INTRODUCTION TO THE NERVOUS SYSTEM NOTES

I. Nervous system:
A.

B. Neural tissue contains 2 cell types:

1. Neurons:
a)
b) Send nerve impulses for ______________________________
2. Neuroglia:
a)
b)
c) Send & receive messages
d) Help maintain_____________________________________________________

II. Functions of Nervous System

III. Sensory Function:

A.

B. Sensory receptors gather information by detecting changes

C. Information is carried to the _______________

IV. Integrative Function:

A. Nervous system coordinates sensory information to create _________________,

_______________, _______________

B. Nervous system makes decisions on body’s response to _______________ information

V. Motor Function:
A. Decisions are acted upon
B.

C. Divisions of motor portion of Peripheral Nervous System:

1. Somatic Nervous System:

2. Autonomic Nervous System:

VI. Divisions of the Nervous System
A. Central Nervous System (CNS):

1.

2.

B. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Connects CNS to other body parts

1.

2.
NEURONS & NEUROGLIA NOTES
I. Neurons
A.
C. They may differ in length and size of their axons and dendrites
D. Neurons share certain features:
E. Cell body (soma):

F. Dendrites: branched receptive surfaces; a neuron may have many

G. Axon:

H. Myelination of Axons
1. Schwann Cells:
a) PNS _____________________ that encase axons in a sheath
b) Schwann cells wrap tightly around axon in layers composed of
_________________
c) Coating is called the __________________________
2. Nodes of Ranvier
a)
3. Not all axons are myelinated
 a) Myelinated axons

b) Unmyelinated axons

VII. Classification of Neurons

A. Sensory Neurons:
1.

2.
3. Most are unipolar
4. Some are bipolar
B. Interneurons:
1.

2.
3. Multipolar
4.
C. Motor Neurons:
1. Multipolar, efferent
2.
3.

VIII. Classification of Neuroglia

A. General Functions of Neuroglia:
1.

2. In embryo, guide neurons into position, may stimulate specialization

3. Produce growth factors to nourish neurons and remove excess ions and
neurotransmitters
4.

IX. Neuroglia of the CNS

A. Astrocytes:
1.

2. Form scar tissue

3. Aid metabolism of certain substances

4. Regulate ion concentrations, such as K+

 5.

B. Oligodendrocytes:
1.

C. Microglia:
1.

D. Ependyma or ependymal cells:

1. Line central canal of spinal cord & ventricles of brain, cover choroid plexuses

2.

3. Cuboidal or columnar cells; ciliated

X. Neuroglia of the PNS

A. Schwann Cells:

1.

2.

B. Satellite Cells:

1.

XI. Neuroglia and Axonal Regeneration

A.

B.

C. Neuron Regeneration in the PNS:

1. If a peripheral axon is injured, it may ______________________

2. Axon separated from cell body and its myelin sheath will degenerate
3. Schwann cells and neurilemma remain
4.
5. If growing axon establishes former connection, function will return; if not, function may
be lost
D. Neuron Regeneration in the CNS:
1. CNS axons lack neurilemma to act as guiding sheath
2. Oligodendrocytes do not proliferate after injury
3.
ACTION POTENTIAL NOTES
A cell membrane is usually electrically charged, or ______________, so that the inside of the membrane is
negatively charged with respect to the outside of the membrane.

This is a result of __________________________________ on the inside and the outside of the membrane

I. Distribution of Ions
A. Potassium (K+) ions:

B. Sodium (Na+) ions:

C. This distribution is largely created by the Sodium/Potassium Pump (Na+/K+ pump) but also by ion
channels in the cell membrane.
D. Na+/K+ Pump

E. Ion channels, formed by membrane proteins, help regulate passage of specific ions into or out of
the cell
F. Many chemical & electrical factors affect opening & closing of gated channel

II. Resting Membrane Potential

A. Resting neuron is one that is not being stimulated
B. Membrane of the neuron is a ___________________________, with more ________ ions inside
the cell, more ________ ions outside the cell, and more negatively charged ions & proteins inside
C. Inside of cell is _________________ relative to the outside of the cell
D. _______________, due to unequal charge distribution

III. Local Potential Changes

A. Neurons are excitable cells that detect stimuli, and respond by changing their
____________________ ____________________
B. The greater the stimulus intensity, the greater the potential change
C. If membrane potential becomes less negative (more positive), the membrane is
________________________
D. If depolarization reaches ____________________ ____________________ of ___________mV,
an action potential results
E. If it does not reach threshold potential, an action potential will ____________ occur
F. If membrane potential becomes more negative, the membrane is
__________________________________

IV. Ion Movements During Action Potentials

A. At rest, the membrane is _________________
•
B. _________________ stimulus reached
 •
C. Sodium channels open and membrane _________________
•
D. Potassium leaves cytoplasm and membrane _________________
•
E. Brief period of __________________________________
•
F. Return to resting membrane potential
•

V. All-or-None Response
A. An action potential is an all-or-none response
B. If a neuron axon responds at all, it responds _________________ – with an action potential
(which propagates down the axon as a nerve impulse)
C. All impulses carried on an axon are the _________________ _________________

D. Stimulus of greater intensity produces _________________ _________________of action

potentials (impulses/sec), not stronger impulses

VI. Refractory Period

A. The portion of the axon actively conducting the action potential is not able to respond to
another threshold stimulus of normal strength.
B. Absolute Refractory Period:

C. Relative Refractory Period:

D. Refractory period limits number of action potentials generated per second

VII. Impulse Conduction
A. The speed of impulse conduction varies with _________________ because myelin acts as an
_________________ _________________
B. Ions can cross membrane only through gaps in myelin sheath, the ______________________
___ ______________________
C. Myelinated axons transmit impulses through _________________ _________________, in
which action potentials “jump” from node to node down the axon
D. Saltatory conduction is much _________________ than impulse conduction in unmyelinated
axons
SYNAPSE NOTES
I. Neurons communicate with each other at ______________________
A. A synapse is a site at which a neuron transmits a nerve impulse to another neuron
B. Presynaptic neuron:

C. Postsynaptic neuron:
D. Synaptic _______________ separates the 2 neurons

II. Synaptic Transmission

A.

B. Impulse travels down axon of _______________ neuron to ________________________

C. When impulse reaches synaptic knob, causes influx of ______________ ions

D. This leads to release of ________________________ from synaptic vesicles by exocytosis

E. Neurotransmitter will exert either _______________ or _______________ effect on

postsynaptic neuron

F. Transmission of a nerve impulse from one neuron to another

1. Released neurotransmitters cross the _______________ _______________and bind to

receptors on the membrane of _______________________ neuron
2. Effects of neurotransmitters vary; some open ion channels and others close ion channels.
a) Excitatory neurotransmitters

b) Inhibitory neurotransmitters

3. Chemically gated ion channels respond to neurotransmitters

G. Neurotransmitters and Actions
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM NOTES
Nervous System Formation

Protection

l Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate

l Irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the slightest pressure

l The brain and spinal cord are protected by:

Meninges

l Three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS structures

Dura Mater

l The outermost layer

l Leathery

l Means “tough” or “hard mother”

l Double layered membrane where it surrounds the brain

l The meningeal layer forms the outermost covering of the brain and

continues as the dura mater of the spinal cord

 l The dural layers are fused together except in three areas where they

separate to enclose dural sinuses that collect venous blood

Arachnoid Mater

l Middle meningeal layer

l Arachnida means “spider”

Pia Mater

l Delicate

l Means “gentle mother”

Meningitis

l Serious threat to the brain

l Bacterial or viral meningitis may spread into the nervous tissue of the CNS

l Meningitis is usually diagnosed by taking a sample of cerebrospinal fluid

The Blood-Brain Barrier

l If the brain were exposed to chemical changes, uncontrolled neural activity might

result

l Neurons are kept separated from blood-borne substances by a blood-brain barrier

l The barrier is composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body

l Only water, glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily through the walls of

these capillaries

l Wastes such as urea, toxins, proteins, and most drugs are prevented from entering

the brain tissue

l The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other fat

soluble molecules

Brain Dysfunctions

l Alzheimer’s Disease

l Progressive degenerative disease of the brain that ultimatel results in dementia

(mental deterioration)

l
l Parkinson’s Disease

l Basal nuclei problem

l Symptoms include a persistent tremor at rest, a forward bent walking posture, a

shuffling gait, a stiff facial expression, and trouble initiating movement

Traumatic Brain Injuries

l Concussion

l Contusion

l Result of marked tissue destruction

l Bruise of the brain tissue

l Cerebral Edema

l Intracranial hemorrhage

l Bleeding from ruptured brain vessels

Cerebrovascular Accident

l Stroke

l Third leading cause of death in the United States

l It is possible to determine the area of brain damage by observing the patient’s

symptoms

l Fewer than a third of those surviving a stroke are alive three years later

Spinal Cord

l Approximately 17 inches long

l Glistening white continuation of the brain stem

l Extends from the foramen magnum to the first or second lumbar vertebra

l Cushioned and protected by meninges

l The vertebral column grows faster than the spinal cord

l The spinal cord does not reach the end of the vertebral column
 l Spinal nerves leaving the inferior end must travel through the vertebral canal for

some distance before exiting

Spinal Cord Homeostatic Imbalances

l Spastic paralysis

l The affected muscles stay healthy because they are still stimulated by spinal reflex

arcs

l Movement of those muscles does occur but movements are involuntary and not

controllable

l Quadriplegia

l Spinal cord injury occurs high in the cord

l Paraplegia

l
 THE BRAIN NOTES
Regions
n The brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body
n It is divided into four major regions:
n

Cerebral Hemispheres
n Two paired hemispheres
n The largest and most _________________ part of the brain.
n Larger than the other three brain regions combined
n - elevated ridges of tissue
n - shallow groove
n - deeper grooves that separate large regions of the brain
n Many of the fissures and gyri are important anatomical landmarks
n The cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure called the
__________________________
n The connects the cerebral hemispheres
n Allows the hemispheres to communicate with one another

Lobes
n Other fissures or sulci divide each cerebral hemisphere into a number of lobes, which
are named for the cranial bones that lie over them
Frontal Lobe
n Contains the area that allows us to consciously move our
skeletal muscles
n Houses areas involved with ________________________________________________
n Where complex memories appear to be stored

Parietal Lobe
n The location of the ______________________________________
n Impulses traveling from the body’s (except for the
special senses) are localized and in this area of the brain
 n Allows you to recognize pain, coldness, or a light touch

Occipital Lobe
n ____________________________
n Where impulses from the are interpreted

Temporal Lobe
n ___________________________________
n Where impulses from the are interpreted
n Where appear to be stored
Special Areas
n ________________________
n Involved in our ability to ___________
n Located generally in the left hemisphere
n Damage to this area causes inability to say words properly-you know what you want
to say, but you cant’ vocalize the words
n ________________________
n Located at the junction of the _________________________________________
n Allows you __________________________
n Usually only in one cerebral hemisphere

Cerebral Cortex
n The cell bodies of neurons involved in the cerebral hemisphere functions mentioned
earlier are found only in the outermost area of the cerebrum called the
_________________________
n This outermost area is _____________________
n Gray matter contains and nerve cell bodies
n Most of the remaining cerebral hemisphere tissue is the deeper ____________________
n White matter is composed of bundles of nerve fibers that carry impulses to or from
the cortex
n There are several islands of gray matter buried deep within the white matter
n These basal nuclei help _________________________________________________
by modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the primary motor cortex
n The cortical region is highly ridged and convoluted in order to provide more room for
the thousands of neurons
Diencephalon
n Also called the ___________________
n Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
n Has several major structures:
n ____________________
n Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex
n ____________________
n A linkage between limbic system components and other parts of the brain
n ___________________
n Plays a role in the regulation of ____________________________________________
n The center for many drives and emotions (the limbic system)
n Contains thirst, appetite, sex, pain, and pleasure receptors
n Regulates the pituitary gland

Brain Stem
n About the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately three inches long
n Has several structures
n Midbrain- __________________________________________________________________
n Pons- ______________________________________________________________________
n Medulla oblongata-contains centers that _______________________________________

Cerebellum
n Has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface
n Has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an inner region of white matter
n Provides the _____________________________________________
n Controls our _____________________________________________
“Autonomic Nervous System: Crash Course A&P #13”:

1. Your autonomic nervous system is the branch of your peripheral nervous system that regulates the functions of
your ________________________________, controls your smooth and cardiac muscles, and your glands. Its
effects on these things are in no way ____________________________.

2. Your autonomic nervous system is run by _________ competing sides.

3. The _____________________________ division of your autonomic nervous system sounds your internal alarm
bells while the _____________________________________ division calms your down and conserves your energy.

4. The nerves of the sympathetic nervous system are “_________________________”, meaning they originate
from between your thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.

5. The nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system are “_________________________”, meaning they
originate from the base of your brain and just above your tailbone.

6. Both parts of your autonomic nervous system require ____________ neurons to work. They are ganglia.
Sympathetic ganglia are found closer to your ___________________________ and parasympathetic ganglia are
found way out from there, near or inside their effector organs.

7. Because the ganglia appear in different parts of your body, their neurons have slightly different forms, namely
the length of their ___________________________.

8. In the sympathetic system, the pregangliotic fibers are much SHORTER LONGER than the
postgangliotic ones. The reverse is true for the parasympathetic nervous system.

9. The structure of each of these systems is related to its ___________________________________.