THIRD EDITION

Practical
Non-Destructive Testing

Baldev Raj
T. Jayakumar
M. Thavasimuthu

CD
Alpha Science International Ltd.
Oxford, U. K.
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f House, Foreword v

~n ofthe Preface to the Third Edition vii

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Preface to the First Edition i.x

CHAPTER 1. Non-Destructive Testing: An Introduction 1

iUTHORS
CHAPTER 2. Visual Inspection 4

2.1 Basic Principle 4

2.2 The Eye 4

2.2.1 Defects which can be detected by unaided visual inspection 5

2.3 Optical Aids Used for Visual Inspection 5

2.3.1 Microscope 5

2.3.2 Borescope 6

2.3.3 Endoscope 6

2.3.4 Flexible fibre-optic Borescope (Flexiscope) 6

2.3.5 Telescope 7

2.3.6 Holography 7

2.4 Applications 7

CHAPTER 3. Liquid Penetrant Testing 8

3.1 Physical Principles 8

3.2 Procedure for Penetrant Testing 9

3.2.1 Cleaning 9

3.2.2 Penetrant application 10

3.2.3 Removal of excess penetrant 10

3.2.4 Application of developer 10

3.2.5 Inspection and evaluation 10

3.3 Penetrant Testing Materials JJ

3.3.1 Penetrants 11

3.3.2 Cleaners and emuJsitiers 11

3.3.3 Developers 11

3.3.4 Special requirements 12

3.3.5 Test blocks 12

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3.4 Penetrant Testing Methods 12

3.4.1 Water washable method /2

3.4.2 Post-emulsifiable method /3
3.4.3 Solvent removable method /4
3.5 Sensitivity 14

3.6 Applications and Limitations 15

3.7 Standards 16

3.8 Typical Examples 16

CHAPTER 4. Magnetic Particle Testing 21

4.1 Magnetism-Basic Definitions and Principle of MPT 21

4.1.1 Principle of MPT 22

4.2 Magnetizing Techniques 22

4.2.1 Magnetization using a magnet 23

4.2.2 Magnetization using an electromagnet 23

4.2.3 Contact current flow method 23

4.2.4 Using the threading bar 24

4.2.5 The coil 24

4.2.6 Induced current flow 25

4.3 Procedure Used for Testing a Cümponent 26

4.4 Equipment Used for MPT 28

4.5 Sensitivity 29

4.6 Limitations 30

4.7 Standards 30

4.8 Typical Examples 30

CHAPTER 5. Eddy Current Testing 33

5.1 Principles 33

5.2 Instrumentation für ECT 36

5.3 Techniques 40

5.3.1 High sensitivity techniques 40

5.3.2 Inspection of heal exchanger tubes by single frequency

ECT system 41

5.3.3 Multifrequency ECT 43

5.3.4 High frequency ECT 46

5.3.5 3D or phased array ECT 46

5.3.6 InspectiQn offerromagnetic materials 47

5.4 Sensitivity 49

5.5 Advanced Eddy Current Test Methods 49

5.5.1 Magneto-optic/eddy current imaging (MOl) 49

5.5.2 Pulsed eddy current testing 51

5.5.3 Low frequency eddy current lesting 58

5.5.4 SQUID based eddy current testing 61

5.6 Applications 61 CHI

5.7 Limitations 62

5.8 Standards 62

CHAPTER 6. Radiography 63

6.1 Basic Principle 63

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6.2 Eleetromagnetie Radiation Sourees 64

6.2.1 X-ray souree 64

6.2.2 Produetion of X-rays 65

6.2.3 High energy X-ray souree 66

6.2.4 Gamma ray sources 66

6.2.5 Properties of X- and gamma rays 67

6.3 Radiation Attenuation in the Speeimen 67

6.4 Effeet of Radiation on Film 67

6.4. L Film ionisation 67

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6.4.2 Inherent unsharpness 67

6.5 Radiographie Imaging 68

6.5.1 GeometrieaJ faetors 68

6.5.2 Radiographie film 68

6.5.3 Intensifying sereens 69

6.5.4 Film density 70

6.5.5 Radiographie sensitivity 70

6.5.6 Penetrameter 71

6.5.7 Determining radiographie exposure 72

6.6 lnspeetion Teehniques 72

6.6.1 Single wall single image teehnique 72

6.6.2 Double wall penetration teehnique 72

6.6.3 Latitude teehnique 73

6.6.4 Special teehniques 75

6.7 Applieations of Radiographie Inspeetion 76

6.8 Limitations 76

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6.9 Typical Examples 77.
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6.10 Real Time Radiography 80

6.11 Mierofoeal Radiography 83

6.11.1 Advantages and limitations of mierofoeal radiography, 83

6.11.2 Applieations 84

6.12 Safety in Industrial Radiography 85

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6.12.1 Radiation units 85

6.12.2 Limits for radiation exposure 86

6.12.3 Methods for exposure eontrol 86

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6.12.4 Radiation monitoring 86

6.13 Standards 86

6.14 Neutron Radiography 87

I 6.14.1
6.14.2
6.14.3
Prineiples of neutron radiography 87

Neutron sources 88

Moderator and eollimator 89

6.14.4 Neutron deteetion 89

6.14.5 Applieations ofneutron radiography 91

CHAPTER 7. Ultrasonic Testing 93

7.1 Basie Properties of Sound Beam 93

7.1.1 Sound waves 93

7.1.2 Veloeity"ofultrasoniewaves 95

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7.1.3 Aeoustie impedanee 96

7.1.4 Behaviour of ultrasonic waves 96

xiv Contents' _

7.2 Ultrasonic Transducers 97

7.2.1 Characteristics of ultrasonic beam 98

7.2.2 Attenualion 99

7.3 Inspection Methods 100

7.3.1 Normal incident pulse-echo inspection 100

7.3.2 Normal incident through-transmission testing 101

7.3.3 Angle beam pulse-echo testing 101

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7.3.4 Criteria for probe selection 101

7.3.5 Flaw sensitivity 101

7.3.6 Beam divergence 102

7.3.7 Penetration and resolution 102

7.4 Techniques for Nonnal Beam Inspection 102

7.4.1 Fatigue cracks 102

7.4.2 IncJusions, slag, porosity, and large grain structure 103

7.4.3 Thickness measurement: corrosion deteclion 103

7.4.4 Intergranular cracks: hydrogen attack 104

7.5 Techniques for Angle Beam Inspection 104

7.5.1 Pipe inspeclion 106

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7.6 Flaw Characterisation Techniques 106

7.7 Ultrasonic Flaw Detection Equipment 107

7.8 Modes of Display 109

7.8.1 A-scan 109

7.8.2 B-scan 109

7.8.3 C-scan 109

7.9 Immersion Testing 110

7.10 Applications of Ultrasonic Testing 110

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7.11 Advantages 110

7.12 Limitations 110

7.13 Standards 111

7.14 Mechanical Impedance Analysis Technique 111

7.14.1 Introduction and basic principle I I I

7.14.2 Measurement of variations in mechanical impedance I 12

7.14.3 Applications and limitations JJ 5

CHAPTER 8. Acoustic Emission Testing 116

8.1 Principle of AET 116

8.2 Technique 117

8.3 Instrumentation 118

8.4 Sensitivity 120

8.5 Applications 120

8.6 Standards 120

8.7 Structural Integrity Assessment 121

8.7.1 Hydro testing of a Horten sphere /21

8.8 Acoustic Emission Technique for Leak Defection 122

8.8.1 Leak defection in an end shield of a PHWR /23

CHAPTER 9. Thermography 125

9.1 Basic Principles 125

 ________________________________Contents xv

9.2 Oetectors and Equipment 126

9.3 Techniques 127

9.4 Applications 127

9.4.1 Thermal imagining for eondition monitoring of industrial eomponent 129

9.5 Codes and Standards 131

CHAPTER 10. In situ Metallographie Examination 132

10.1 Approach to the Selection of Site for Metallographie Examination 133

10.2 Replication Process 133

10.3 Significance of Microstructural Observation 134

10.4 Oecision Making 135

10.5 Applications 13)

10.6 Codes and Standards 135

10.7 Typieal Case-Studies for assessment of components by IN-SITU

Metallography 136

10.7.1 Assessment of degration of a heavy water plant eomponent 136

CHAPTER 11. Leak Testing 139

11.1 Measurement of Leakage 139

11.2 Leak Testing Methods 140

11.3 Leak Oetection 140

11.3.1 Bubble testing 141

11.3.2 Helium leak deteetor 141

11.4 Standards 143

CHAPTER 12. Comparison and Seleetion of NDT Methods 145

12.1 Oefects in Materials 145

12.1.1 Metallurgieal proeess and defeets 146

Casting defects 146

Forging and rolJing defects 148

Extrusion defects 149

Drawing defects 150

Welding defects 150

Grinding cracks 153

Heat treating cracks 154

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12.1.2 Defeets introdueed during service 154

Cause of material failures 154

Types of material failures 155

12.2 Selection of the NOT Method 157

12.2.1 Visual testing (VT) 157

12.2.2 Liquid penetrant testing 158

12.2.3 Magnetic particle testing 158

12.2.4 Eddy eurrent testing 159

12.2.5 Radiographie testing (RT) 159

12.2.6 Ultrasonic testing (UT) 160

12.2.7 Aeoustie emission testing (AET) 161

12.2.8 Thermography 162

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12.2.9 Summary 162

12.3 Selection of Instrumentation 162

12.3.1 Visual testing 139

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xvi Contents

12.3.2 Liquid penetrant testing 163

12.3.3 Magnetic particle testing 164
12.3.4 Eddy current testing 164
12.3.5 Radiography testing 165
12.3.6 Ultrasonic testing 166
12.3.7 Acoustic emission testing 167
12.3.8 Thermography 168
12.4 Summary 169

CHAPTER 13. ProbabiJity of Detection Concepts in NDT 172

13.1 Introduction 172
13.2 ProbabiIity of Detection (POD): The Approach 173
13.3 TypicaI Methodology for Establishing POD 174
13.4 Role of POD Concepts During Design and Operation 176

CHAPTER 14. Statistical Methods for Quality Control 179

14.1 Probability 180
14.1.1 Basic concepts 180
14.1.2 Prabability sampIe space and tlaw si~e distribution 181
14.1.3 Effect of inspection on f1aw size distribution 182
14.2 Statistical Methods 183 An
14.2.1 Basic principles 183 wit
14.2.2 Contra1 charts 185
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14.2.3 Basic princip1es of acceptance samp1ing inspection 188
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14.2.4 Sampling plans 190
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14.3 Taguchi Concepts in Quality Control 191
14.3.1 Basic concepts 191 the
14.4 Total Quality Management 192 an(
14.4.1 Quality 192 CO]

14.4.2 Deming's philosophy 193 rel

14.4.3 Concept of total quality management 193 co
14.4.4 Key ingredients of total quality management 195
14.5 Summary 195 pr l

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CHAPTER 15. Codes, Standards, Specification and Procedures 196 of
15.1 Code 197 le
15.2 Standards 197 ac
15.2.1 International and national standards 198 C(
15.2.2 Industry standards 198
15.2.3 Government and military standards 198
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15.2.4 Industry practices 198 le
15.2.5 Company standards 198 tl
15.3 Specification 199 ü
15.4 Procedures 199 v
15.5 Indian National Standards for NDT 200
15.6 International Standards far NDT 200 I
15.6.1 ISO standards for quality systems 200 t
15.7 Conclusion 202

GENERAL REFERENCES 203

INDEX 206