NāGas in The Classical Hinduism (500 B.C.-600 A.D.) : Chapter - 4

CHAPTER – 4
NĀGAS IN THE CLASSICAL HINDUISM
(500 B.C.-600 A.D.)

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CHAPTER-4
NĀGAS IN THE CLASSICAL HINDUISM (500 B.C. - 600 A.D.)
4.1 Introduction
Before the Classical (Epic and Purāṇic) age, there is a big gap which came after
following the Vedic and extending over several centuries due to which we are completely
in dark about the development of Nāgas and their cult. But during the classical period the
Nāga tradition and cult assumed a shape which pervaded the entire mythological setting
of the Āryavartha, and the great Epics (The Mahabharata, The Rāmāyaṇa), precisely the
Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas elevated the uninterrupted, wide-ranging and full of
wondrous minutiae of the Nāgas.1 S. R Goyal opined that, “The story of this great epic
appears to embody a good deal of the legends, traditions and history of the Āryans as
well as the non-Āryans.”2 The word Purāṇa originally means ‘ancient tale’ or ‘old
narrative’ or ‘that which lives from ancient times’, and they occupy a unique position in
the sacred and secular literature of the Hindus, being regarded as next in importance only
to the Vēdas.
Some incidents found in the Mahabharata and Purāṇas are too explicit the Nāgas
inestimable history, religion and mythology, divine and mythological origin, character,
physical features, magical powers, sanctity and entire developments. Particularly the
opening book of the Mahābhārata (Ādi Parva) is very rich in myths relating to the
Nāgas. All these aspects pertaining to the dreadful nature and simultaneously the divine
origin of the Nāgas are emphasized in this great work.3 The numerous Nāga stories
described in the Ādi Parva and in the other parvās in Mahābhārata and Purāṇas as
follows.
4.2 Myth of Nāga’s birth
The Ādi Parva 4 throws a considerable light on the mythical birth of the Nāgas. In
the beginning of the universe, Prajapati alone existed in the universe and later on, he
created the human beings and the animals. Kadrū and Vinatā were two beautiful
daughters of Prajapati. Afterwards the Sage Kaśyapa inherited the position of the chief
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among the Prajapatis and he had twenty one wives, Kadrū and Vinatā were two among
them. He derived great pleasure from his two wives and he wanted to give a boon to each
one of them, and he asked them what boon they wanted. Kadrū asked for a thousand
Snakes as her sons with equal splendor, whereas Vinatā prayed for two sons who would
be able to surpass the thousand sons of Kadrū in strength, valour and beauty. After
gratifying their desires, Kaśyapa blessed both of them and told to bear the embryos
carefully, left his house to continue the penance with austerities.
In due course, Kadrū delivered a thousand eggs and Vinatā two eggs. Both of
them kept the eggs in warm jars. After five hundred years, the thousand eggs of Kadrū
burst letting out a thousand Serpents, who were the progenitors of the whole Serpent race.
They are called as the Kadravēyas, because of being born to Kadrū, and the name of her
principal descendants are Śeṣa who was born first, Vāsuki, Airāvata, Takṣaka, Kārkoṭaka,
Kāḷīya, Aila or Elāpatra, Anīla, Nahusha and others. But the twins of Vinatā did not yet
appear; owing to envious she became impatient and broke open an egg of hers, a half
developed being named Aruṇa come out and cursed her mother with angry for being
impatient and said, “you let me out half developed because of your over anxiety and you
will therefore, become a slave of Kadrū”. And he gave a suggestion to her mother, keep
the other egg for another five hundred years. Then a very powerful son will come out of it
and that son will relieve you from your servitude from Kadrū. So saying he rose up in the
air and became the charioteer of the Sun. After five hundred years, just before the
Churning of the Milk-Ocean, the other egg of Vinatā broke and a gigantic bird came out
of it, named Garuḍa, also known as the Serpent eater.5
The fifth book of the Rāmāyaṇa mentioned a goddess named Surasa who is said
to be the mother of Nāgas. She is depicted as living on the top of Mainaka Mountain, and
in the midst of the ocean. She was also called as Kāmarūpiṇi.6
The mythical origin of the Nāgas and their mother was depicted in a fragment of
sculpture and carved on both faces and preserved at Mathura Museum.7 It was the finest
example of the mother of the Nāgas. Here on one face is a life-size figure of a female
deity which is identified by Alexander Cunningham 8 as “The mother of Nāgas”. Over
the head, now defaced, is the remnant of a Nāga-hood, which once must have consisted
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of nine Snake heads. The head is surrounded by a large circular halo; from it radiate five
female figures, presumably Snake-maidens. The lower portion of their bodies is hidden
by the main figure. Here Cunningham9 expressed his opinion that, “The hidden lower
bodies indicate to avoid the representation of the Snaky lower extremities.”
A fragmentary sculpture from the Kankali Tila now preserved in the Lucknow
museum10 contains a female figure and was identified by V. A. Smith as the “Mother of
Nāgas” who was guarded by two Nāga soldiers.
A few coins of Kada (Kadasa) depict the figure of Snake along with Aśokan
Brāhmī legend. J. N. Banerjea11 identified that, the Snakes on the Coins are the mother of
Nāgas Kadrū and her descendents.
4.3 The Wager between Kadrū and Vinatā 12
Once, Rākshasas and Dēvatas get ready to churn the Milk-ocean to obtain Amṛta.
Indra had got a horse from the ocean of milk while they churning, named Uccaiḥśravas of
great beauty and with incomparable powers. Once, Kadrū asked Vinatā about the colour
of Uccaiḥśravas. Beyond doubt it was purely a white horse and Vinatā said so. But
Kadrū said that its tail was black. Both stood firm on their statement and then Kadrū
made a bet that whoever defeated in this bet should serve the other as her slave. Vinatā
agreed. They decided to visit the place personally to test the colour horse on next day.
Kadrū knew the reality that there were no black hairs on the tail, but to win the argument
she would thought to cheat Vinatā. She summoned and ordered her progeny that go and
hang on to the tail of the horse so that it appears black. Some of the truthful Serpents like
Ananta and Vāsuki were not ready to do so. Kadrū became angry and cursed Ananta,
Vāsuki and others who did not agree to doing false that they would all be burnt in the
Sarpasāstra (Serpent Yajña) of Janamejaya. After the curse of Kadrū, the Nāgas caused
became dangerously venomous. But Kaśyapa did not like the curse. At that time Brahma
came there and said that the Serpents as venomous were injurious to society therefore the
curse of that nature was necessary to demolish the venomous Nāgas. Brahmā then taught
to Kaśyapa the art of cure from Snake-poison to protect other creatures that were bitten
by the Nāgas (visha samhāra vidya i.e. treatment of Snake-poisoning). Brahmā further
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assumed that there is no danger for the chief and honesty Nāgas and they will not have
the death by the Sarpasāstra. From that time onwards the Snake bite was cured in this
world.
The other children of Kadrū, who agreed to do so, hung on the tail of the horse.
As a result, from a distance the tail appeared to be black and thus Vinatā lost her bet, she
and her infant child Garuḍa entered into the servitude of Kadrū as her slave. Then Garuḍa
felt highly mortified to work as the slaves of Kadrū.
From this story we known that, some Nāgas had a falsification nature and
encourages it. But some are very truth full and they were ready to face the corollary for
their commitment. Circuitously they teach us their short tempered and dangerously
venomous although it may be curable.
4.4 Nāgas carried to the Ramaṇaka by their slaves13
Once, Kadrū and her offspring ordered Vinatā and her son Garuḍa to carry them
to the Nāga residence, in a remote quarter called Ramaniyaka (Ramaṇaka) which was
located in the middle of the ocean. The island was surrounded by the water of the ocean
and it is covered with forests abounding in sundry flowers and fruits. It is adorned with
charming abodes, with lotus ponds, and heavenly lakes of limped water. It is a beautiful
place to stay with delightful environment inhabited by the Nāgas, and it was fashioned by
a sage named Viśvakarma.
Accordingly by the orders, Vinatā was carrying Kadrū on her shoulders and
Garuḍa carrying Kadrū’s sons and rose up in the sky. But Garuḍa did not relish the
slavish work, so he rose high up in the air near the Sun. The Nāgas began to feel the heat
which was unbearable and began to get charred. Kadrū then prayed Indra to save her
children from the heat of the Sun. Without delay Indra the king of gods commanded the
clouds and thus saying poured the drops upon them, instantly the clouds luminous with
lightning and incessantly roaring against each other in the walking, poured abundant
water upon them. The sky became overcast and the rays of the sun totally disappeared by
the thick clouds. The Nāgas became exceedingly delighted. The earth was filled with
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countless water waves. The Nāgas regained consciousness, and then they reached
Ramaniyaka Island safely.
From this we knew that, Nāgas were attracted by the island which was surrounded
by the water of the ocean, and Indra who worked as the assassin of the Nāgas in Rig-Vēda
was malformed as the saviour of Nāgas during this period. It clearly indicates the
inflowing and acceptance of the Nāgas by the Āryans.
According to the Purāṇas,14 some tried to locate the Ramaṇaka as in the Northern
Ocean and between the Nīlavarśa and Svētavarśa (Nīlaverśa was located to the North of
Pamirs, and the Svēta was shorter than the Nīlavarśa it was further North)
The scene of the carrying the Nāgas by the Garuḍa to Ramaṇaka was influenced
by the artist and was depicted in the plastic Art. A significant note that, the carrying of
the Nāgas on the shoulders of eagles was related to this story but so many figures were
found as the Nāgas were carried by the Garuḍas with its beak. (This type of carrying was
shown the enmity between them, and the carried Nāga specified as the food of Garuḍa) A
figurine from Mathurā15 museum contains a Garuḍa holding a cobra in its beak. A clay
sealing from Gupta period (5 th A.D.)16 were very interesting and showing the Nāginī
carried by a eagle. It is provided by the device of an eagle (Garuḍa) carrying off women
(Nāginī), which occupies the central field of the seal. The Nāginī is in human form and in
it is purely in Indian representation. Coomaraswamy17 identified a motif from the Greeco-
Buddhist Art of Gandhāra. It shows that the Garuḍa as bearing off an actual Serpent held
in its beak.
4.5 Garuḍa’s attempts for freeing from the thraldom18
The Nāgas after refreshed by the showers of rain and by the dew trickling down
from the flowers, rejoiced in this place of delights in the Ramaniyaka, ordered Garuḍa,
carry us to some other island which was exceedingly lovely and with pure water than the
Ramaniyaka. But the Garuḍa was extremely pained at the pitiable plight of his mother.
He questioned his mother as to why he has to do their bidding, and learnt that how she
had become a slave of them. Then he asked Kadrū what price she and her children
demanded for freeing Vinatā and himself from slavery. Wishing to become immortal, and
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seeing that he was a very able bird, Kadrū and her progeny demanded Amṛta from
Dēvalōka (Indra’s heaven) as the remuneration. Garuḍa agreed to pay the remuneration.
The story of the capturing of Amṛta or the nectar (Amṛtahārana) by Garuḍa was
narrated in a very lengthy episode in the Mahābhārata. Then he left from there and
proceeded to Dēvalōka. After some encounters at Dēvalōka, Indra allowed him gave the
nectar pot and an idea of trick, and he advised him, you would play it when the nectar
hand over to the Nāgas. Finally, Garuḍa succeeded in carrying off the Amṛta and flew in
hurry towards the Nāgas. 19
From this we known that, Nāgas had a desire for eternal lives and Indra does not
agree with their jealousy aspiration.
4.6 Indra recollects the Amṛta from Nāgas 20
Garuḍa reached the place of Nāgas and handed over the pot of nectar to the Nāgas
and by the suggestion of Indra, he get ready to play the stratagem. He suggest the Nāgas,
put the nectar on the darbha grass (kuśa grass), and before tasting the Amṛta you should
take a purificatory bath and complete the religious rites. The joyful Nāgas replied that,
from that day onwards you and your mother would be free from our bondage and
redeemed them and they left from there. Then Nāgas put the nectar pot on the darbha
grass and went out to take bath. At this juncture of their absence, Indra carried off the pot
of nectar back to Dēvalōka. After the bath and religious rites the Nāgas returned the spot
and failed to find the pot of nectar on the ground, they became aggrieved and licked the
darbha on which the pot was placed and as a result their tongues were cloven into two by
the sharpness of the darbha grass and left with sadness. And from that day onwards the
Nāgas became double tongued (dvijihvās).
J. Charpentier21 expressed his opinion about the quarrel between two types of
animals (he believed both Nāgas and Garuḍas as animals) that, “The story of Kadrū and
Vinatā must originally have been an ancient animal saga, in which the chief actors were
the Snake and the eagle, or more correctly the mother of Snakes and mother of eagles
who were identified with earth and heaven. These two laid a wager as to which of them
could see farthest. If that is so, it may be considered as the earliest specimen of an animal
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saga preserved in the world’s literature”. The opinion of him may be right in one aspect,
the Garuḍa of nature agrees with the Garuḍa of legend, and it is the deadly enemy of the
Snakes. In the Sathapatha Brāhmaṇa22 we found the nucleus of the story of a conflict
between the Garuḍas and the Nāgas which were the powers of Light and Darkness.
From this, we knew that how the Nāgas pass up the opportunity of immortal and
how they had double tongued (dvijihvās).
4.7 Council of Nāgas 23
Kadrū cursed some of her children and sent out from her home. The cursed
Serpents Śeṣa, Vāsuki and others who sided with them, from that day onwards separated
from their mother and formed into a Serpent group. Śeṣa, Vāsuki and Takṣaka became
their leaders.
Śeṣa or Ananta lives underneath the earth (Rasātala) and engaged in ascetic
devotions, then he is alone held a pilgrimage and finally to supporting the world at the
instruction of Brahmā.24 Vāsuki, the king of the Nāgas thought himself about her
mother’s curse and reflected how to render it abortive, decided to held a council to
discuss some means of escapes from the Sarpasāstra, send the message to the all Nāgas.
All the offspring of Kadrū were assembled together. Vāsuki addressed and explained
them the curse of their mother and welcomed for the redemptions. The Nāgas expressed
their opinions to one another one. One submitted his opinion that, we should transform to
another forms and bite the chief priest and made him to die, as a result the sacrifice will
be stopped. Another proposed that, we will reached the place before night of sacrifice and
steal the Sōma juice and thousands of Snakes bite the people and spread terror around.
One told that, approaching the king and bites him, so our object will be accomplished.
Vāsuki, after receiving their opinions said that, the advices of yours not to liking
me because of all the ideas connected with the belligerence. According to our father’s
words, our actions should be in good. Therefore, your suggestions should be will bring
about the welfare of our race and as well as to the other beings. Then Elāpatra, who is one
of the kings of the Nāga began to speak, “The sacrifice of Janamejaya is not one that can
be prevented, carefully listen what I say.” When that our mother uttered the curse, in fear,
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I lay crouching the lap of our mother and I heard the conversation (The Nāgas in the
Mahābhārata and Purāṇas are believed to have no ears, but to use their eyes both for
seeing and hearing) between Brahmā and our father, Brahmā said that, “After the curse,
the Nāgas have multiplied and became dangerously venomous, cruel and terrible.
Serpents as a class were injurious to society and as such a curse of that nature was
necessary. By the desire of the welfare of my all living beings, I did not prevent the
Kadrū’s curse. Those poisonous Snakes, who are sinful, biting others for no faults, shall
be destroyed in the sacrifice and there is no danger for the Nāgas who stand on the truth
and morality.” Further Brahmā told that, “The sacrifice would be prevented only by the
son of hermit Jaratkāru, who was born in the race of the Yayavaras, intelligent, with
passions under complete control. But he marry only by the same name i.e. Jaratkāru, who
having the equal energy. Āstika, the son of them shall be able to stop the sacrifice.”
Then Elāpatra told Vāsuki, “The king of Nāgas, remember, you have a sister
named Jaratkāru (Vāsuki had a sister named Jaratkāru who was born from the mind of
Prajapati Kaśyapa. According to tradition, she also knew as Nāgeswari). On hearing the
past words of Brahmā by the string and striking speech of Elāpatra, all the Serpents were
in great delight exclaimed and decided from that day onwards searching and watching
carefully for the hermit Jaratkāru, so that the Serpent king might offer him his sister in
marriage, as soon as the time had come.
4.8 The hermit Jaratkāru and the Nāga maiden Jaratkāru 25
The story of Mahābhārata begins with an account of ascetic Jaratkāru. The

meaning of the hermit’s name was explained in Ādi Parva as follows: Jara is
consumption (waste); Karu is dāruṇa (awful or huge). By and by his body became hard
and awful and by penance he made his body to wear out, and so he got the name
Jaratkāru. By means of penance he made his body lean and worn out and so got the name
Jaratkāru. For the same reason, the sister of Vāsuki was called Jaratkāru.
The calm and abstemious Jaratkāru remained unmarried for a long time. One day
he happened to meet his ancestors who were hanging their heads downwards. The
unknown Jaratkāru asked them why they were putting downwards their heads like
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hanging. They replied they were his ancestors. They had to obtain heavenly life,
contentment and happiness by the good deeds of his son. So they wanted him to go and
get married quickly. But he agreed with a condition that the name of the bride also should
be Jaratkāru and she should be given to him as alms, and walked away along the forest.
Vāsuki, the king of the Nāgas heard the news that the hermit Jaratkāru was
wandering through the forests calling out that somebody should give him as alms a
damsel named Jaratkāru. Vāsuki decided to give her sister Jaratkāru to the hermit
Jaratkāru, he adorned her with costly garments and ornaments and she was taken to the
hermit Jaratkāru. He agreed to marry her by imposing a condition that if she did anything
displeasing to him he would leave her and at once he left her he would not take her again.
Vāsuki and his sister agreed and the hermit Jaratkāru married her.
Both entered into family life. The bride Jaratkāru lived in the hermitage with her
husband, looking after him with love and loyalty. One day the hermit was sleeping by
putting his head on the lap of his wife. It was the time for the evening worship of the
hermit. If she moved and aroused him, he would get angry. The wife was in a difficult
situation, but she decided to make wake him and called him to wakeup. The hermit got up
full of anger and shouted, “You have hindered my sleep, you wicked woman and teased
me. So from today onwards you are not my wife. I am going away”. Although she
explained the cause and begged him for pardon with tears he paying any heed to the
request of his pregnant wife, he got ready to leave her. She said with crying, ‘You are
leaving me. Is there any prospect of progeny?” He said, “Āsti” (there is) and left her.
Then the lonely wife went and told her brother Vāsuki all that happened, and got the
shelter from him. Soon after Jaratkāru gave birth to a son named Āstika, and then she
went to Kailāsa, where Paramēswara and Pārvathi received her.
From this we known that, Nāgas were always fascinated to make a matrimonial
relation with the humans and they can live with love and trustworthiness with their
spouse.
The depiction of Nāginī Jaratkāru and the Nāga Vāsuki were found from a tōraṇa
of an apsidal temple at Sonkh in Mathurā District.27 Here the figures of them were set
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puppet like across a shallow stage, and are united horizontally through their hand gestures
and slight bends in their bodies.
A seven hooded Nāginī represented one of the reliefs hailing from Birbhum in
West Bengal.28 She was two armed and seated in the double petalled lotus placed over a
jar from which two Snakes are coming out. She wears various ornaments among which is
shown a Sarpā-kucabandha (breast-band made of snakes) and holds a hooded Snake in
her left hand, the object in her right hand being indistinct. The hermit Jaratkāru and
Āstika are seated on either side of her.
4.9 Uttaṇka erroneous the Nāga Takṣaka 29
Uttaṇka, who was the son of a sage of great divine splendour, and was studying
under a guru (Professor) named Veda. Guru and his wife Ahalya were in hermitage and
Uttaṇka also stayed with them. After some time his education reached a final stage, at
this juncture he wished to give due offerings as a reward to his guru for his services. One
fine day he asked his Guru what he would like to have as gurudakṣiṇā. The master
advised him to follow his wife’s instructions in this matter and contribute accordingly.
But because of the impracticable nature of Ahalya’s desire he could not fulfil her
demand. Some anguish was developing in her against him. Therefore she asked him to
bring the ear rings worn by the Kṣatriya woman, who was the wife of king Pauṣa, (also
known as Saudaṣa i.e. who used to eat the flesh of man) as the gift.
Uttaṇka decided to procure the ear rings and left. One day, while he was in
journey, saw an ox and a big man who on it’s back. The big man called Uttaṇka, asked
him to eat the excretion of the ox. Uttaṇka reluctantly consumed both the excretion and
urine of the ox and continued his journey. Finally he reached the palace of king and met
Pauṣa and his wife, told about the desire of his teacher’s wife. Pleased at Uttaṇka’s
humility, handed over her ear rings. She warned him to be very careful about the ear rings
as they were once been coveted by Takṣaka, the king of the Serpents. Then he took leave
from the king and started his travel back to the āśrama with the ear rings.
On his way he saw a pool and wished to wash his body. He put the ear rings on
the bank of pool and just when he stepped into the pool, suddenly there arrived a naked
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sannyāsin, who following him from the palace and he snatched the ear rings and ran
away. Uttaṇka remembered the warning of Pauṣa’s wife and thought that this attempt was
should be made by Takṣaka and try to chase and caught the sannyāsin. But the sannyāsin
assumed his original form as a Serpent and entered into an ant hill. Uttaṇka have not way
to enter and waited at the mouth of the cave. Indra deputed his Vajrāyudha to help
Uttaṇka. The Vajrāyudha cut a tunnel like route to Pātāla from the earth and through the
cave, Uttaṇka reached Pātāla, the world of Nāgas and found the abode of Nāgas finally.
Though Uttaṇka praised and flattered the Nāgas, Takṣaka did not show his
appearance. Then Uttaṇka saw there two women, who had been weaving clothes, and on
one machine there were black and white threads. The machine had one wheel with twelve
spokes. Uttaṇka observed that the machine was turned by six boys. Also there was a
horse, and a man. When Uttaṇka praised them, the horse and the man approached him.
The man advised Uttaṇka to blow through the anus of the horse so that the Snakes could
be subjugated. Uttaṇka did so. When he looked from the pores of the body of the horse,
flames of fire began to sprout out. The Nāgalōka burnt with fire and flames. Takṣaka and
other Nāgas lost their nerves. Finally, Vāsuki, the head of the Nāgaloka ordered the Nāga
Airāvata, who really stolen the ear rings of Uttaṇka and conferred them to him. On the
advice of Vāsuki, Takṣaka collected the ear-rings from the Airāvata and came out with
them and hand over to Uttaṇka. Uttaṇka collected back from him and believed that
Takṣaka was the thief and had stolen his ornaments.
Then he took the horse from the horseman and he reached the āśrama just in time
when the guru’s wife was about to curse Uttaṇka for not returning with the ear rings
within the time. Now the Guru and his wife blessed Uttaṇka, after taking the precious
gifts. Then Uttaṇka shared his experiences with his guru since the time of leaving the
āśrama in quest of the ear rings. Then the guru spoke that: “The two women whom you
found engaged in weaving were Dhātā and Vidhātā, the white and black strings, day and
night and six boys who turned the wheel with twelve spokes were the six seasons. The ox
seen by you on the way was Airāvata (Indra’s elephant); the horse seen in Pātāla was
Agnidēve, and the horseman was Indra. The excretion which you ate on your way was
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nectar and that was the reason why you did not die in the Nāgalōka”. Once again Uttaṇka
took the blessings by his master and left there.
From that day onwards Uttaṇka was looking for an opportunity to take vengeance
on Takṣaka. Uttaṇka went away directly from āśrama to Hastināpura, where he met king
Janamejaya, who was the son of king Parīkṣit and explained how Takṣaka killed his
father Parīkṣit. Janamejaya became furious and asked him how to take vengeance on him.
Uttaṇka suggested to perform a sacrifice called Sarpasātra (Serpent Yajña or Snake
Sacrifice), into which all the Serpents should be attracted by mantrās and then burnt them
to death there itself. It was thus prompted by Uttaṇka to take revenge upon Takṣaka.
From this we known that, some Nāgas had theft natured and this was may cause
the troubles, loss and sacrifice. But Indra always controls the mendacious deeds of the
Nāgas.
4.10 King Parīkṣit was bitten by Nāga Takṣaka30
In several episodes of the Mahābhārata we find the accounts of a fight between

the Nāgas and the Brahmins, i.e. of the rivalry between the Nāga cult and the
Brāhmaṇical ceremonies. In the following story which was the first part of the Snake
Sacrifice, witness a mythological sacrifice.
Parīkṣit was the grandson of Arjuna and was the son of Abhimanyu by his wife
Uttara. When Dharmarāja retired from the world, Parīkṣit succeeded him on the throne of
Hastināpura. One day he went to an interior forest for a hunt. While hunting he got
separated from the rest of his retinue and went a long way deep into the forest. There he
saw a sage named Śamīka, who was at that time observing maunavṛata, the practice of
silence. The king tried to ask him. The sage engrossed in deep meditation and did not
hear that. The king mistook his silence to be arrogance and became angry, took the dead
body of a cobra lying nearby with the tip of his bow and threw it round the neck of the
sage and went his way. The sage did not know even that.
The sage Śamīka had a son named Śṛṅgīn (also known as Gavij̄ata). While he was
playing with the sons of other sages, one munikumāra (son of a sage) noisily said that,
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“Oh Gavij̄ata, your father is equal to Śiva, both have a Serpent round their necks. But
there is only one difference; the Serpent round your father’s neck is a dead one.” Gavij̄ata
was greatly disturbed by this comment and he immediately made an enquiry and knew
that an unknown person had done that foul deed, he became angry and took water in his
hand and made a Brāhmaṇical curse as thus: “Whoever be the person who put this dead
Snake round the neck of my father will die being bitten by the fierce Nāga Takṣaka
within seven days”. After pronouncing this horrible curse, he went to the āśrama and
found out the perpetrator of this crime was none other than the most noble and charitable
king, Parīkṣit. Gavij̄ata and his father Śamīka repented greatly and immediately sent the
news about the curse to the king through Gurumukha, a munikumāra.
Gurumukha went to Hastināpura and met the king, told about the sage son’s curse
and warned about the Nāga Takṣaka. On hearing the news the king Parīkshit was a bit
frightened first but then he started thinking about the ways to escape from the curse and
after consultation with his ministers decided to take protective measures. At first he
moved to a seven storeyed palace and stayed on the seventh storey. Physicians
(viṣavaidyas) of fame and those well versed in mantras were posted at the palace.
Brahmins were put on duty for prayers. The entire palace and precincts were guarded by
huge elephants. Security arrangements were such that even wind found it impossible to
enter the palace without permission. The king performed all his daily routine official
activities from the palace itself.
Six days went by and on the seventh day the Nāga Takṣaka, who stimulated by
the curse of Gavij̄ata was reached the palace of Parīkshit, and found that the palace was
well guarded and watched by the skilful guards. Then he searched a way to enter the
palace and failed to find it. He thought a plan to enter the palace and then called all his
servants and had them disguised as Brahmins. He sent them in with fruits and roots, like
people who had come to pay homage to the king. Takṣaka crept into one of the most
attractive of the fruits as a tiny worm. The guards at the gate stopped them. The fake
Brāhmins then said that they had come a long way from a far off tapōvana and should be
allowed to see the king. After heard the news, the king gave the permission to see the
Brahmins on the next day but ordered that their gifts to be brought to him. When the
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fruits and roots were brought to him, he gave a fruit each to the ministers and he himself
took a most beautiful fruit from the lot. When he cut the fruit and opened it, he saw a
worm with two black eyes and a red body sitting inside it and was a bit surprised. Then
he addressed his ministers thus: “Oh, best of ministers, by your earnest and sincere
endeavour nothing has happened to me till now. The Sun is going to set and the term of
the curse is going to end. There is no need to be afraid of any poison now. But let not a
curse of a sage go futile. Let this worm bite me and fulfil the curse”. So saying the king
took the worm and placed it on his neck. The worm changed itself into the fierce Takṣaka
and bit the king; the king fell down and died. After that Takṣaka rose up into the air and
disappeared.
From this we knew that, Nāgas were stimulated by the maṅtras and they must do
what they were aimed. They had fury and dangerous poison.
4.11 Sarpasāstra of king Janamejaya31
Parīkṣit was succeeded by his son Janamejaya when he was a child. After some
decades the king heard about the ghastly tale of his father’s death by sage Uttaṇka.
Immediately he decided to take revenge upon Takṣaka and his Serpents, due to perform
the great Yajña called Sarpasāstra, which is supposed to death of all Nāga race. The king
ordered his courtiers that all necessary arrangements for the sāstra were made, and the
king began dīkṣa (initiation) for it (to live for a few days under severe routine to prepare
the author of the Yajña for it). But the priests who made the arrangements looked into
signs about the successful conclusion of the Yajña and opined that it would be obstructed
by a Brahmin, therefore, ordered strict steps to be taken against the entry of strangers into
the yāgaṣāla. The king requested Uttaṇka to act as the chief priest; he accepted and the
Snake sacrifice was started.
The high priests who were well studied the Vēdas wore black clothes and
chanting the appropriate mantrās, and they made offerings in the sacred fire. This news
created great terror among the Snakes, especially Takṣaka. In the past, Indra made a plan
to steal the ear rings from Pauṣa’s wife and he stirred the Nāga Takṣaka to do this.
Though, the attempt had failed, from that day onwards they became friends, and
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gradually Takṣaka became an intimate friend of Indra. He took the help of Indra, who
assured him of his life.
Serpents began to come one after another and fall into the fire, when their names
were uttered by priests like Uttaṇka, C̃andabhārgava who were well versed the Vedas.
Some of them were two miles in length, other seven miles or larger. All varieties of
serpents got consumed by the fire, by the retribution of their mother’s curse. Sages
Within a short period almost all the serpents courted death in the fire. The surrounding
was covered with an insufferable stench owing to the incessant burning of the Snakes.
Accordingly the prophetic words of Brahmā in the past, Āstika, the son of
Jaratkāru who was well learned the Vedas would be stopped the sāstra and save the Nāga
race was come to true. Vāsuki the king of the Nāgas began to feel the burning sensation
and consulted his sister Jaratkāru to find out some means of escape from the sāstra and
he reminded her to the words of Brahmā. Jaratkāru summoned her son Āstika and
explained everything, ordered to interrupt the yāga. On hearing this Āstika said, “Yes I
will”, and whereupon he started to go the Hastinapura.
Now, at the yāgaṣāla all the serpents were falling into the fire by the effect of
mantrās which were being recited by the ṛitviks. But Takṣaka alone did not come yet.
They started chanting the mantrās and increased it in intensity and volume. Though the
ṛitviks invoked for a long time, Takṣaka did not appear. The officiating priests were
beginning to get angry and Takṣaka was specially invoked by Uttaṇka. But Takṣaka
could not bear the power of Uttaṇka and he ran and prostrated before Indra. Indra
remembered the Brahmā’s past words and gave both refuge and half of his seat on the
throne and Takṣaka sat on it with fully confident of his life. Uttaṇka was enraged that
after repeated calls with mantras, Takṣaka did not appear and so he sat in meditation for
some time to know the cause, found Takṣaka who sitting on the throne of Indra and the
sight threw him into fury and he invoked Takṣaka, Indra and the throne and all. When
Uttaṇka uttered the mantrās, both of them along with the throne also started moving
towards the sacrificial fire. Within seconds all would have been burnt to death but it was
stopped by the timely intervention of a young Brāhmaṇ named Āstika, son of the
Jaratkāru. Āstika pleased the king that should be stops Snake Sacrifice and give him the
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lives of Takṣaka and Indra as a gift. But Janamejaya’s revenge was not fulfilled because
the main object of Sacrifice itself was Takṣaka who had not yet come, so he was very
sorry, and offered him any other boon. But Āstika did not accept that and repeated his
desire of saving Takṣaka.
King Janamejaya after consulting the munīs and priests, agreed to stop the
Sacrifice, and the remaining Snakes, Takṣaka along with the others were saved. The
Snakes were so grateful and granted a boon to Āstika that, “The recital of his story shall
free the men from the danger of Serpents i.e. whoever tells this story will never be bitten
by a Snake.”
A. P. Karmarkar32 believes that the performance of the Snake Sacrifice by

Janamejaya was probably the next step to show the detestation of the Āryans for Nāga
cult. He goes onto say that as the hero god of the Āryans Indra is made to kill Vṛtra in the
Indra-Vṛtra myth from Rig Veda, similarly king Janamejaya is made to start the Snake
Sacrifice. Further he believed that, “Both the myths represent the great abhorrence of the
Āryans for the Snake cult.” 33 But this sort of interpretation of the myth cannot stand for
two reasons. Firstly, at the time of the Snake Sacrifice the Vedic god Indra is represented
as the defender and well wisher of Takṣaka, but his destruction was the sole aim of the
sacrifice. Secondly, we have shown that the Snake cult was adopted by the Āryans before
the final compilation of great Epic.
From the Vedantic point of view we understood that, no doubt that esoterically
the venomous crooked Snakes represent evil or sin, and this inner meaning of the
Snakes,34 as described in several old Purāṇic myths explains them very well.35 Therefore,
Janamejaya’s killing the Snakes means he is killing the bad passions, which arise from
Indra-varga or Indriya-jn̄aṇa, the group of the untamed senses. Janam-ejaya means
‘terrifying men’, i.e. one who is a terror to (bad) men. One will be a terror to the group of
the enemies within himself before he can be fit to punish other bad men. Therefore,
whatever Janamejaya meant originally, it is by fastening this esoteric sense upon the
name that the riddle of his killing the so-called Snakes seems to have arisen. Hence, the
story of Snake sacrifice teaches us a lot about the tension between good and evil in
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ancient India. The main characters in the story are the king, the Snake Gods and the
Brahmins.36
From the historical point of view we known that, 37 the Snake Sacrifice means
simply Janamejaya’s war with the Nāgas or “people of the hills” (Nāgas means both the
Snake and hilly or mountain, that means mountaineers, and they were Snake worshippers
also) of the Gandhāra country. Many scholars believed that Sarpasāstra is aimed to
conquer Takṣaśilā which is located in the extreme North West indicating that the
intervening Madra or central Punjab also was under the control of Janamejaya. As the
riddle arose that the Snake Sacrifice was performed in order to punish the Snake Takṣaka,
it was easy of all the places in Northern India to be united under one single rule. Dr.
Fergusson,38 C. F. Oldham39 and various other scholars explain the same view that the
Nāga Yajña is a sacrifice of revenge on the Nāga war prisoners who had been imprisoned
at Takṣaśilā by Janamejaya and brought down to Hastināpura. After the Sacrifice, as a
result, Janamejaya became a powerful and strong monarch and he re-established the Kuru
dominion in Takṣaśilā and made it as his head quarters for some time. This is a historical
fact.
Oldham rightly opined that,40 “The Snake sacrifice seems to be a mythical

representation of a particular event, the fight between an Āryan and a non-Āryan king, a
worshipper of Snakes, who probably after a period of subjugation, revolted against
Janamejaya. Generally friendly relations had already been established between the Aryan
and non- Aryans at the time.” This legendary sacrifice, offered by king Janamejaya for
the destruction of the Snakes, is recorded not only in the Mahābhārata but also in the
Purāṇas and other allied works.41
We must know from this, generally friendly relations had already been established
between the Aryan and non- Aryans during this time. Though, the Snake cult was
adopted by the Āryans was come about on final stage during the great Epic, the sacrifice
was aimed only to elevating the excellence of Brāhmins than the Nāgas. Intensively the
sacrifice was going ahead and ended was linked with the Brāhmins. After the Sacrifice,
Janamejaya became a powerful and strong monarch and the adaptation of Nāga cult was
ended by the Āryans is a historical fact.
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4.12 Bhīma’s poison was heals by the Nāgas42
Bhīmasēna was the son of P̄aṇḍu through his wife Kunti, and he was the second
among the five P̄aṇḍavās. Kaūravās were the sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra through his wife
Gandhāri and they were hundred in number.
The Kaūravās and the P̄aṇḍavās spent their childhood in Hastināpura. Droṇācārya
was the teacher of the military art both Kaūravā and P̄aṇḍava princes and taught them
fighting with weapons. The Kaūravās and the P̄aṇḍavās often engaged themselves in
children’s games and the superiority in strength of the P̄aṇḍavās was apparent. Bhīma
was called Vṛikōdara, Wolf’s belly, for his voracity of food as he consumed. In strength
Bhīma used to beat all the sons of Dhṛtarāṣṭra, and used to seize by their hair and drag
them along the ground. In all such games and fighting with weapons Bhīma used to hurt
and defeated the Kaūravā brothers.
Duryōdhana was the eldest son of king Dhṛtarāṣṭra and was filled with envy and
hatred towards Bhīma, sought a plan to kill him, erecting a waters port house in the
beautiful place called Pramāṇakoti on the banks of the river Gaṅgā, invited the P̄aṇḍavas
to feast and amuse themselves. Duryōdhana sustained to mix the great poison with the
food and managed to serve the poisoned food to Bhīma. The unknown Bhīma ate a large
quantity of poisoned food; as a result he became unconscious. Then Duryōdhana, ordered
his servants, bound him with chords shrubs and threw him into the streams of the Gaṅgā.
Bhīma was going deeper and deeper into the water; at last, he reached the Nāgalōka, the
abode of the Nāgas. The Nāgas of the Nāgalōka bit him which neutralized the effects of
the poison which was accumulated in his body. There he got acquainted with a Nāga
called Āryaka, who was the grandfather of the father of Kunti, and he introduced Bhīma
to Vāsuki, the king of Nāgas. On the request of Āryaka, Vāsuki agreed to give him a
divine drink of rasakunḍa (nectar vessels) which would give to the drinker of one pot to
equal strength of thousand elephants. At a time Bhīma drank eight pots-full of that divine
drink. At length, the serpents prepared an excellent bed for him, on which he lay down at
ease. And thus he became tremendously strong. But he had to wait in Nāgalōka for eight
days so that the drink might be thoroughly assimilated. On the eight day Bhīma awoke
from slumber, and appeared so strong. Bhīma purified his body and after that he ate
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pāyaṣa which is offered by Nāgas. Then that oppressor of all foes, decked in celestial
ornaments, received the adorations and blessings of the snakes, and saluting them in
return, rose from the nether region. Bearing up the lotus-eyed P̄aṇḍava from under the
waters, the Nāgas placed him in the selfsame gardens wherein he had been sporting, and
vanished in his very sight.
In this story, Nāgas appeared not only as the venomous creatures but also with the
capability of healing the great poison. They were shown as the possessors of great wealth
and its donation (dānasēlatha). The Nectar was stored in the Nāgalōka and they used it to
drink. The Nāgalōka was their abode and it was located in deep the water of river Gaṅgā.
In general circumstances Nāgas have a lot of humanism; friendly natured, always
extended their help to the needy ones.
4.13 Arjuna regains the life by the Nāgas
Arjuna the centre of P̄aṇḍavas won in archery and got Panchãli as his wife. But
Pāñcālī was not only a wife of Arjuna she was also wife of other four brothers of him,
because of a special reason. Once Nārada visited their palace and advised them to guard
themselves against mutual quarrels among the five of them claiming one and the same
woman as their wife. Thenceforth it was set forth that Pāñcālī would live with each
husband in turn for one year. It was also settled that during a particular year if any other
husband other than the one whose turn it was, lived with Pāñcālī, the intruder had to go
on a pilgrimage for twelve years. Once Arjuna Forgetting the fact and went to
Dharmaputra’s palace, got his weapons and helped the Brāhmaṇa. That year Pāñcālī was
living with Dharmaputra and for breaking that rule Arjuna left his palace and went on a
pilgrimage for twelve years.
One day he entered into the water of Gaṅgā for bathing and after the bathing he
completed his sacrificial rites. At that time he saw a Nāga damsel Ulūpi and asked her a
few questions about herself. She replied, “I am Ulūpi, daughter of the Serpent Kauravya
of the family of Airāvata. I came to bathe in the river and when I saw you I grew
amorous.” Arjuna told that, it was not right to marry in the celibacy for twelve years. But
Ulūpi argued and convinced him that it was not wrong to marry her. Arjuna married her.
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Ulūpi granted a boon to Arjuna that, “All the water animals would obey him and in the
water he would be invincible”.43 Historically, Ulūpi belongs to the Eastern India, and
after their marriage, she took him to Nāgalōka, which is situated in the Eastern India;
there both of them lived happily till Arjuna moved to Manipur. Before Arjuna was
leaving Ulūpi gave birth to a son named Irāvān. The counter production of Arjuna’s
married the Nāga damsel Ulūpi, so many Nāga tribes, which are lived in Eastern India
believed that, Ulūpi and Arjuna were the ancestors of them.
Then after, Arjuna reached a state called Manlur (Manipura) which was ruled by a
king called Citrāvāhaṇa. Citr̄aṅgadā was his beautiful daughter and once Arjuna saw her
and immediately fell in love with her. He met the king and introduced himself and
expressed his desire, to take her daughter as his wife. The king agreed and both entered
into a marital life. Before he left from that place, Citr̄aṅgadā gave birth to a son named
Babhruvāhana (Vabhruvahana). Arjuna gave a promise to Citr̄aṅgadā that, he would take
them later to Hastināpura, and left from that place.
The story was again continued when in the war between P̄aṇḍavās and Kaūravās.
It was by a ruse that Arjuna made Bhīṣma fall down; Arjuna put Śikhaṇḍī before his
chariot and Bhīṣma refused to take arms against a eunuch and not accepted to defeat him.
But Gaṅgā Devī witnessed the battle between Bhīṣma and Arjuna. She could not bear this
foul play and so cursed Arjuna that would die at the hands of his son. Ulūpi heard this
curse and went to her father Kauravya who in turn went to Gaṅgā and begged for a relief
from the curse. Gaṅgā Devī then said that Arjuna would be killed by Babhruvāhana but
would be brought the life again by Ulūpi by placing the Mṛtasañjīvanī stone on the dead
man’s breast, which was kept in the Nāgalōka by the Nāgas.44
The Great Battle was over. When Dhrmaputra was performing the Āśvamedha
Yajña, Arjuna conducted a victory march with the Yāga Horse. On his way he reached
Manalur. Babhruvāhana made ready for battle and he ordered his men to seize the
sacrificial horse. Arjuna, seeing the horse seized, rejoiced in his heart at his son’s
prowess. Then there was a terrible encounter between father and son. At last
Babhruvāhana hit his father in the heart with one of his sharp pointed arrows. Arjuna fell
dead. Ulūpi immediately went to the Serpent world and brought the Mṛtasañjīvanī stone
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from the custody of Nāga Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the son of Vāsuki and as she placed it on Arjuna’s
breast, he came to life like a waking up from a sleep. When he saw Citr̄aṅgadā,
Babhruvāhana and Ulūpi he smiled and asked them why they had all come there. Ulūpi
then explained to him the story of the curse and he was extremely pleased over the end of
the curse,45 and then all went to Hastināpura, where they were greatly loved by all
subjects. 46
From this story, we come to known that the Nāgas were interested in the
matrimonial relation with the humans, and they have friendly and harmless with the
others. Mṛtasañjīvanī is used for got regaining or re-life and it was kept in the Nāgalōka,
guarded by the Nāgas. The acceptance of Nāgas to charitable and use the Mṛtasañjīvanī
for the re-life of the humans shown their humanity towards mankind.
4.14 Agni consumes the Khāṇḍva forest47
Long ago a king named Śvetakī began to perform a sacrifice of duration for
hundred years, supposed to gain the equal place of Indra. Śiva recomanded a hermit
named Durvāsa as the chier priest of sacrifice and Śvetakī completed without break. But
fire god (Agni) caught dysentery due to the continuous drunk butter which was offered in
the sacrificial fire for a long period. His face became pale, body became lean, and he had
no taste for food, and gradually lost both in splendor and strength. At last Agni went to
Brahmā and complained about his disease. Brahmā advised that in the dreadful forest of
Khāṇḍva, there lived so many creatures together like Dānavas, Rākshasas, Nāgas and
Birds, which were enemies of the Dēvas (Gods), and that by eating their fat, the disease
of his would be cured. Accordingly Agni came to the Khāṇḍva forest.
After the Sarpasāstra, Indra advised Takṣaka to be live in the Khaṇḍa forest. From
that day onwards the Nāga Takṣaka lived in the Khāṇḍva forest with his wife and
children. Indra knew that Agni had come to burn the Khāṇḍva forest and decided to save
Takṣaka at any cost. When Agni began to burn the forest with the help of vāyu (the god
of winds), the Nāgas who lived in the Khāṇḍva forest became angry and poured the water
with their many hoods upon the streams of fire, with the help of Indra. So it was not
possible for Agni to consume the forest. Agni tried seven times to consume the forest and
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in all these seven attempts failed and again approached Brahmā. This time Brahmā knew
the Indra’s support and told Agni, “The Nara- Nārāyaṇas would take a birth on the earth
as Arjuna and Kṛṣṇa and it would be possible to consume the forest Khāṇḍva by the help
of them.”
While the P̄aṇḍavās were dwelling happily at Indraprastha, Kṛṣṇa paid them a
visit in summer. A great picnic was organised by Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna on the banks of the
river Yamunā, accompanied by all their well wishers. One day when Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna
were sitting together on the bank of the river, Agni came and asked them for food. He
wished to devour the Khāṇḍva forest to recover his vigour, told all about and the support
of Indra to the forest. Kṛṣṇa and Arjnua promised him in this affair. Then Agni provided
the sufficient weapons with Gods help and bestow to the Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna who got ready
to help Agni. Krina became the charioteer of Arjuna.
Agni began to consume the forest with their support and they guarded the
boundaries of the forest so that the inmates of the forest might not escape. The living
creatures ran hither and thither finding no way to escape. Many died of suffocation. At
that time the hermits who were dwellers of the forest ran to Indra and informed him of
the great calamity. Indra instantly got ready to fight and save the forest as well as his
friend Takṣaka and his family. Indra covered the whole of the sky with clouds and a
heavy rain was showered on the forest. But Arjuna created a covering of arrows like an
umbrella over the fire and saved Agni from the rain.
At that time, Takṣaka had been away at the fields of Kurukśetra. Aśvasena the
son of Takṣaka was writhing with heat and pain. He tried to escape from the fire, but
Arjuna obstructed his way by arrows. Then Aśvasena’s mother (wife of Takṣaka)
swallowed him from tail to head and kept him in her stomach. Then she ran to the
boundary to throw the child into the outer region. Seeing this Arjuna got angry and cut
off her head. When he was ready to cut the head of Aśvasena, Indra sent a thunder bolt in
a nick of time to smash the canopy of arrows and as a result of which Arjuna fainted.
Taking this opportunity Aśvasena escaped. When Arjuna woke up from his unconscious
state he found that Aśvasena had saved. Arjuna became furious and began to cut down
every huge Nāga whom he saw. The Serpents and hawks confronted Arjuna, who cut off
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their heads. Kṛṣṇa killed the Asuras with his weapon discus. Indra and his supporters
came to the battle field and fought with them, but Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna won victorious over
them. Agni began to consume the forest with unbearable heat and more vigorously than
before. After the burning was completed, Agni returned to heaven from the forest. Only
six of the dwellers in the forest were allowed to escape, Aśvasena was one among them.
Aśvasena kept his grudge against Arjuna till the end. In the Great Battle Arjuna
and Karṇa met for a fight. When Karṇa sent his Nāgāstra (Serpent missile) against
Arjuna, Aśvasena hid himself in that missile and burnt the beautiful headwear of Arjuna.
The missile come back and told, launch the second time it and should hit Arjuna. But
Karṇa did not like this foul play. Though he made some requests Karṇa refused to accept
and left him. Enraged at this, the Serpent attacked Arjuna directly and was killed. Before
his death he got acquainted with Kṛṣṇa.48
Dr. Fergusson49 opined that, “The incident of Khāṇḍva forest clearly refers to
some pre-historical inter-tribal wars. The P̄aṇḍavās, it seems, did not like to have rival
tribes of wild nature in the neighbourhood of their capital. So they tried to get rid of the
trouble by burning the forest and annihilating the tribes living the reign.” Radhakamal
Mukerjee point out that, “The burning of Khāṇḍva forest in the valley of the Yamunā
(Jamuna) and the expulsion of the Nāgas with their ruler, Takṣaka, who had to take
refuge in the hills, may represent episodes where the two great peoples met in bloody
conflict.” 50
The burning of the Khāṇḍva forest seems to be the destruction of the Nāgas, who
were in few numbers who not like to adopt and fused into the Āryan pantheon. The
heroic acts of Kṛṣṇa and Arjuna showed their intention to destroy the Nāgas and
disclosed their help Agni as the cause. Further the story emphasises the love and affection
of the Nāgas of their children. Though, the Snakes generally ate their eggs and infant
children, but the mother of Aśvasena showed the unbelievable affection for her child.
Burning of the Khāṇḍva forest as described in the Mahābhārata was found in a

panel on the North additional niche of the southern shrine of the Hoyasalesvare temple at
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Halebidu, datable to the Eleventh-Twelfth century A.D., it showed the scene of fight
between Arjuna and the Gods, Nāgas and Yakṣas. 51
4.15 King Nala and Nāga Kārkoṭaka52
Kārkoṭaka was a terrible Serpent and was born to Kaśyapa and his wife Kadrū.
Once, Kārkoṭaka cheated the sage Nārada. The angry sage cursed him that, “You would
have to remain without the power of movements in the forest till Nala came to rescue
you.” From that day onwards Kārkoṭaka lived in that forest without moving, and
awaiting the arrival of Nala.
Nala was the king of Niṣada and the son of Virāsena. He married Damayantī with
the blessings of Indra, Agni, Varuṇa and Yama. The four attended his marriage and while
they returned, they met Kali and Dvāpara and told about their journey. Kali and Dvāpara
had wished to marry Damayantī in the past and of course they felt disappointed and
angry. Kali decided to enter into Nala’s body and to bring loss to his kingdom and he was
waiting for the opportunity. At last he did so, possessed by Kali, Nala lost his kingdom,
wealth and finally his wife Damayantī. Then he left his kingdom and everything and went
away on his anonymous way filled with sorrow.
One day Nala was walking along the forest a wild fire was spread all over.
Kārkoṭaka, who had lost the power of movement by Nārada’s curse was annoyed by the
fire and cried aloud to save him. It was at this time that Nala was walking nearby and
heard the voice of the cries, without delay Nala arrived and saved him from the fire and
carry him to a safe spot away from the fire. Kārkoṭaka was so much pleased him and told
the story of Nārada’s curse and reducing himself to the size of thumb, sat on the ground.
Then the Serpent requested Nala to walk a few steps and to count his footsteps when
walking. Nala did so and at the tenth step, when Nala counted ten, Kārkoṭaka bit on his
leg, (Nala says daśa, “Ten,” which means also “Bite”) as a result Nala became ugly and
turned into blue. Suddenly Kārkoṭaka assumed his original shape and spoke to the
flurried Nala as follows: “Don’t fear I have changed your appearance, so that people may
not be able to recognize you. Now you are ugly because of my poison. But my poison has
affected Kali, who is in your body and had harmed you. He still lived within you and he
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has to suffer for my bit. So long as this poison is in you, nobody will harm you. You will
never be defeated in any battle. You need not fear and any danger from my poison
anymore.” Further he continued “Go and engage yourself as the charioteer of Ṛituparṇa,
who is the king of Āyodya. You teach him Aśvahṛdaya mantra (mantras to known the
mind of horse). In return for it he will teach you Akṣahṛdayamantra. Here are two
garments which I will give you. If you put them on, you will be restored to your own
shape.” Then he blessed him for a happy family life coming soon and vanished. And then
Nala walked towards the Ayodya and reached the palace of Ṛituparṇa on the tenth day.
There he introduced himself as Bāhuka and was employed as the horse keeper of
Ṛituparṇa on a pay of some pieces of gold. The rest of the story was not relevant for our
purpose, but finally it ended happily as blessed by the Kārkoṭaka.
A similar story about Nala was contained in the Buddhist Mythology, but only the
early part of the story was matched with the present.53 In this story, the Nāga Kārkoṭaka
appeared at the beginning as the cheater and dishonest, but his actions intended to remove
the Nala’s sufferings. Hence, the Nāgas were not harmful to others in general
circumstances.
4.16 The story of Nāga Padmanābha54
Dharmāraṇya was a Brāhmin from a place called Mahāpadma on the banks of the
river Gaṅgā. The major portion of his life was spent in hard work to support his large
family. After that he went in search of means to attain knowledge and heavens. He
wandered here and there for knowledge of Vēdas. Once a hermit met and directed him
towards a Nāga named Padmānabha. So Dharmāraṇya started his journey in search of
Nāga Padmānabha.
Padmānabha was the mighty Serpent of righteous soul supported the chariot of the
Sūryadēva (The Sun). He resided with family on the shores of the river Gomati which
flowed through the Naimiṣāraṇya. “He practiced triple path of Acts, Knowledge and
Adoration, and he gratified all creatures in thought, word and deed. He was devoted to
the study of the Vedas and endured with penances and self-restraint. He never acted with
hostility towards any one. He was always engaged in doing what is beneficial to all
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creatures. Reflecting upon all things with great care, he protects the righteous and
chastises the wicked by adopting the quadruple policy of conciliation, provoking
dissensions, making gifts or bribes and using force. He will show the truly what the
highest religion is. That Naga is always fond of guests. Endued with great intelligence, he
is well conversant with the scriptures. He is possessed of all desirable virtues the like of
which are not to be noticed in any other person. By disposition he is always observant of
those duties which are performed with or in water. He is endued with penances and self-
restraint. He has great wealth and performs sacrifice, makes gifts, abstains from inflicting
injury and practises forgiveness. His conduct in all respects is excellent. Truthful in
speech and freed from malice, his behaviour is good and his senses are under proper
control. He eats after feeding all his guests and attendants. He is kind of speech and has
knowledge of what is beneficial and what is simple and right and what is censurable. He
takes stock of what he does and what he leaves undone. He never acts with hostility
towards any one.”
At last Dharmāraṇya found out Padmānabha’s house. But when he reached his
house, he had been away carrying the chariot of the Sun. He found there the wife of
Padmānabha only. He made a conversation with her and told his main and only object
for his journey and expressed his desire to meet her husband. She replied to him that:
“My husband has gone to drag the car of Sūrya for a month, and he would return within a
fortnight. Within a proper time Padmānabha finished his task and obtained permission
from Sūrya and came back to his own house. He enquires his wife about the duties of
hospitality and righteousness in his absence, and found that it was done in appropriate
manners without the slightest negligence and then he explained the guṇās of Nāgas as the
answer to his wife’s question as follows: “Amongst the Deities and Asuras and celestial
ṛṣīs, the Nāgas are endued with great energy. Possessed of great speed, they are endued
again with excellent fragrance. They deserve to be worshipped. They are capable of
granting boons. The Nāgas are believed to have no ears, but use their eyes both for seeing
and hearing purposes.” Then his dear spouse told about the Brāhmin, who had arrived to
gain the answers for his doubts, and knowledge. Instantly, the Nāga Padmānabha
proceeded to that place where the Brāhmin was sitting in vow, reached him and
introduced himself and asked what his object and purpose was. Brāhmin replied, I am
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Dharmāraṇya, and I wished to meet you to know the reliance on the jīva-soul (jīvātma). I
have a desire to attain to the supreme soul which is the end of the jīva-soul. What should
I do in order to get merged in God and about the ways to attain the heaven at the end of
the jīva-soul? The Nāga replied, “The greatness of the Sun is manifold. He is the God
invoked into himself a saint who had lived only by the fallen grains in the field. The
activities of that Sun are wonderful. The hermits and saints attach themselves to the rays
of the Sun as birds attach themselves to the branches of trees. The great storms arising
from the Sun spread wide in the sky. I saw once a person sitting inside the Sun who was a
wonder of wonders. When that person was shining as the Sun came to him in the noon
the Sun embraced him and seated him inside him. I asked the Sun who he was; the Sun
replied that he was a person who had attained heaven by Unc̃havṛtti i.e. the vow consists
in subsisting on grains picked up from the fields after the corn has been reaped and taken
away by the owners. Who has attained to heaven in consequence of his having been
crowned with success in the observance of the vow called Unc̃ha. It is a most difficult
vow to observe. The merit attaching to it is very great. This person had subsisted upon
fruits and roots and upon the fallen leaves of trees. He had sometimes subsisted upon
water, and sometimes upon air only, passing his days with concentrated soul. He had
endeavoured to accomplish those acts he had now attained to heaven. Without wealth and
without desire of any kind, he had observed the vow called Unc̃ha in the matter of his
sustenance. Without doubt, this is very wonderful and better vehicle to attain the heaven
and I advise you to vow the Unc̃havṛtti.
Hearing the advice which given by the Nāga, the Brāhmin Dharmāraṇya told that,
“It is very true that the deities are not superior to you in any respect. You show the way
of attaining the heaven not only to me but also to all other creatures. My object has been
accomplished and I take leave.” Then he accepted penance and lived in the hermitage of
cyavaṇ (chyavaṇa) for a few days. Then he engaged in Unc̃havṛtti and as a result he
attained the heaven.
From this we known that, Nāgas were well studied the Vēdas and have great
wisdom due to their adaptation was completed amalgamated into the Brāhmnanism at
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that time. Nāga Padmānabha narrates the characteristics of Nāgas in a truly wonderful
manner and shown the way of heaven by vow i.e. a life style of tolerance.
4.17 Mātali seeks in Nāgalōka for Son-in-law55
Indra had a charioteer named Mātali. He had a daughter. She was more beautiful
and well behaved than other girls and endued with the celestial beauty she was known by
name of Guṇakeśi. The grown up daughter caused anxiety to her parents for finding the
eligible and preeminent bridegroom for her. After a deep thought, Mātali and his wife
Sudharmā took a decision together to strive to search for a bridegroom in all three worlds.
Mātali took the help of The Gods, the Daityas and Gandarvas, Men and numerous ṛṣis,
but he failed to find the corresponding bridegroom. But he hoped that, one may be found
amongst the Nāgas in the Nāgalōka.
He made a journey to the nether worlds. On the way he met Nārada and told the
matter and asked his help to search for a bridegroom for his daughter. Nārada agreed to
his request and both paid a visit to Varuṇa (The God of Waters), and then Hiraṇyapura,
the city of Gold, which is the abode of the Daityās and Dānavās, and then the region of
Birds i.e. Garuḍas or Suparṇas, which possessed excellent feathers and were all
depending upon the Nāgas, After, they reached Rasātala the seventh stratum below the
Earth, where Surabhi who was born from the Amṛta and was mother of all cows was
dwelling with her four heifers. But Mātali was not selecting the any one as bridegroom.
After that they entered into a city named Bhogavatī, which was ruled by Vāsuki
the king of the Nāgas. Śeṣa who had a thousand heads also stayed here and by his tapas
he put up with the mighty Earth. His body was like that of a white mountain, and adorned
with divine ornaments. Here also dwell the innumerable Nāgas, who were the sons of
Surasā, and manifold of shape. Thousands of Nāgas are strong and fierce by nature, and
marked with jewels, svastikas and wheels wore the auspicious emblem of the water-jar
(kamaṇdaluka). Some had a thousand heads, and others five hundred; some had a
hundred heads and others are three headed. Some had twice five heads and others were
seven faced. With the huge coils of their large bodies they could encompass even a
mountain. There were many thousands, myriads and millions of Nāgas which all
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belonged to one race. Nārada addressed some of the chiefs among them beginning with
Vāsuki, Takṣaka, Kārkoṭaka etc., and said these are only some to count. Many other
chiefs stayed here, all reckoned to be the sons of Kaśyapa. And asked Mātali, do you find
anyone among the Nāgas as your son-in-law.
Mātali, point at a young, and enquire Nārada, from what Nāga race is he
descended, who are his father and mother. His intelligence, patience, beauty and youth
are more attractive to me and he seems to me is right corresponding to my Guṇakeśi and
so that I wish to give my dear daughter to that Nāga. Nārada consented to the
complement about him and said that, he was Sumukha, who was born from the race of
Nāga Airāvata. He was Vāmana’s daughter’s son and the favourite grandson of Āryaka.
The father of the youth was Chikura, who was the son of Vinatā.
Then Nārada greeted the Āryaka, the Serpent king and the grandfather of
Sumukha and told him all about of Mātali and his daughter, and purpose of their journey;
and continued, after having searched in three worlds, he had chosen Sumukha to be the
husband of his daughter, and with your permission Mātali was anxious to bring Sumukha
himself.
Āryaka then addressed Nārada and said, “O celestial ṛṣi, we are very thankful for
your selecting my grandson as the bridegroom for Guṇakeśi. But it may not possible, my
son Chikura was devoured by the son of Vinatā, i.e. Garuḍa. Garuḍa, when leaving this
region said, after a month I will come back for Sumukha. So surely it will happen as he
had said that. So how can we enter your deal?”
Mātali thought himself and replied, “Don’t worry; I have a plan, your grandson
will be sure to be as son-in-law to me.” Both Nārada and Mātali took Sumukha to Indra,
when Viṣṇu visited the Indralōka. Viṣṇu after heard the information by the Nārada,
advised Indra, “Let us give him the Amṛta, and make him equal to the Gods and
immortal.” Then Mātali, Nārada and Sumukha prayed to Viṣṇu for obtaining the boon
which they desired. Finally Viṣṇu granted the longevity (āyus) to the Nāga Sumukha, but
he did not make him partake of the nectar. Sumukha accepted the boon granted by the
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Lord of Gods (Viṣṇu) and left from there to home. After that Sumukha and Guṇakeśi
entered into the marital life with the blessing of Nārada, Āryaka and Mātali.
Afterwards, though Garuḍa came to know about Sumukha’s boon, but he had no
way to overcome the boon. But he expressed his opposition about the boon before the
Viṣṇu and Indra and both consoled and advised him, as he engaged friendship with them
i.e. Nāgas and he was unsatisfied with their advice.
From this we known that, Nāgas have great intelligence, patience, beauty and
youth and lived in the Nāgalōka which is located in the nether regions. They were always
afraid about their enemies i.e. Garuḍas and at times gods support and saved the life of the
Nāgas from the Garuḍas.
4.18 Kṛṣṇa overcomes the Nāga Kāḷīya
One of the popular incarnations of the Viṣṇu is Kṛṣṇa. Under this avatāra Kṛṣṇa
defeated the Nāga Kāḷīya (the black). The fight between Kṛṣṇa and snake god Kāḷīya
recognised as the conflict of religious movement in ancient India. It is said to have
happened in the Nabhasya, bucolic environment of Braj, South of Delhi. Very poetic
descriptions in Sanskrit are given of this episode in the Bhagavatha Purāṇa56 and in the
Harivaṃśa,57 and was a dramatic event in the Mahābhārata series too.
Kāḷīya was also one of the sons of Kaśyapa with his wife Kadrū and he possessed
one thousand heads. We know Vinatā and Kadrū were wives of Kaśyapa. The cheating
victory of Kadrū over Vinatā in sequence led to the antagonism between the Nāgas and
Garuḍa and Garuḍa was killing and eating the Nāgas whenever he got a chance for it. At
last Nāgas entered into a treaty with Garuḍa that to give him the havis (offering) which
they got on certain days. Garuḍa agreed and thus stopped eating the Nāgas. But Kāḷīya did
not subscribe to the above agreement and along with his family, shifted his residence to a
particular sector in Kalindi alias Yamunā which is one of the holy rivers in India. The
Kalindi owing to the curse of a sage called Saubhari, who was performing penance on the
banks, on a past occasion, Garuḍa being extremely hungry carried away by force of
Saubhari’s favourite prey, an aquatic creature, though he was prohibited from doing so by
the sage as “If ever Garuḍa enters this pool and eats fish or Snakes here of, he will
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instantly meet death”. Thus, Garuḍa would die broken-headed if he entered Kalindi and it
was a prohibited area to him. Only Kāḷīya knew Saubhari’s curse, and so it was resided in
that pool out of the fear of Garuḍa. Owing to the virulent poison of Kāḷīya, the waters of
Kalindi became poisonous. The venom of the Serpent discharged on all sides to a distance
of hundred bows (i.e. four hundred hastas or cubits) in terrible waves saturated and bitter
with poison. The trees on its banks dried up and even the birds flying over it, fell dead due
to poisonous vapours.
According to the sources, it happened on an idyllic afternoon in spring, when the

young boy Kṛṣṇa was playing in the woods with his friends. Exposed to the hot Sun, the
boys and the cattle felt thirsty. They went to the vast tank Kalindi, the residence of the
vicious serpent Kāḷīya, and drank off its water. As the water became poisoned with the
venom of Kāḷīya, the cattle and the boys collapsed after quenching their thirst. Kṛṣṇa, the
master yōgi, could divine the cause of their disaster. He directed his concentrated
nectarine looks on them and restored them to life and activity. They knew that Kṛṣṇa was
responsible for their revival and felt grateful to him. Kṛṣṇa did not rest with saving them
from death. He wanted to find a permanent solution and make the waters of the lake safe
for drinking by living creatures. He found the waters boiling with the fiery venom of the
serpent monster i.e. Kāḷīya.
Kṛṣṇa climbed up the Kadamba tree that hung over the river bank and jumped into
the river. Find this and Immediately Kāḷīya rose up with his hundred and ten hoods
vomiting poison. The gōpabālās of Vṛindavan (Bṛindavan), his parents Rohini, Yaśoda
and Nanda and all the gōpās and gōpīs came running and stumbling to the edge of
Kāḷīya’s whirlpool and they could not see Kṛṣṇa. Only Balarāma comforted and saying to
everyone, “Kṛṣṇa will come back very soon. He cannot be slain”.
Meanwhile Kāḷīya wrapped himself round about Kṛṣṇa’s body, but Kṛṣṇa became
so huge that Kāḷīya had to release him. So Kṛṣṇa saved himself from every attack by
Kāḷīya. When he saw the Braj folk they were so much afraid, he suddenly sprang into
Kāḷīya’s head and assumed the weight of the whole universe and danced on the Nāga’s
heads, beating them with his feet. During the course of his dance, Kṛṣṇa kicked and bent
down whatever head (hood of the Serpent) was raised by the Serpent that was profusely
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emitting poison through its eyes, and was hissing (through nostrils) with rage, and thus
subdued it. All the inhabitants of the Braj area were watching from a distance of Kṛṣṇa’s
dance on the head of Kāḷīya and mortally wounded him like Garuḍa, watching for an
opportunity, Kṛṣṇa sported with the Serpent which was constantly licking the corners of
its mouth with its forked tongue, and whose eyes was sending forth extremely virulent
poisonous flames of fire, and whiling round the Serpent, he made it whirl around itself.
Gradually the energy and prowess of the Serpent became exhausted in whirling round
itself. At this time the dance of Kṛṣṇa on the coils was being observed and enjoyed by the
people of Gōkula.
After some time Kāḷīya began to die. He dashed his hoods about, putting forth his
tongues and streams of blood poured from his mouths. When he was quite overcome the
thought arose in his heart; “This must be the primal male, for none other could resist my
venom”. So thinking, he gave up all hope and remained still. But then the Nāga wives
came and stood round Kṛṣṇa, and stretched out their folded hands towards him, bent to
kiss his feet, worshipped and praying him for their husband as follows “Be pleased to
release this one, slay us with him, for death itself is good to a woman without a husband”.
Śri Kṛṣṇa stepped out from Kāḷīya’s head. Then Kāḷīya worshipped him and prayed
forgiveness for not recognizing the Lord. So, Kṛṣṇa forgave him.
Then Kṛṣṇa ordered Kāḷīya, leave this place and went to away home to Ramaṇaka
Dwipa. But Kāḷīya was afraid to go there because of Garuḍa and told about it. Kṛṣṇa
replied, “Go without fear, when Garuḍa saw the marks of my feet on your head he does
not touch you”. On hearing these words, Kāḷīya accompanied by his wives, friends and
children went to the Ramaṇaka Island in the sea. Then the water of Yamunā became
instantly rid of poison through the grace of the Lord.
Archaeologists find out the spot of Kṛṣṇa’s victory over the Kāḷīya on the bank of
river Yamunā at Mathurā. Now it is known as Kalimardana Ghat. Every year in the
month of Karthīka celebrated Nāg Līla at there with a procession of boats.58
The Kāḷīya was brought to the penultimate stage of spiritual advancement with
Kṛṣṇa’s stamping of his hoods. He has only to prove himself worthy in his new life to be
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taken to the final stage of redemption i.e. mōkṣha. 59 According to Richa Sikri,60 “The
episode of Kāḷīya-mardan indicates that the cult of Nāgas was superseded by the cult of
Kṛṣṇa.” This opinion may possibly proved by three inscriptions, which are found in
Mathurā which told that the Nāga cult was prevalent in the region of Mathurā before the
entry of Vaiṣṇavism. In the words of C. V. Vaidya,61 “The story of Kṛṣṇa having killed
the Kāḷīya Serpent in the Kalindi seems to us to contain the historical fact of a human
Nāga king having been destroyed on the Kalindi by Kṛṣṇa. The Black aboriginal king of
the Nāga people might well have been transformed in later legend into a variable seven
headed Serpent which hunted a deep pool of the river.” The same was expressed by R.
Champakalakshmi,62 “The subjugating the Nāga Kāḷīya implies the progress of the cult of
Kṛṣṇa, at the expense of this animistic form of religion which was current at the time the
rise of Kṛṣṇism.” In this story, Kāḷīya appeared as the chastised by Kṛṣṇa, but some
scholars opined that, “The inner fact signified that he was saved by Kṛṣṇa from the
Garuḍa, and had shown his superiority over him and also showed the suppression of the
Nāga cult by that of Vaiṣṇavism and this appears to have happened after 300 A.D.” 63
Hence, the story was aimed to diminish the status of Nāga’s god sprit; aware,
promulgate and disclose the preeminent of the Hindu gods. The Hindu literature had
shown the Nāgas evil deeds as a cause of expulsion actions by the Hindu gods. Though, it
was aimed to snatch the Nāgas popularity as the gods, nourishments the generosity of the
Hindu gods was appeared towards the Nāgas.
The episode of Kāḷīya damana has been extensively pictured than the other Epic and
Purāṇic scenes in Indian sculpture. The earliest depiction of this subject occurs in a
sculpture datable to the third-fourth century A.D found at Bikaner.64 Here Kṛṣṇa stands
and dancing on the coils of Snake Kāḷīya. One of the famous Mandor pillar has showed
the scene of Kāḷīya-damana.65 Here Kṛṣṇa presses the hood of the Serpent with his right
leg and holds its tail in his left hand. There is a bunch of flowers in his right hand. Kāḷīya
has a serpentine body with a human head sheltered by a hooded canopy. In the right side
of him a Nāginī, who considered as his wife was presented in close. On the left side
stands Balarāma holding a lotus and a lily flower in his hands indicating his association
with water. A terracotta panel from Mathurā,66 presently housed in the Museum and
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Picture Gallery at Baroda shows a seated Nāginī with folded hands. In the surviving part
of the body of Serpent there is a foot evidently of Kṛṣṇa. A fragmentary circular sculpture
from the Gupta period was discovered at Mathurā,67 which contains the scene of Kāḷīya
damana. Here Kṛṣṇa has put a noose around the neck of Kāḷīya whose body is missing.
On the left side there is wife of Kāḷīya praying for the release of her husband.
This episode is also pictured on a panel in Cave No. 2 at Badami.68 Here Kṛṣṇa is
attacking Kāḷīya Naga who stands with folded hands. The same legend also has been
depicted differently in Cave No.4 at Badami.69 Here Kṛṣṇa holds a lotus stalk in either of
his hands. He is seen attacking Kāḷīya who stands before him. Kṛṣṇa also holds the tail of
Kāḷīya in his right hand. Two Nāginīs were presented in this scene seems to be praying
for the release of Kāḷīya. The scene probably relates to the last phase of the taming of the
Naga when Kṛṣṇa heard the prayers of the wives of Kāḷīya and spared his life.
A sculpture datable to the sixth-seventh century A.D. from the State Museum,
Bhubaneswar, Orissa,70 contains the scene of the Kāḷīya damana. Here Kṛṣṇa stands on
the tail of the Serpent. There two Nāginīs who were seated behind him. Another sculpture
in the Dharmaraja Ratha at Mahābalipuram71 assigned to the seventh century A.D.
contains the scene of Kāḷīya damana episode. Hare Kṛṣṇa was seen holding the long tail
of Kāḷīya in both of his hands. The hooded bust of the Naga is at the bottom.
4.19 Akrūra beheld the Śeṣa in the Yamunā
Kaṁsa was the cruel king of Mathurā. Once he heard the voice of aśarīravāni
(voice of sky-deity) about his death in the hand of his nephews. He therefore killed all the
sons of his sister Yaśoda, the wife of Nanda Mahārajā. But her eighth son named Kṛṣṇa
was exchanged and carried by Vasudeva to Vṛndāvana in secretly. The Kaṁsa was no
longer feared about his death and ruled more terrible than before.72
After some years, Kaṁsa came to known the real from the Nārada, who warned
him that “You are to be killed by the eighth son of Vasudēva”. The Kaṁsa was timorous
and made some attempts wrathfully to kill his nephews Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma, and failed.
He, further planning to kill them, conducted a festival called Cāpapūjā i.e. worship of the
Bow, arranged a wrestling competition and invited people to visit. Then he summoned
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and deputed Akrūra, who was the son of Śvaphalka and the paternal uncle of Śri Kṛṣṇa,
and who is respected more as a worshipper of Kṛṣṇa, to bring Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma to the
festival. 73 On receiving the royal command, he arrived by his chariot at Gokula, when
the Sun was reaching the setting mountain. When he found them he quickly jumped
down from the chariot, and fell near the feet of Balarāma and Kṛṣṇa, knowing Kṛṣṇa’s
affection to those who have completely surrendered themselves to him. Kṛṣṇa understood
him but he enquired about his journey. On hearing the message and plot of Kaṁsa from
Akrūra, Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma laughed loudly and agreed to come with him.74
One fine morning Akrūra drove his chariot along with Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma to
Mathurā. At noon they arrived on the bank of the river Yamunā. Akrūra requested Kṛṣṇa
and Balarāma, “Not to leave this place until I return from the pool. In this pool I will
Worship the lord of Snakes by means of divine mantras, for he is the sovereign of the
whole world.” Then he took leave of them and he plunged into the river. While reciting
the ancient Vēdic mantras, he saw therein both Balarāma and Kṛṣṇa together. He thought
to himself “How is it that the two sons of Vasudēva who were seated in the chariot are
down here? In that case they must not be in the chariot.” With this suspicion, he emerged
out of water and looked perceiving both of them seated in the chariot as before, again
thinking, “Was my vision of them both in the water unreal?” He therefore went back to
the river. This time he saw not only Balarāma and Kṛṣṇa there, but also the Śeṣa Nāga,
the Lord of the Serpents, a resplendent god with one thousand heads, with crowns
adorning his one thousand hoods, carrying a plough in one hand and whose frame was
supported by a mace. Wearing a blue garment and wearing a single ear ring, and being
intoxicated, he slept. He was seated at ease on the shining seat formed by the mass of his
coils. His necks were all white and appeared exactly the white snow-clad mountain
Kailāsa with its golden peaks. On the curved lap of Śeṣa, he saw Kṛṣṇa sitting very
soberly, with four hands. 75
Akrūra, came up from the water, and saw Kṛṣṇa and Balarāma sitting in the car as
before. But now he saw Balarāma turned into Śeṣa Nāga and Kṛṣṇa turned into Mahā
Viṣṇu. At finding the lord, Akrūra’s heart and senses became filled with divine joy and
serenity. Bending his neck down with devotion and he praised Kṛṣṇa manifold. Then they
91
restarted their journey to Mathurā.76 And the further legend also narrated in the
Harivaṃśa in an extensive manner.77
From this legend we had known that, Nāgas lived in the waters of Yamunā, which
was shown the real and popular cult of Nāgas. Based on Nāgas passionate in the society,
to emend their mistake, Hinduism instituted a new concept that, Nāgas were announced as
gods like Hindu gods and there is no difference between Hindu gods and Nāga gods and
starts to portrait as the Hindu gods and god’s incarnations like Balarāma who associated
the agriculture and prised by the Nāgas, Gandarvas and Asuras. Balarāma placed a lofty
stride amongst the Nāgas because he was the incarnation of the Hindu god.
4.20 Gajendra Mōkṣha
Once, an Elephant who was the leader of a great Elephant flock suffering from the
heat of summer, exuding ichors, came to the lake surrounded by other elephants and
followed by baby elephants. The herd of elephant entered into the water and refreshing
themselves by spouting water, and drinking it. While they drew water by their own trunk,
all over their bodies, a giant crocodile, far stronger, caught the leader of the Elephant by
the leg in the water in a great fury. As the lordly Elephant and the crocodile thus battled,
the one dragging the other down one moment, and being dragged out by him the next, a
thousand years passed. When the great elephant, with its huge body, was helpless and
unable to release himself, he realized that his life was in peril in this encounter, the work
of fate and he pondered long and came to this conclusion. At last the royal elephant grew
weak, but the crocodile was not yet weary, because of being at its home. Thus the
Elephant prayed to the Lord Viṣṇu, to save him from the death. Then Viṣṇu came by
seated on Garuḍa, attended by the dēvas, drew forth the crocodile and served its neck
with a cast of his Discus and saved the Elephant from seize of the Crocodile. 78
In the plastic art, Gajendra-mōkṣha is not a ordinary representation and it was

depicted not based on the theory. In the art, the crocodile was missing and replaced by a
Nāga in the place of it. The earliest representation Gajendra-mōkṣha was found from
Deogarh, of the Gupta period (6th century A.D.),79 and is a splendid example. Here, the
crocodile, popularly known to have caught the leg of the elephant is absent and a Nāga,
92
combining the human with Serpent form shows the feet of the elephant caught in the coils
of Snake tail. The seven hooded Nāga is also accompanied by a single hooded Nāginī and
both their hands are joined in the attitude of reverence.
Though, the Nāga sinful deeds were not mentioned in this story, the artist of Gupta
period was engraved the Nāga in the place of Crocodile. The god appeared as the saviour
from the Nāga’s spiteful actions were apparent, and it was clearly indicates the intended
actions of the artist who encouraged by the Brahmanism and enhance it.
4.21 The story of Jīmūtavāhana
Garuḍa after redeemed his mother from slavery in the hands of the Nāgas, showed
anger upon the Nāgas that killed and ate them wherever he seen. It was terrifying in the
Nāga world and the Nāga king Vāsuki engaged in a treaty with the Garuḍa that he should
send a Nāga everyday to Garuḍa for his food. But forever obstruct the Garuḍa’s Snake
killing and eating is found in the story of Jīmūtavāhana which from Katasaristagara of
Sōmadēva.
Jīmūtavāhana was the son of Jīmūtaketu, who was the ruler of a city named
Kāñcanapura in a valley of the Himalayas. Jīmūtavāhana knew the divine powers of the
Kalpaka tree (kalpavṛkṣa), from the ministers. The Kalpaka tree fulfils any wish and
sheds gold everywhere in the world. Because of some reasons Jīmūtavāhana and his
father left their kingdom and went with his family to the Malaya Mountain and lived
there.
One day Jīmūtavāhana and his friend Mitrāvasu went for a walk and reached a
forest on the seashore. Seeing some bones there Jīmūtavāhana asked Mitrāvasu about
them. Mitrāvasu told all about “The wager between Kadrū and Vinatā, and Kadrū’s
victory over her sister by cheating, consequently Vinatā and her child Garuḍa become
slaves of Kadrū. Garuḍa liberated his mother from slavery, but the hatred increased day
by day and Garuḍa began to eat Serpents, the children of Kadrū. Seeing this, Vāsuki the
king of the Nāgas entered into an indenture with Garuḍa, so as to prevent the Nāgas from
being destroyed altogether. The arrangement was that Vāsuki would send a Serpent
93
everyday to Garuḍa, and it ate all those serpents sent by Vāsuki in this place. These are
the bones of those poor Snakes.”
When Jīmūtavāhana heard this story his heart was filled with pity and he decided
to save the life of at least one Serpent by giving his body instead. But the presence of
Mitrāvasu was an obstacle to carry out his wish. At that moment a minister appeared
there and took away Mitrāvasu saying that he was wanted by his father. Left alone,
Jīmūtavāhana stood there and saw a young man coming with an old woman who was
crying bitterly. On enquiry, Jīmūtavāhana known that in accordance with the agreement
with Garuḍa, the old woman was bringing her only son Śaṇkhacūḍa that day as the food
of Garuḍa. The mother and the son reluctantly agreed to do so and the old woman went
away crying and Śaṇkhacūḍa went to the temple.
At that time, hearing the sound of Garuḍa’s wings Jīmūtavāhana formed himself
as a Nāga and laid on the particular stone, and Garuḍa taking him in his beaks and flew to
the top of the Malaya Mountain. On the way, the jewel of Jīmūtavāhana known as
‘Cūḍratna’, which was soaked in blood, fell down, in front of Malayavatī, the wife of
himself. Recognised that it was the jewel of her husband, with a terrible cry she ran to his
father and told about what happened. Jīmūtaketu knew what happened in a short of time
and instantaneously went to the top of the Malaya Mountain with them. Meanwhile,
Śaṇkhacūḍa, having done obeisance to “Gokarṇanātha” (God), came back to the
particular stone where he had left Jīmūtavāhana and seeing a pool of fresh blood, became
sad and silent. After some time, he determined that would save Jīmūtavāhana at any cost,
and went up the mountain following the track of the blood drops.
Garuḍa took Jīmūtavāhana to the peak of the mountain and began to peck at him.
Jīmūtavāhana grew more and more delighted as the pecking became harder. Garuḍa
looked at him with wonder and thought, “Surely, this is not a Nāga, it must be a
Gandharvā or somebody else.” Not knowing what to does he sat looking at his prey, who
invited him to finish off his meal. Then Garuḍa being overpowered with astonishment,
told him: “Noble one, you are not a Snake, tell me who you are.” Jīmūtavāhana just
answered “I am a Nāga, eat me, complete what you have begun, for men of resolution
never leave unfinished and undertaking they have begun”. At that time Śaṇkhacūḍa had
94
reached the spot, and cried out from a far: “Stop, stop, Garuḍa! He is not a Nāga; I am
the Nāga meant for you, so let him go. Alas! How have you suddenly come to make this
mistake?” Soon Jīmūtaketu and Malayavatī also arrived and all are cried loudly. Garuḍa
was confused and knew that he was about to eat the famous Jīmūtavāhana, who had given
away even the Kalpaka tree for the good of others, and was filled with penitence.
Instantly the injured Jīmūtavāhana fell died. The parents and Śaṇkhacūḍa cried beating
their breasts. Malayavatī fell in the ground and cried. Then looking up she called out with
tears, “Ha! Devī! Jagadambikā! You have told me that my husband would become the
emperor of the Vidyādharas. Has your boon become futile because of my misfortune?”
Gaurī Devī (Pārvati) appeared and said “Daughter! My words will not become futile.”
Then Devī sprinkled Amṛta on Jīmūtavāhana and brought him to life. He sprang up more
radiant then before. After that, Dēvi anointed him as the emperor of Vidyādharas and left
there. Garuḍa was much pleased and told Jīmūtavāhana ask for yours any boon.
But Jīmūtavāhana not interested for the boon of himself. He requested Garuḍa,
should stop killing and eating the Nāgas and that all the Serpents who had been reduced
to bones should be brought to life again. Garuḍa granted him that boon. All the Serpents
which had been killed by Garuḍa came to life again. All the Gods and hermits came there
with joy. Then Jīmūtavāhana went with his relatives to the Himalayas as the emperor of
Vidyādharas.80
Even though it was later development, it serves the information about the end of
Nāgas encounter by the Garuḍas. It tells us that, the Nāgas falsification conduct
compensated a lot of deaths of themselves. The agreement between them was cannot
stopped the Nāgas deaths. Finally it was ended by a human endeavour i.e. Jīmūtavāhana.
95
References
1. A. K Bhattacharya, Tara as a Serpent Deity and its Jain Counterpart Padmavati in

The Sakti cult and Tara, (Ed) D. C. Sirkar, (Calcutta, 1967), p.154
2. S. R Goyal, The Vedic Age, (Basanthi, 1961), p. 168
3. P. Banerjee, Early Indian Religions, (Delhi, 1975) p.48
4. MB, Ādi Parva, ch. I-III
5. MB, Āstika parva, ch. XVI
6. RAM, Book No. V, canto. I.
7. J. Ph. Vogel, Archaeological museum: At Mathura, (Varanasi, 1971), p.111, pl. l, Fig.
2.
8. A.S.R., Vol. XX, pp. 34-35 and 38, pl. XIX
9. ibid, pp. 34-35 and 38, pl. XIX
10. J. Ph. Vogel, op. cit., p.112, pl. 3
11. A. Cunningham, Coins of Ancient India from the Earliest times down to the Seventh
Century, (Varanasi, 1971), p. 62, pl. II and III, No. 121,122.
12. MB, Ādi parva, ch. XX-XXIII.
13. MB, ch. XXV- XXVI.
14. S.M. Ali, The Geography of the Purāṇas, 2nd edition, (New Delhi, 1973), pp. 73-74.
15. J. Ph. Vogel, op. cit., p. 109, pl. E10.
16. Coomaraswamy, Traditional art and syThe Mahābhārataolism, (Ed) Roger Lipsey
Bollinger Series, LXXXIX, (Princeton, 1977), p.331, Fig. 7.
17. ibid, p.331, Fig. 8.
18. MB, Ādi parva, ch. XXVII-XXXII.
19. Narayana Aiyangar, Ancient Hindu Mythology, (New Delhi, 1983), pp. 3-6.
20. MB, Ādi parva, ch. XXXIV.
21. J. Charpentier, Hinduism and SyThe Mahābhārataol Worship, p. 179
22. Vasudeva S. Agrawala, Matsya Purāṇa –a study, (Varanasi, 1963), p.73.
23. MB, Ādi, ch. XXXVII-XXXIX
24. MB, Ādi, ch. XXXVI
25. MB, ch. XLV-XLVIII
26. MB, ch. XL
96
27. Some results of the excavations at Sonkh, A Preliminary report. German Scholars
in India, Volume: II,( 1976), p. 98
28. J.N. Banerjea, DHI, (New Delhi. 1974), p.350
29. MB, Āśvamedha, ch. LVI-LVIII
30. MB, Ādi, ch. XLI-XLIV; XLIX-L
31. MB, ch. LI-LVIII
32. A. P. Karmarkar, Religions of India. Volume: I, p. 164
33. ibid.,
34. Narayan Aiyangar, Essays on indo Aryan mythology, (New Delhi, 1987), pp.576-577
35. RV, I.189.1
36. Winand M.Callewaert, The gods and temples in south India, (Delhi,1995), p.81
37. F. E. Pargiter, Ancient Indian traditions, (New Delhi, 1979) p. 285
38. James Fergusson, TSW, (London, 1873), p.64
39. JRAS, 1891, p.378
40. ibid, p.58
41. ibid.
42. MB, Ādi, ch. CXXVIII-CXXIX
43. MB, ch. CCXIV-CCXVI
44. MB, Āśvamedha, ch. LXXXI
45. MB, ch. LXXIX-LXXXI
46. MB, ch. LXXXVIII
47. MB, Ādi, ch. CCXXIII-CCXXX
48. MB, Karṇa, ch. XC
49. James Fergusson, TSW, p. 63
50. Radhakamal Mukerjee, The Culture and Art of India, (London, 1959), p.51
51. Jayantika Kala, Epic scenes in Indian plastic art, (New Delhi, 1988), p51
52. MB, Vana, ch. LXVI-LXVIII
53. Paul Dahlke, Nala the Silent, Tr.by Bhikku Silacara. (London, 1913), Pp. 254-276
54. MB, Śānti, ch. CCCLIV-CCCLXV
55. MB, Udyoga, ch. XCVII-CV
56. SBP, Canto. X, ch. XV-XVI; V.K. Ramachndran, SBP, part. X, (Kumbakonam, 1934)
ch. 52-54, pp. 68-75
57. Harivaṃśa, 3592-3702, LXVIII-LXIS
97
58. F. S. Growse, Mathurā a District Memoir, 2nd edition, (1880), p. 248; (Ed) Sir
William Jones, Asiatic researches, Vol. VIII, (New Delhi,1979), p.64
59. Sir William Jones, op. cit., pp.64-65
60. Richa Sikri, Early Brahmanical cults and associated iconography (New Delhi, 2002)
p. 35
61. C. V. Vaidya, Epic India, Vol. I, (New Delhi,1907) p.16
62. R. Champakalakshmi, Vaiṣṇava iconography in the Tamil country, (New
Delhi,1981), p.127
63. Winand M.Callewaert, op. cit., p.85
64. Jayantika Kala, op. cit., p.75
65. ASR, Annual Report, 1909-10, pl. XLIV
66. M. Dhavalikar, Mathurā Art in the Baroda Museum, (Baroda, 1971), fig. 48
67. JUPS, Vol. XXI, Parts I-II, p. 119, fig. 4
68. R. D. Banerjee, Bas Reliefs of Badami, MASI, no 25, 1937, p. 27
69. Ibid., pp. 54-55
70. (Ed), Kṛṣṇa The Divine Lover, (Calcutta, 1982), Fig. 146
71. T. N. Ramachandran, Marg, Vol. XXVI, No. 3, (June 1973),p. 96, fig. 38
72. SBP, book. X, canto.18
73. ibid.
74. SBP, canto.38,
75. SBP, canto.39. verses. 1-57, pp. 1491-98
76. Ibid.
77. SBP, 4388-4460, LXXXIII
78. Tr.by N. Raghunathan, SBP, Vol. II, Books. 8-12, (Madras,1976), ch. II, pp.4-6
79. Ancient India, No. 6: bulletin of the ASI. Jan -1960;43, Pl, XIIC, p.41; Pandit
Madho Sarup Vats, The Gupta temple at Deogarh, MASI, No. 70, (Delhi,1952),
p.34, pl.Xa
80. SKS, vol. II, 2nd edition, Tr.by C.H. Tawney, (Ed) N. M. Penzer, (Delhi,
R.P.1968), pp. 150-156

NāGas in The Classical Hinduism (500 B.C.-600 A.D.) : Chapter - 4

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NāGas in The Classical Hinduism (500 B.C.-600 A.D.) : Chapter - 4

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CHAPTER – 4

NĀGAS IN THE CLASSICAL HINDUISM

(500 B.C.-600 A.D.)

NĀGAS IN THE CLASSICAL HINDUISM (500 B.C. - 600 A.D.)

4.2 Myth of Nāga’s birth

4.3 The Wager between Kadrū and Vinatā 12

4.4 Nāgas carried to the Ramaṇaka by their slaves13

4.5 Garuḍa’s attempts for freeing from the thraldom18

4.6 Indra recollects the Amṛta from Nāgas 20

4.7 Council of Nāgas 23

4.8 The hermit Jaratkāru and the Nāga maiden Jaratkāru 25

The story of Mahābhārata begins with an account of ascetic Jaratkāru. The

4.9 Uttaṇka erroneous the Nāga Takṣaka 29

4.10 King Parīkṣit was bitten by Nāga Takṣaka30

In several episodes of the Mahābhārata we find the accounts of a fight between

4.11 Sarpasāstra of king Janamejaya31

A. P. Karmarkar32 believes that the performance of the Snake Sacrifice by

Oldham rightly opined that,40 “The Snake sacrifice seems to be a mythical

4.12 Bhīma’s poison was heals by the Nāgas42

4.13 Arjuna regains the life by the Nāgas

4.14 Agni consumes the Khāṇḍva forest47

Burning of the Khāṇḍva forest as described in the Mahābhārata was found in a

4.15 King Nala and Nāga Kārkoṭaka52

4.16 The story of Nāga Padmanābha54

4.17 Mātali seeks in Nāgalōka for Son-in-law55

4.18 Kṛṣṇa overcomes the Nāga Kāḷīya

According to the sources, it happened on an idyllic afternoon in spring, when the

4.19 Akrūra beheld the Śeṣa in the Yamunā

4.20 Gajendra Mōkṣha

In the plastic art, Gajendra-mōkṣha is not a ordinary representation and it was

4.21 The story of Jīmūtavāhana

1. A. K Bhattacharya, Tara as a Serpent Deity and its Jain Counterpart Padmavati in

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