HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM II REVIEW

I. Cardiovascular Physiology
a. Location
A. Located in between the second and fifth intercostal space, in the
mediastinum, or thoracic cavity space.
b. Layers
A. Pericardium
1. Surrounds the entire heart, made up of serous (visceral and
parietal) and fibrous pericardium.
a. Common illness:
i. Pericarditis: inflammation of the pericardium,
causes the serous layers to stick, and can lead to
fluid buildup in pericardial cavity, leads to cardiac
tamponade.
B. Epicardium
C. Myocardium
1. Forms bulk of the heart muscles
D. Endocardium
c. Blood Flow
A. Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, coronary sinus
1. Right atrium, travels through the tricuspid valve to the
a. Right ventricle, travels through pulmonary semilunar
valve to
i. Pulmonary trunk through pulmonary arteries to
ii. Lungs, uses pulmonary capillaries and veins to
redirect to the heart
1. Left atrium uses mitral or bicuspid valve
2. Left ventricle uses aortic semilunar valve to
reach the aorta
3. Aorta uses systemic capillaries to distribute
blood to the body
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM II REVIEW

d. Heart Valves
A. Semilunar Valves prevent backflow into the ventricles during
relaxation
1. Pulmonary Valve
a. Controls deoxygenated blood flow from right side of heart
to pulmonary trunk
2. Aortic Valve
a. Controls oxygenated blood from left side of heart into the
aorta
3. Aorticventricular Valves (AV) prevents backflow into atria
during contraction
a. Tricuspid Valve
i. Ride atrium to right ventricle
b. Bicuspid Valve
i. Left atrium to left ventricle

e. Circulation Circuits
A. Pulmonary Circuit
1. Vessels carrying blood to and from lungs; receives oxygen poor
blood from body tissues to lungs
B. Systemic Circuit
1. Vessels that transport blood to and from all body tissues
f. Cardiac Auscultation and Cycle
A. Auscultation
1. S1 “Lub”; first sound, produced by AV valves.
2. S2 “Dub”; second sound, produced by semilunar valves
B. Cycle Terms
1. Systole
a. Ventricular contraction; 0.3 seconds
2. Diastole
a. Ventricular relaxation; 0.5 seconds
3. Stroke Volume
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM II REVIEW

a. SV= EDV- ESV; or end systolic volume minus end

diastolic volume
i. ESV is around 50 mL
ii. EDV is around 120 mL
g. Blood Pressure
A. Terms
1. Systolic Pressure
a. Pressure at which first Korotkoff sound is heard
2. Diastolic Pressure
a. Pressure at which the sound ends
B. Hypertension Categories
1. Normal
a. 120 mmHg systolic & 80 mmHg diastolic
2. Elevated
a. 120-129 mmHg
systolic & less
than 80 mmHg
diastolic
3. High Blood Pressure
Stage 1
a. 130-139 mmHg
& 80-89 mmHg
4. High Blood Pressure
Stage 2
a. 140 mmHg & 90
or higher mmHg
5. Hypertensive Crisis
a. Over 180 mmHg
and higher than
120 mmHg
h. Conduction System
A. SA Nodes
1. Known as pacemaker
B. Internodal Pathways
1. Cells that receive stimulus from the SA nodes
C. AV Nodes
1. Stimulates AV bundle
D. AV Bundle
1. Also called Bundle of His
E. Bundle Branches
1. Stimulate the Purkinje fibers
F. Purkinje Fibers
1. Carry stimulus to ventricular muscle cells
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i. Electrocardiogram
A. Reading the Script
1. Each small box represents 0.04 seconds
2. Important waveforms: P wave, QRS complex, T wave
a. PR interval should be ~.12 to .20 seconds
b. QRS Complex should be ~ 0.06 to 0.12 seconds

j. Cardiac Arrythmias
A. Sinus Bradycardia
1. Sinus rhythm less than 60 bpm

B. Sinus Tachycardia
1. Sinus rhythm greater than 100 bpm
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM II REVIEW

C. Atrial Flutter
1. Consecutive P waves, or atrial depolarization.
a. Different ratios possible (2:1, 3:1, 4:1)

D. Atrial Fibrillation
1. Ectopic atrial foci, no distinguishable P waves, variable and
irregular QRS complex

E. Ventricular Tachycardia
1. Characteristic wide QRS complexes
a. P wave blends in with QRS

F. Ventricular Fibrillation
1. Cardiac arrest; no effective pumping action or circulation.
a. Requires immediate CPR and defibrillation.
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY EXAM II REVIEW

II. Blood Physiology

a. Hematopoiesis
A. Process by which blood cells are formed
1. Functions
a. Transportation
i. Respiration, nutrition, excretion
b. Regulation
i. Thermoregulation
c. Protection
i. Immune response
b. Blood Composition
A. Plasma (55%)
1. Made up water, proteins, electrolytes, blood gases, nutrients, etc.
B. Formed Elements (45%)
1. Erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

c. Blood Plasma
A. Albumin
1. Maintains osmotic pressure, helps keep water from diffusing out of
the bloodstream.
B. Globulin
1. Alpha and Beta transport lipids & fat-soluble vitamins
2. Gamma are antibodies produced by lymphocytes
C. Fibrinogen
1. Forms fibrin threads important for hemostasis
d. Red Blood Cells
A. Structure
1. Lack nuclei and organelles
2. 100/120-day lifespan
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B. Hematocrit
1. Portion of blood that consists of red blood cells
a. In men: 46% +/- 5%
b. In women: 42% +/- 5%
2. Erythropoietin
a. Maintain balance between production and destruction of
RBC
e. White Blood Cells Aka Leukocytes
A. Structure
1. Squeeze through intracellular junctions between capillary walls via
diapedesis or extravasation
B. Granulocytes
1. Basophils
a. Allergic response by releasing histamine
2. Eosinophils
a. Parasitic infections
3. Neutrophils
a. Defend against bacterial or fungal infection
C. Agranulocytes
1. Lymphocytes
a. B-lymphocytes
i. Produce antibodies
ii. MHC antigen receptors
b. T-lymphocytes
i. Participates in cell-mediated response
ii. MHC antigen receptors
c. Natural Killer (NK)
i. Kills everything; cytotoxic
2. Monocytes
a. Differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells
b. Phagocytosis and antigen presentation
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f. Blood Types
A. Classification
1. Antigen
a. Found on surface to help immune system recognize cells
2. Antibodies
a. Secreted by lymphocytes in response to foreign cells
B. Types
1. Group A
a. Has A antigen and B antibody
2. Group B
a. Has B antigen and A antibody
3. Group AB
a. Has both A and B antigen, no antibodies
4. Group O
a. Has neither A nor B antigens, but both A and B antibody

g. Anemia
A. Categorized by inability of erythrocytes to deliver needed oxygen
1. Insufficient number of erythrocytes
2. Inability of erythrocytes to bind to normal amount of oxygen
B. Types
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1. Pernicious anemia
2. Sickle cell anemia
3. Iron-deficiency anemia
4. Hemorrhagic anemia
5. Aplastic anemia
h. Clinical Aspects
A. Diseases
1. Polycythemia
a. Having too many blood cells
2. Hemolytic Disease
a. Rh incompatibility of mother and second child
b. Possibility of antibodies to attack embryos blood
B. Blood Tests
1. Complete Blood Count
a. Provides basic assessment of patient’s overall health
b. Includes hematocrit, hemoglobin, and overall concentration
of all blood composites.
2. CBC w/ Differential
a. Provides more in-depth assessment
b. Determines percentage of each leukocytes