Chapter 3: Series

• Sequence.
•  notation.
• Arithmetic and geometric progressions.
• Their sums to n terms.
• Sum to infinity of geometric series.
• Binomial equations for integral and fraction indices.
• Use of series for approximation.

Sequence
A sequence is a set of real numbers, T1 , T2 ,..., Tn ,... which is arranged e.g. 3, 9, 27, …,
3n, …The nth term Tn is known as the general term of the sequence.

Eg: Write down the first four term of the sequence defined by the n-th term
n
Tn = , n {1, 2,3,...}.
n+2

The sigma notation, 

n
The notation  f (k ) is a abbreviation for the summation
k =m

f (m) + f (m + 1) + f (m + 2) + ... + f (n) where f is a function whose domain includes

the range m, n.

Eg: Write down all the terms for the series and hence find its sum.
5

 (−1)
n =1
n +1
(2n)

2
Series
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. The sigma,  , notation is
used to express more concisely finite and infinite series.
n

a i = a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ... + a n
i =1 Finite series


a i = a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + ...
i =1 Infinite series

Series
Sigma Notation, ∑
n
 a i = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an
i =1
NB

(i) an kn =0 = {a , a , a , …, a } is a sequence. But

1 2 3 k
k
 ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + …
i =0
+ ak
is a series
n n n
(ii)  ai =  a r =  ak , i, k, r are called dummy variables
i =1 r =1 k =1

3
 10 n
Eg:(i)  1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + …+ 1 = 10 (ii) k = k + k + k + … + k = nk
i =1 i =1
20 30
(iii)  i = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 20 (iv) i
2
= 12 + 22 + 32 + … + 302
i =1 i =1

Properties
k k k
(a) Linearity:  (ma i + nbi ) = m  a i + n  bi
i =1 i =1 i =1
n n −1 n +1 n +c
(b) Shift:  ai =  a i +1 =  a i −1 =  a i −c
i =1 i= 0 i=2 i = 1+ c
  
(c)  a i =  a 2k −1 +  a 2k
i =1 k =1 k =1
Pf
k
(a)  (ma i + nbi ) = (ma1 + nb1) + (ma2 + nb2) + …+ (mak +
i =1
nbk)
= m(a1 + a2 + … + ak) + n(b1 + b2 + … + bk)
k k
= m  ai + n  bi
i =1 i =1
n
(b)  ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an
i =1
n +c
 ai −c = a1 + a2 + a3 + … + an
i =1+ c
n n +c n n +c
  ai =  a i −c or  ai =  a i −c
i =1 i =1+ c i =1 i =1+ c

4
 
(c)  ai = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + …
i =1
= (a1 + a3 + a5 + …) + (a2 + a4 + a6 + …)
 
=  a2k −1 +  a2k
k =1 k =1
Ex
Use linearity property to expand each of the following series:
10
 (3i + 2 ) = 3  i
10 10
(i) + 2  1 = 3(55) + 20 = 185
i =1 i =1 i =i

(ii)
n
(
 2r − 3r + 5
2
) 2  r 3  r 5 1
=
n
2
–
n
+
n

r =1 r =1 r =1 r =1

 (k + 2k + 1)  k
n n n n n
 (k + 1)
2 2 2
(iii) = 2 k
= + + 1
k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1 k =1

Definition
n
-  

Let U r r =1 be a sequence. Then Sn =  Ur is a series, i.e. a
r =1
series is a sum of terms of a sequence
- Two type of series:
(a) Finite Series: n is finite
(b) Infinite Series: n is infinite

Eg
 20
(i) i = 1 + 2 + 3 + … (ii)  i = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 20
i =1 i =1
999
(iii)  k (k + 5) = 1(6) + 2(7) + 3(8) + … + 999(1004)
k =1

5
 k
2
(iv) h = 12 + 2 2 + 3 2 + … + k 2 , - ∞ < k < ∞
h =1

NB
Recall that:
(a) For an arithmetical sequence with 1st term a and the common
difference d :

u j j=1 = {a, a + d, a + 2d, …}

(i) The nth term,u n = a + (n – 1)d, n = 1, 2, 3, …

n
(ii) The sum of the 1st n terms, Sn =  u j is given by
j=1

Sn =
n
2a + (n − 1)d 
2
or

Sn =
n
a + l where l is the last term of the series
2
In particular, when a = d = 1, we have
the kth term, u k = k
and the sum of the first n terms,
n n
Sn =  u k =  k = n (n + 1)
k =1 k =1 2

(b) For a geometric sequence, U r r =1 = {a, ar, ar , …} with

2
the 1st
term a and common ratio r,
(i) The nth term, Un = arn – 1, n = 1, 2, 3, …
(ii) The sum if the 1st n terms,

6
 n a (1− r n )
Sn = Uj = ,r<1
j=1 1− r
a (r n − 1)
= , r >1
r −1
Other Finite Series

n n
2 n
Eg: Show that r = (n + 1)(2n + 1) . n
(Hints:  r = (n + 1) )
r =1 6 r =1 2

Soln:
By binomial expansion, we have
(r + 1)3 = r3 + 3r2 + 3r + 1
 (r + 1)3 – r3 = 3r2 + 3r + 1 (1)

Then, substituting r = 1, 2, 3, …, n into (1), we obtain

r=1  23 – 13 = 3(1)2 + 3(1) + 1

r = 2  33 – 23 = 3(2)2 + 3(2) + 1
r=3  43 – 33 = 3(3)2 + 3(3) + 1
.
.
.
r=n–1  n3 – (n – 1)3 = 3(n – 1)2 + 3(n – 1) + 1
r = n  (n + 1)3 – n3 = 3n2 + 3n + 1
Notice that, when we sum up all the equation from r =1, 2, …, n, some terms will
be eliminated automatically. So,
n n n
(n + 1)3 – 13 =  3r +  3r +  1
2
r =1 r =1 r =1

n n
2
n + 3n + 3n = 3  r + 3  r + n
3 2

r =1 r =1

7
 n
n 
+ 3  (n + 1) + n
2
n + 3n + 3n = 3  r
3 2

r =1 2 

n
3  r 2 = n3 + 3n2 + 3n – 3 n 2 – 3 n – n
r =1 2 2
3 2 1 n
= n3 + n + n = (2n2 + 3n + 1)
2 2 2
n
= (n + 1)(2n + 1)
2
n
2 n
 r = (n + 1)(2n + 1)
r =1 6

NB
The technique used above is called the difference method
Theorem
n n
2
(i)  r = n (n + 1) (ii) r =
n
(n + 1)( 2n + 1)
r =1 2 r =1 6

n 2
3 n 
(iii)  =  (n + 1)
r
r =1 2 
Ex Evaluate each of the series:
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … + 167 + 168
(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + … + 1672 + 1682
(iii) 192 + 202 + 212 + … + 1672 + 1682
(iv) 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + … + 1673 + 1683
(v) 1·3 + 2·5 + 3·7 + … + 25·51

Soln:
(i) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … + 167 + 168

8
 168
=  r
r =1

168
= (168 + 1) = 14196
2

(ii) 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + … + 1672 + 1682

168
2
= r
r =1

168
= (168 + 1)(2·168 + 1) = 1594684
6

(iii) 192 + 202 + 212 + … + 1672 + 1682

168 18
2 2
=  r – r
r =1 r =1

18
= 1594684 – (18 + 1)(2·18 + 1)
6
= 1594684 – 2109
= 1592575

(iv) 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + … + 1673 + 1683

168
3
=  r
r =1
2
168 
=  2 (168 + 1)
= 201526416

(v) 1·3 + 2·5 + 3·7 + … + 25·51

Let Tr be the rth term of the series.

9
 Then
Tr = r[3 + (r – 1)2] = r(2r + 1)

Now,
1·3 + 2·5 + 3·7 + … + 25·51

25
=  r (2r + 1)
r =1

25 25
2
=  2r + r
r =1 r =1

25
= 2  (25 + 1)(2  25 + 1) +
25
(25 + 1)
 6  2

= 11050 + 325 = 11375

n1 n

( )
Eg: Show that = . Hence, evaluate the series:
k =1 k k + 1 n + 1

1 1 1 1 1
+ + +…+ + .
1 2 2  3 3  4 80  81 81  82

Soln:
The k th term,
1
Uk = .
k (k + 1)
By expressing in partial fractions, we have:
1 1 1
Uk = = – .
k (k + 1) k k +1
By the difference method, we obtain,
1 1
U1 = –
1 2

10
 1 1
U2 = –
2 3
1 1
U3 = –
3 4
.
.
.
1 1
Un – 1 = –
n −1 n
1 1
Un = –
n n +1
Then, summing up all the terms, we obtain
n
1 n
 Ur =1– =
r =1 n +1 n +1
Now,
1 1 1 1 1
+ + ++ +
1 2 2  3 3  4 80  81 81  82
81 1 81

k (k + 1)
= =
k =1 82

Arithmetic and geometric progressions (or sequence)

A progression is an ordered list of objects (or events).

Arithmetic Progression (or simply AP)

Definition
AP is an arrange of numbers such that the difference of two consecutive members of the progression is a
constant. The common difference d is found by subtracting any term of the progression from the
immediate succeeding term.

Examples: Each one of the following is an AP.

i) 15, 12, 9, … d=-3
ii) x, x - m, x – 2m, ..... d=-m
Let a = first term, d = common difference, the general form : a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d,.....

The nth term of an AP:

11
We observe that in any term the coefficient of d is always less by one than the number
of terms in the AP. Thus,
second term is a+d
third term is a+2d
fourth term is a+3d
tenth term is a+9d, and generally, if n is the number of terms, then
the nth term is Tn = a + (n-1)d.

n −1
Eg: The n terms of a sequence is given by Sn = log(2c ), n  1, where c is a
positive constant. Show that the sequence is an AP for all positive
integers n.

Sum of the first nth terms in AP:

Proof: Let a=first term, d=common difference, Tn=last term, Sn=sum of first
nth terms. Then,
Sn = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + ... + a + (n − 3)d + a + (n − 2)d + a + (n − 1)d
Writing the series in the reverse order,
S n = a + (n − 1)d + a + (n − 2)d + a + (n − 3)d + ... + (a + 2d ) + (a + d ) + a
Adding together the two series,
2S n = [a + (a + (n − 1)d )] + [(a + d ) + (a + (n − 2)d )] + ... + [(a + (n − 2)d ) + (a + d )] + [(a + (n − 1)d ) + (a)]
= [2a + (n − 1)d ] + [2a + (n − 1)d ] + ... + [2a + (n − 1)d ]
= n{2a + (n − 1)d} since there are n of these terms
n
S n = {2a + (n − 1)d } ----------(1)
2
n
S n = {a + a + (n − 1)d }
2
n
S n = {a + l} where l = a(n − 1)d ---------(2)
2

12
*Note: we can also say that Tn = S n − S n −1 .

1
Eg: The sum of the first n terms of a series is given by Sn = 2 (5n + n), n  1.
2

Find Tn , an expression for the n-th term of the series.

Eg: a) Find the sum of integers from 202 to 2020, both inclusive.
b) Find the sum of integers from 202 to 2020, both inclusive,
which is divisible by 3.
c) Find the sum of integers from 202 to 2020, both inclusive,
which is not divisible by 3.
Sol:

13
Eg: Given an AP -3, 1, 5, 9, 13, … . Find the sum from the 4th term to
the 10th term.
Sol:
n
S n = [2a + (n − 1)d ]
2

a = −3, d = 5 − 1 = 4

The sum from 4th term to the 10th term

= S10 − S3
10 3
= [2(−3) + (10 − 1)4] − [2(−3) + (3 − 1)4]
2 2
3
= 5(−6 + 36) − (−6 + 8)
2
= 150 − 3
= 147

Eg: Given the arithmetical sequence {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, …}.

Find:
(i) the kth term
(ii) the sum of the 1st 10 terms.

Soln
a = 3, d = 2
(i) The kth term, Uk = a + (k – 1)d
= 3 + (k – 1)2
= 2k + 1

(ii) The sum of 1st 10 terms,

10
S10 =
n
2a + (n − 1) d  or S10 =  2k + 1
2 k =1

14
 10 10
=
10
2(3) + 9(2) = 2 k + 1
2 k =1 k =1
 10 
= 120 = 2 (11) + 10
2
= 120

Geometric Progression (GP)

A GP is a series of numbers where the successive terms after the first term is found by multiplying the
previous one by a common ratio (not equal to zero). For example, the series 2, 6, 18, 54,... represents a
GP with common ratio 3. The common ratio of the series can be found by dividing a term by its previous
term in the series. Similarly 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25,... denotes a GP with common ratio 1/2. The sum of all the
terms in a GP is called a geometric series.

2 3 4
And the general form of a geometric series is a+ ar+ ar + ar + ar +….

The nth term of an GP:

To find the nth term in a GP, with the initial value a and the common ration r is given
n −1
by Tn = a r

Eg: The first, 7th and 8th terms of a GP are 1, 1/64 and 1/128
respectively, find the first 4 terms of the GP.
Sol: a = 1
1
Tn +1 T7 +1 1 64 1
r= = = 128 =  = .
Tn T7 1 128 1 2
64
So, Tn = a r n −1
T1 = 1
T2 = 1 . ½ ( 2 −1) =1/2
T3 =1 . ½ ( 3−1) =1/4
T4 =1 . ½ ( 4 −1) =1/8

Eg: (Mixed) The 2nd, 3rd and 9th terms of an AP form a GP. Find the
common ratio of the GP.

Sol:

15
To find the sum of n terms of a GP

Let a = First term, r = common ratio, n = number of terms.

Multiply both sides of (i) by r, the common ratio.

Subtracting (ii) from (i), we get

16
 a (r n − 1) a(1 − r n )
Sn = = , r 1
r −1 1− r

Eg: The first term of a GP is 6. The last term is 1458 and the sum of all the
terms is 2184. Find the common ratio of this GP.

To find the sum to infinity of a GP when the common ratio r is

numerically less than 1
Consider the series
n −1
1 1 1 1
1+ + + ++   +
2 4 8 2

17
 1
The sum of an infinite GP with a = 1 and r =
 2.

We know that
  1 n 
S n = 21 −   
  2  

n 2 10 15 20 

1.5 1.998047 1.999939 1.999998
Sn  2
n
1
Observe that as n →  , the term  2  → 0 , therefore Sn → 2
 
 The limit of the series is 2.
 Since the sequence is a GP, we call this limit the sum to infinity
of the GP.

 The sum to infinity of a GP is given by


a
S =  ar n −1 =
n =1 1− r
where −1  r  1

Proof:
The sum of the first n terms of a GP is given by
a (1 − r n )
Sn =
1− r

If − 1  r  1 , then as n →  , r → 0 . Therefore, as n →  ,
n

18
 a(1 − 0) a
Sn → =
1− r 1− r
Note:

Sum to infinity exists only when r is numerically less than 1. i.e. |r|<1.

Eg: Find the fourth term of a GP that has a common ratio of -1/3 and a sum
to infinity of 18.

Eg: The sum of a geometric series is given by

n −1
a − 2 (a − 2) 2
(a − 2)
Sn = 1 + + + ... + . Find the
4 16 4n −1

(i) set of values of a such that the sum to infinity S  , exists.

(ii) values of a such that 256S4 = 175S .

19
Writing a Repeated Decimal as a Fraction
Eg. Find the fraction that represents the rational number 2.351515151…..
Sol: 2.35 1 = 2.351515151…..
= 2.3 + 0.051 + 0.00051 + 0.0000051 + ……
23  51 51 
= + + + ... 
10  1000 100000 
51 1 a 51
a= ,r = , so S = =
1000 100 1 − r 990
23 51 388
thus, 2.3515151... = + = .
10 990 165

Eg. Express the recurring decimal 0.1828282….. as a fraction in its

simplest form.

20
Binomial Theorem

We know from usual algebraic multiplication that

(1 + x)1 = 1 + x
(1 + x)2 = 1 + 2 x + x 2
(1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + 3x 2 + x3
(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4 x + 6 x 2 + 4 x3 + x 4
 = 

The coefficients of the expansions form a triangle,

namely Pascal’s triangle.

1
1st Row 1 1
2nd Row 1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
   

21
The next row is obtained in the following way.

1 4 6 4 1
+ + + +
1 5 10 10 5 1

Observe that
 The entry in the 5th row, 3rd position from the left is 10. Therefore,
the coefficient of the x term in the expansion of (1 + x) is 10.
2 5

 (1 + x)5 = 1 + 5x + 10 x 2 + 10 x3 +5x 4 + x5

Generally, we denote the entry in the nth row, (r+1)th position by

n n n!
  = C =
r !(n − r )!
r
r
where
n!= n(n − 1)(n − 2)(3)(2)(1) (called n factorial)
0!= 1
n n n n  n 
Note:  0  =  n  = 1 ,  1  = n ,  r  =  n − r 
         

Binomial Theorem for a Positive Integral Index

The binomial expansion of (1 + x) , for positive integer n :

n

n n n

(1 + x) n = 1 +  x +   x 2 +   x 3 +  + x n
1  2  3
n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3
= 1 + nx + x + x +  + xn
2! 3!

22
 n r n
=    x Sigma Notation
r =0  r 

This expansion terminates at the term x when n is a positive integer.

n

Eg: (1 - x)5
(1 − x)5 = 1 + 5(− x) +5 C2 (− x)2 +5 C3 (− x)3 +5 C4 (− x)4 + (− x)5
=1 − 5x + 10 x 2 − 10 x 3 + 5x 4 − x 5

Expansion of ( a + b)
n

n
  b 
n
 b
( a + b) n =  a  1 +   = a n  1 + 
  a   a
  n   b   n   b  2  n   b 3 b
n

= a 1 +     +     +     +
n
+  
  1   a   2   a   3   a  a 
  n  b  n  b 2  n  b3 bn 
= a 1 +   +   2 +   3 + + n 
n

 1 a  2 a  3 a a 
n n n
= a n +   a n −1b +   a n − 2b 2 +   a n −3b3 + + b n
1  2  3
= nC0 a nb 0 + nC1a n −1b + nC2 a n − 2b 2 + nC3a n −3b 3 + + nCn a 0b n
n
=  ( n Cr a n − r b r )
r =0

n
( a + b ) =  ( nC r a n − r b r )
n

r =0
= C0 a nb0 + nC1a n −1b1 + nC2 a n −2b2 + ... + nCn−1a1b n −1 + nCn a 0b n
n

= nC0 a n + nC1a n−1b1 + nC2 a n−2b 2 + ... + nCn−1a1b n−1 + nCnb n

23
Eg: Use binomial theorem to expand and simplify:
a) (x2 + 3)6
Sol:Step1:
( x 2 + 3)6 = 6C0 ( x 2 )6 (3)0 + 6C1 ( x 2 )5 (3)1 + 6C2 ( x 2 )4 (3)2 + 6C3 ( x 2 )3 (3)3 + 6C4 ( x 2 )2 (3)4
+ 6 C5 ( x 2 )1 (3)5 + 6C6 ( x 2 )0 (3)6
Step 2: When we simplify we get,
(1)(x12)(1) + (6)(x10)(3) + (15)(x8)(9) + (20)(x6)(27) + (15)(x4)(81) +
(6)(x2)(243) + (1)(1)(729)
Step 3: Therefore, the answer is
x12 + 18x10 + 135x8 + 540x6 + 1215x4 + 1458x2 + 729

b) (3x – y2) 4

Eg: Given that (1 − 2 x) (2 + x)  a + bx + cx + dx +  , find the

5 6 2 3

values of the constants a , b , c and d .

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Use of series for approximation:
Eg. Expand (1 + 3x)10 in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term
in x 3 . Hence, find the approximation value for (0.997)10 correct to four
decimal places.

For positive index 0 r n, the (r+1)-term, is denoted Tr+1=nCran-rbr.

Eg: Find the coefficient of x 4 y 5 in the expansion of ( x − 3y) 9 .

3 4
Eg: Find the coefficient of x 2 in the expansion of (2 x3 − ) . Ans:216.
x2

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 1
Eg: Find the term independent of x in the expansion of (9 x − )18 .
3 x
Ans: 18564.

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Binomial Theorem When n is Not a Positive Integer

The binomial expansion of (1 + x) , for n is NOT a positive integer:

n

n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 3

(1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + x +
2! 3!

Observe that if n is not a positive integer,

 the expansion does not terminate
 only valid for − 1  x  1 , i.e. x  1
the expansion gives an approximation to (1 + x)
n


Eg: Expand the following in ascending powers of x, up to and including the

term in x 3 . State the range of x such that the expansion is valid.
(a) (2 − x ) −1

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(b) (1 + 2 x) −3

3
1 − 3x
Eg: Obtain the first four terms in the series expansion of . State the
1− 4x
range of values of x for which the series is valid.
127 3 1
Ans: 1 + 3x + 11x 2 + x + ...; | x |
3 4

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