based on the size of antenna size and tuning.

Types of RFID systems

The RFIDs are broadly categorized into two types mainly based on the type of RFID tag used.
The two systems are called Active RFID system and Passive RFID system.
1. Active RFID system
The Active RFID system has active tags which are powered up with a power source (a battery).
So the active tags are capable of radiating their own Radio frequency signals to transmit the data
that contains in the microchip, without depending upon the Reader’s signals to power up.
The active RFIDs are typically categorized under UHF RFID which has detection range up to 20
meters. These active tags are further categorized into Transponders and Beacons

 Transponders:

As the name itself specifies that it receives a RF signal and emits another RF signal (usually
data) as a response. The transponders are not active (powered up) all the time but they become
active only when it detects a signal from a Reader and then powers up the microchip to get the
data which is then transmitted back to the Reader. So transponders are the active tags which
power ups only when the Reader transmits the signal. This allows the transponders to have high
battery life compared to Beacons.

 Beacons:

Beacons are the active tags which are powered up all the time but transmit the data only in
specified time intervals (time interval can be once in a minute or once in a day). When the data is
transmitted, corresponding Reader within its proximity detects the signal and respective action
can be performed. Battery life span is low when compared to Transponders but is faster since it
stays active all the time.
 
2. Passive RFID system:
This is the most commonly used type of system that you can find in ID cards, banking cards etc.
It consists of passive tags which doesn’t have any battery to power up the chip in the tag. Instead
the Reader transmits the RF signals which are detected by the tag. These RF signals induce
current into the tag’s antenna which is then used to power up the chip. Then the tag responds
with the data in the chip through the coiled antenna which is detected by the Reader and
respective action will be performed. These are generally seen in maintaining attendance systems
at offices and colleges.
 
EM18 RFID Reader is a module which reads the ID information stored in RFID TAGS. This ID information
is unique for every TAG which cannot be copied. 
 

EM-18 Pin Configuration

EM-18 is a nine pin device. Among nine pins, 2 pins are not connected, so we basically have to consider seven
terminals.

Pin Number Description

VCC Should be connected to positive of power source.

GND Should be connected to ground.

BUZZ Should be connected to BUZZER

NC No Connection

NC No Connection

SEL SEL=1 then o/p =RS232

SEL=0then o/p=WEIGAND

TX DATA is given out through TX of RS232

DATA1 WEIGAND interface DATA HIGH pin

DATA0 WEIGAND interface DATA  LOW pin

EM-18 Features and Specifications

 Operating  voltage of EM-18: +4.5V to +5.5V

 Current consumption:50mA
 Can operate on LOW power
 Operating temperature: 0ºC to +80ºC
 Operating frequency:125KHz
 Communication parameter:9600bps
 Reading distance: 10cm, depending on TAG
 Integrated Antenna

How to Use EM-18 RFID Module

EM-18 is used like any other sensor module. First we choose the mode of communication between MODULE
and CONTROLLER. Next we will program the controller to receive data from module to display. Next power
the system. When a tag is brought near the MODULE it reads the ID and sends the information to controller.
The controller receives the information and performs action programmed by us.
Step1: Establishing a mode of communication. EM-18 can provide ouput through two communication
interface. One is RS232 and another is WEIGAND. The form of communication is selected by SEL pin. If
SEL pin is selected HIGH then form of communication is RS232 and if SEL pin is pulled LOW then form of
communication is WEIGAND. Usually the RS232 is selected because it’s popular so SEL pin is pulled HIGH.
Step2: The output of MODULE bit rate is 9600bps (bit per second). The controller should be programmed to
receive information from MODULE at this rate. If bit rate of controller mismatches then the system will not
work correctly.
Now let us consider a simple EM-18 circuit diagram,

In the circuit BUZZER is not compulsory. When a TAG is read the BUZZER turns ON. As given in circuit,
TX is given to CONTROLLER which is to receive DATA.

Consider a TAG is brought near the MODULE. The MODULE reads the ID and sends the information to
controller in 12 ASCII CHARACTERS. In them, 10CHARACTERS represent the TAG ID and 2
CHARACTERS are XOR of previous 10 CHARACTERS.

So DATA sent = 10ASCII DATA (tag no.) + 2ASCII DATA (XOR result)

Once the Information is sent, the MODULES stop sending DATA. This serial DATA received by the
controller though RX pin contains TAG information which is ready for processing. We can program the
controller to save the DATA or process it to provide response immediately.
Applications

 Robotics
 Security systems
 Medical tags
 Computer Peripherals
 Package Identification
 Theft protection systems
 Data authorization
 Unique Identity
 Body implants

Triac MOC3021
MOC3021 Features and Specifications

 Opto-isolator with Zero-Crossing Triac Driver

 Input LED Diode Forward Voltage: 1.15V
 LED Forward Latch Current: 15mA
 TRIAC output terminal voltage: 400V (max)
 TRIAC peak output current: 1A
 Available as 6-pin PDIP with and without M-suffix

Where to use MOC3021 Phototransistor Optocoupler

The MOC3021 is a Zero-Crossing TRIAC driven Optocoupler or Optoisolator. As we know the term
Optocoupler/optoisolater means the same that is we use light to indirectly couple to sets of circuits. The
speciality of MOC3021 is that it has Zero-Crossing ability and is driven by a Triac.
Since the output is driven by a TRIAC we can drive loads upto 400V and the triac can conduct in both
directions hence controlling AC loads will not be a problem. Also since it has zero-crossing ability, when
the AC load is switched on for the first time the TRIAC will start conduction only after the AC wave
reaches 0V this way we can avoid direct peak voltages to the Load and thus preventing it from getting
damaged. It also has a decent rise and fall time and hence can be used to control the output voltage.
This features of MOC3021 makes it an ideal choice for controlling high voltage AC loads through
digital controllers like MPU/MCU. Since the output is controlled we can control the intensity of the light
or the speed of a AC motor. So if you are looking for a opto-isolator to control a AC application through
DC then this IC might be the right choice for you.

How to use MOC3021

The MOC3021 is normally used to control AC appliance, like brightness of a Bulb, speed of a motor etc.
Either way, an opto-coupler will not be allowed to drive loads directly due to its limited current rating. They
are normally connected to another power switch like a Triac in our case, this TRIAC will be able to provide
enough current to drive the loads and will be controlled using the opto-coupler. A simple circuit diagram in
which an AC bulb is controlled using a microcontroller is shown below.
The MOC3021 can be used to switch loads by just turning the LED on or off, or we can also use PWM signals
to switch the LED and thus the TRIAC. When we switch the TRIAC using PWM signals then the output
voltage across the load can be controlled thus controlling the speed/brightness of the load.
When trying to switch AC loads it is important to understand the switching speed of the Opto-coupler. This
switching speed depends in the amplitude of voltage that is being controlled by the TRIAC and the operating
ambient temperature.

Applications

 AC Light dimmers
 Strode lights
 AC motor speed control
 Noise coupling circuits
 Controlling AC loads using MCU/MPU
 Ac/DC Power control
TRIAC BT16

The BT16 is TRIAC with 16A maximum terminal current. The gate threshold voltage of the
BT16 is also very less so can be driven by digital circuits.
Since TRIACs are bi-directional switching devices they are commonly used for switching AC
applications. So if you looking to switch of control (dim, speed control) an AC load which
consumes less than 8A with a digital device like microcontroller or microprocessor then BT16
might be the right for you.

How to use BT16

There are many different ways to use a TRIAC, since the device is bi-directional the TRIAC gate
can be trigger with either positive voltage or negative voltage. So this allows the TIRAC to be
operated in four different modes. A simple TRIAC switching circuit is shown below.

In this circuit the TRIAC can be turned using the switch, when the switch is pressed the TRIAC closes the
connection for the AC bulb though the AC mains. For this to happen, the gate pin of the TRIAC should receive
a voltage greater than the threshold gate voltage and should also get a current that is greater than gate trigger
current. This will make the TRIAC turn on.
Since the TRIAC and SCR share most of the same characteristics, just like SCR the TRIAC will also not turn
off when the gate voltage is removed. We need special type of circuit called commutation circuit to turn of the
SCR again. This commutation is normally done by reducing the load current (forced commutation) less than
the holding current. To put it simple the TRIAC will remain turned on only till the load current is greater than
the holding current of the TRIAC.
Note: Commutation is not required in AC switching circuits because the TRIAC will not latch in on state since
the AC voltage reaches zero for every half cycle.
Other than controlling through switch the BT16 can also be controlled through a microcontroller or a
microprocessor. To do this we need an Opto-isolator like MOC3021 to isolate the AC circuit form Digital
electronics. This way the Load can not only be switched but also the output coltage can be controlled by using
PWM signals for fast switching.

TRIAC Application Tips

Since TRIACS deal with AC voltages, the circuit involving them has to be designed properly to aboid problem
some tips are shared below

 All TRIAC circuits suffer from an effect called Rate Effect. This occurs when the TRIAC is switching
frequently and a sudden high voltage occurs at either main terminal of the TRIAC and damages the TRIAC
itself. It can be avoided by using a snubber circuit.
 Similarly there is another effect called backlash effect. This occurs due to the capacitance that gets
accumulated between the two terminals of the MT1 and MT2 of the TRIAC. Due to this the TRIAC will
not turn on even if the gate voltage is applied. This problem can be solved by providing a resistance in
series for the capacitance to discharge.
 When controlling the output AC voltage for dimmer or speed control applications a Zero crossing
method is always recommended to be used.
 In switching circuits the TRIAC is easily subjected to harmonics and EMI interference hence should
be isolated from other digital electronics.
 There is chance of backward current when the TRIAC is switching inductive loads, so an alternate
discharge path has to be provided for the load to drain the inrush current.

Applications

 AC Light dimmers
 Strode lights
 AC motor speed control
 Noise coupling circuits
 Controlling AC loads using MCU/MPU
 Ac/DC Power control

Features

 Maximum Terminal current: 4A

 On-state Gate voltage: 1.4V
 Gate trigger current: 10mA
 Max Terminal Voltage is 600 V
 Holding current: 2.2mA
 Latching current: 4mA

Flow Sensor
Huge industrial plants, commercial and residential buildings require a large amount of water
supply. The public water supply system is used to meet this requirement. To monitor the amount
of water being supplied and used, the rate of flow of water has to be measured. Water flow
sensors are used for this purpose.
Water flow sensors are installed at the water source or pipes to measure the rate of flow of water
and calculate the amount of water flowed through the pipe. Rate of flow of water is measured as
liters per hour or cubic meters.
Working Principle
Water flow sensor consists of a plastic valve from which water can pass. A water rotor along
with a hall effect sensor is present the sense and measure the water flow. When water flows
through the valve it rotates the rotor. By this, the change can be observed in the speed of the
motor. This change is calculated as output as a pulse signal by the hall effect sensor. Thus, the
rate of flow of water can be measured. The main working principle behind the working of this
sensor is the Hall effect. According to this principle, in this sensor, a voltage difference is
induced in the conductor due to the rotation of the rotor. This induced voltage difference is
transverse to the electric current.

When the moving fan is rotated due to the flow of water, it rotates the rotor which induces the
voltage. This induced voltage is measured by the hall effect sensor and displayed on the LCD
display.

Now, have a look at the maths behind this Arduino Sketch. In our lab experiment, we used one
YF-S201 water flow sensor bought from ebay (www.ebay.in ), and done the homework well
with observed readings (±10 accuracy). In order to measure the quantity of water being passed in
particular time through the water flow sensor it was first passed through the water flow sensor
which was taken as input interface in the flow. Formulas are applied in order to measure the
number of rotations/pulses in a minute of rotation.

Flow rate can be determined inferentially by different techniques like change in velocity or
kinetic energy. Here we have determined flow rate by change in velocity of water. Velocity
depends on the pressure that forces the through pipelines. As the pipe’s cross-sectional area is
known and remains constant, the average velocity is an indication of the flow rate. 

The basis relationship for determining the liquid’s flow rate in such cases is 

Q=VxA,

where Q is flow rate/total flow of water through the pipe, V is average velocity of the flow
and A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe (viscosity, density and the friction of the liquid in
contact with the pipe also influence the flow rate of water).

Sensor Frequency (Hz) = 7.5 * Q (Liters/min)

 Pulse frequency (Hz) = 7.5Q, Q is flow rate in Litres/minute

 Flow Rate (Litres/hour) = (Pulse frequency x 60 min) / 7.5Q

In other words:

 Sensor Frequency (Hz) = 7.5 * Q (Liters/min)

 Litres = Q * time elapsed (seconds) / 60 (seconds/minute)

 Litres = (Frequency (Pulses/second) / 7.5) * time elapsed (seconds) / 60

 Litres = Pulses / (7.5 * 60)

LM35 Temperature Sensor

LM35 Regulator Features:

 Minimum and Maximum Input Voltage is 35V and -2V respectively. Typically 5V.
 Can measure temperature ranging from -55°C to 150°C 
 Output voltage is directly proportional (Linear) to temperature (i.e.) there will be a rise of 10mV
(0.01V) for every 1°C rise in temperature.
 ±0.5°C  Accuracy
 Drain current is less than 60uA  
 Low cost temperature sensor
 Small and hence suitable for remote applications
 Available in TO-92, TO-220, TO-CAN and SOIC package

How to use LM35 Temperature Sensor:

LM35 is a precession Integrated circuit Temperature sensor, whose output voltage varies, based on the
temperature around it. It is a small and cheap IC which can be used to measure temperature anywhere between
-55°C to 150°C. It can easily be interfaced with any Microcontroller that has ADC function or any
development platform like PIC.
Power the IC by applying a regulated voltage like +5V (V S) to the input pin and connected the ground pin to
the ground of the circuit. Now, you can measure the temperate in form of voltage as shown below.

If the temperature is 0°C, then the

output voltage will also be 0V. There will be rise of 0.01V (10mV) for every degree Celsius rise in
temperature.  The voltage can converted into temperature using the below formulae.

PIR MOTION Sensor

Pin Number Pin Name Description

1 Vcc Input voltage is +5V for typical applications. Can

range from 4.5V- 12V

2 High/Low Ouput Digital pulse high (3.3V) when triggered (motion detected) digital
(Dout) low(0V) when idle(no motion detected

3 Ground Connected to ground of circuit

Sensor Features

 Wide range on input voltage varying from 4.V to 12V (+5V recommended)
 Output voltage is High/Low (3.3V TTL)
 Can distinguish between object movement and human movement
 Has to operating modes - Repeatable(H) and Non- Repeatable(H)
 Cover distance of about 120° and 7 meters
 Low power consumption of 65mA
 Operating temperature from -20° to +80° Celsius

How to use PIR Motion Sensor

The PIR sensor stands for Passive Infrared sensor. It is a low cost sensor which can detect the presence of
Human beings or animals. This sensor has three output pins Vcc, Output and Ground as shown in the pin
diagram above. Since the output pin is 3.3V TTL logic it can be used with any platforms like Arduino,
Raspberry, PIC, ARM, 8051 etc..
The module can be powered from voltage 4.5V to 20V but, typically 5V is used. Once the module is powered
allow the module to calibrate itself for few minutes, 2 minutes is a well settled time. Then observe the output
on the output pin. Before we analyse the output we need to know that there are two operating modes in this
sensor such as Repeatable(H) and Non- Repeatable(L) and mode. The Repeatable mode is the default mode.
The output of the sensor can be set by shorting any two pins on the left of the module as shown below. You
can also notice two orange colour potentiometers that can be used to set the sensitivity and time which will be
explained further below.
Repeatable(H) mode
In Repeatable(H) mode the output pin Dout will go high (3.3V) when a person is detected within range and
goes low after a particular time (time is set by “Off time control” potentiometer). In this mode the output pin
will go high irrespective of whether the person is still present inside the range or has left the area. The
sensitivity can be set using the “sensitivity control” potentiometer.

Non- Repeatable(L) mode

In “I” mode the output pin Dout will go high (3.3V) when  a person is detected within range and will stay high
as long as he/she stays within the limit of the Sensors range. Once the person has left the area the pin will go
low after the particular time which can be set using the potentiometer. The sensitivity can be set using the
“sensitivity control” potentiometer.

There are two important materials present in the sensor one is the pyroelectric crystal which can detect the heat
signatures from a living organism (humans/animals)   and the other is a Fresnel lenses which can widen the
range of the sensor. Yes the white colour things is just a lense that is used to widen the range of the sensor, if
you remove the lense you can find the Pyroelectric sensor inside it covered inside a protective metal casing as
shown above.

LDR(LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR)

The Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is just another special type of Resistor and hence has no polarity.
Meaning they can be connected in any direction. They are breadboard friendly and can be easily used on a perf
board also. The symbol for LDR is just as similar to Resistor but adds to inward arrows as shown above. The
arrows indicate the light signals.

Features

 Can be used to sense Light

 Easy to use on Breadboard or Perf Board
 Easy to use with Microcontrollers or even with normal Digital/Analog IC
 Small, cheap and easily available

A photoresistor or LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), as the name suggests will change it resistance based on
the light around it. That is when the resistor is placed in a dark room it will have a resistance of few Mega
ohms and as we gradually impose light over the sensor its resistance will start to decrease from Mega Ohms to
few Ohms.
 
This property helps the LDR to be used as a Light Sensor. It can detect the amount of light falling on it and
thus can predict days and nights. So if you are looking for a sensor to sense light or to distinguish between
days and nights then this sensor is the cheap and modest solution for us.

How to use a LDR sensor

As said earlier a LDR is one of the different types of resistors, hence using it is very easy. There are many
ways and different circuit in which an LDR can be used. For instance it can be used with Microcontroller
Development platforms like  PIC or even normal Analog IC’s like Op-amps. But, here we will use a very
simple circuit like a potential divider so that it can be adapted for most of the projects.
A potential Divider is a circuit which has two resistors in series. A constant voltage will be applied across the
both the resistor and the output voltage will be measured from the lower resistor. In our case, the lower resistor
will be a LDR and the constant voltage will be +5V. The set-up is shown below.
A DC multimeter is used to monitor the voltage across the LDR. As the Lamp is moved towards the resistor
the resistance value of the LDR will decrease as a result the voltage drop across it will decrease. The near you
bring the Lamp the lower the voltage will get and the farther you move away your Voltage value will increase.

Applications

 Automatic Street Light

 Detect Day or Night
 Automatic Head Light Dimmer
 Position sensor
 Used along with LED as obstacle detector
 Automatic bedroom Lights
 Automatic Rear view mirror