Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)

Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

Name: _________________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

LESSON TITLE: NERVOUS SYSTEM Materials:

Book, pen and notebook
LEARNING TARGETS:
Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student can: References:
VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A.
1. Identify divisions of the nervous system. (2019). Seeley’s essentials of anatomy &
2. Describe the structure of neurons and its functions.
physiology (10th ed.). New York, NY:
3. Define and describe structure of a nucleus, a ganglion, a
nerve tract, and a nerve. McGraw-Hill Education.
4. Explain how an action potential is generated and
propagated; and, https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-a
5. Describe the role of summation in neural pathways. p1/chapter/overview-of-anatomy-and-phy
siology

LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW (10 minutes)

To start the session you will answer the following questions by writing T if the statement is true and F is the statement is
False. This is a preview of this session’s topic. Please refrain from looking at your any references..

1. The Peripheral Nervous System consists of the brain and the spinal cord.
2. Skeletal muscles normally contract only when stimulated by the nervous system.
3. The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for processing sensory input and initiating response.
4. The Autonomic Nervous System transmits action potential from the CNS to skeletal muscles.
5. The Enteric Nervous System can function without input from CNS.

MAIN LESSON (50 minutes)

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Diseases and disorders can be associated depending on

what type of muscle is affected and its origin. Below are
some of the conditions.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

-Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

⮚  Processes incoming sensory information.

⮚ Stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of the following:

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
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■ Nerves – bundles of axons that lie outside the brain and spinal cord.
o Cranial nerves x 12 (from brain)
o Spinal nerves x 31 (spinal cord)
■  Ganglion (Ganglia) – masses of nervous tissue consisting of neuron cell bodies.
■  Enteric plexuses – neurons on the walls of organs of gastrointesnal tract.
■  Sensory receptors – monitor changes of the internal and external environment.

1. Somatic Nervous System (SNS) (Voluntary)

⮚  Convey information to the CNS from somatic
receptors in the head, body wall, limbs, and
receptors.
⮚  Conduct impulses to skeletal muscles.

2. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) (Involuntary)

 Convey information from autonomic sensory receptors
i.e. stomach, lungs.
 Conduct impulses to smooth muscles, cardiac muscles,
and glands.
 Sympathetic Division is for “fight-or-flight” responses.
 Parasympathetic Division is for “rest-and-digest”
activities.

3. Enteric Nervous System (ENS) (Involuntary)

 Monitor chemical changes in the gastrointestinal tract
(GI tract), as well as stretching.
 Govern contractions of the GI tract for substance movement.

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

TWO TYPES OF CELLS THAT MAKE UP NERVOUS SYSTEM:

1. NEURONS
2. GLIAL CELLS

Neurons or (nerve cells)

- receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit signals to other
neurons or effector organs.

3 PARTS OF NEURON:
1. Cell Body
- contains a single nucleus.
The nucleus of the neuron is the source of information for gene
expression.

2. Dendrites
- short, often highly branching cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered
from their bases at the
neuron cell body to their tips.
- usually receives information from other neurons or from sensory
receptors and transmit the

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information toward the neuron cell body.

3. Axon
- a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell body.
- sensory neurons that conduct action potentials toward the CNS, and axons of motor neurons conduct
action potentials away from the CNS.
Axons may remain branched or unbranched to form Collateral Axons.
Axon Hillock - the area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body.

TYPES OF NEURONS:
1. Multipolar Neurons
- have many dendrites and a single axon.
- most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all
motor neurons are multipolar

2. Bipolar Neurons
- have two processes: one axon and one dendrite.
- located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of
the eye and in the nasal cavity.

3. Pseudo-unipolar
- have a single process extending from the cell body.
- this process divides into two processes a short
distance from the cell body.
- one process extend to the periphery, and the other
extends to CNS.

Glial Cells or neuroglia nerve

- are the supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, these
cells do not conduct action
potentials.
- carries out different functions that enhance neuron
function and maintain
normal conditions within nervous tissue.
- in CNS, there are four types of glial cells.

Astrocytes
- serves as the major supporting cells in the CNS.
- they can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neurons.
- it participates with the blood vessel endothelium to form a permeability barrier called blood- brain barrier.

Ependymal cells
- line the fluid-filled cavities within the CNS.
- some produces cerebrospinal fluid Microglia
- act as immune cells of the CNS.
- they help protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell debris.

Oligodendrocytes
- provide an insulating material that surrounds axons.

Myelin Sheaths

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
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- specialized layers that wrap around axons of some neurons.
- formed by the cell processes of glial cells; specifically, myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS
Schwann cells in the PNS

Nodes of Ranvier
- Gaps in myelin sheath
- occur about individual Schwann cells
-Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more quickly (3-15 meters/sec) than unmyelinated due to Nodes of Ranvier.

○ Action Potentials
■ Muscle cells & nerve cells → excitable cells
■ Voltage-gated channels for Na+ and K+ are responsible for action potential
■ Occurs at the Axon Hillock
● At rest, voltage-gated channels are closed
● Steps:
○ Stimulus applied, neurotransmitter activate chemically-gated channels and Na+ channels allow Na+ to
diffuse into cell
■ Local current of Na+ movement causes depolarization (inside of cell become positive)
○ Depolarization causes local potential
○ If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters until local potential reaches threshold
○ Reaching threshold results in more voltage-gated Na+ channels to open → membrane becomes
permeable to Na+
■ Voltage-gated K+ channels also open while Na+ channels are open!
○ Since inside of cell is now positively charged, Na+ channels close and more K+ channels open
■ Na+ stops entering cell
■ K+ leaves cell due to opened K+ channels
■ Repolarization
○ Depolarization and repolarization make an action potential (4 ms → 4 milliseconds)
○ At the end of repolarization, charge on cell membrane is more negative than RMP → Hyperpolarization
■ Elevated permeability to K+ lasts very briefly

○ RMP is set by activity of leak channels

○ When stimulated, chemically-gated channels open and initiate local potential
○ When strong enough, local potentials activate voltage-gated channels to initiate action potential
■ Action potential happens (4 ms) in all-or-none fashion (always same magnitude)
● Stronger stimuli, however, can produce a greater frequency of action potentials (but do not increase
size of each action potential)
○ Action potential conducted slowly in unmyelinated axon, rapidly in myelinated axons
■ Unmyelinated axons have action potential conduct current along entire axon cell membrane → Continuous
Conduction
■ In myelinated axons, action potential at one node of Ranvier causes local current to flow through surrounding
extracellular fluid and through cytoplasm of axon to next node of Ranvier to stimulate the next action potential
● Action potentials “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next
● Saltatory Conduction
■ ‘Saltatory Conduction’ greatly increases conduction speed because nodes of Ranvier make it unnecessary for
action potential to travel across entire cell membrane → no ion channels in axon, only at nodes of Ranvier!
● Heavier, wide-diameter myelinated axons conduct action potentials quickest!
■ Myelinated axons require less energy for sodium-potassium pump

○The Synapse

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■ Where an axon attaches to a muscle, gland, organ, or other
neuron
■ Involved w/ release of neurotransmitters (i.e. neuromuscular
junction)
● End of the axon forms the presynaptic terminal
○ Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the
presynaptic terminal
● Membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the
postsynaptic membrane
● Space is the synaptic cleft
■ When action potential reaches presynaptic terminal, voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels open which allows Ca2+ to move into the cell
● Causes a release in neurotransmitters via exocytosis from
the presynaptic terminal
○ Neurotransmitters diffuse across synaptic cleft and
bind to specific receptor molecules on postsynaptic
membrane
○ Causes chemically-gated channels for Na+, K+,
and Cl- to open or close in the postsynaptic
membrane (depends on type of neurotransmitter)
■ If Na+ channels open, postsynaptic cell becomes depolarized
(action potential)
■ If K+ or Cl- channels open, inside of postsynaptic cell becomes
more negative (hyperpolarized) which inhibits
action potential
■ Acetylcholinesterase is located in high concentration in junctional
folds (secondary synaptic cleft)
■ Neurotransmitter substances are normally broken down by
enzymes within synaptic cleft or are transported back into presynaptic
terminal

● Reflexes
○ Involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS
■ Allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible if conscious thought is involved
○ Reflex Arc: neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs
■ Has 5 components:
● Sensory Receptor → pick up stimulus in skin
○ Detection
○ Perception (involves consciousness)
● Sensory (Afferent) Neuron → sends stimulus to
interneurons in spinal cord
● Interneuron (Association neuron) → in CNS,
connect to motor neurons and process stimulus
● Motor (Efferent) Neuron → from CNS
● Effector Organ
■ Simple reflex arcs do not have interneurons
○ Most reflexes occur in spinal cord or brainstem (not in
higher brain
centers)!
● Neuronal Pathways
○ Neurons are arranged within CNS to form pathways ranging from simple to complex
○ Two pathways:

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■ Converging Pathway: two or more neurons converge on the sam neuron
● Allows information to be transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to converge into a single
pathway
■ Diverging Pathway: axon from one neuron divides and synapses with more than one neuron
● Allows information transmitted in a single neuronal pathway to diverge into multiple pathways
○ Summation: summation of signals in neuronal pathways to reach threshold and produce an action potential
■ Allows integration of multiple subthreshold local potentials
● Summation of the local potentials can bring membrane potential to threshold (causing an action
potential)
■ Spatial Summation: local potentials originate from different locations
■ Temporal Summation: local potentials overlap in time

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Substance Site of Releas Effect Clinical Example
e

Acetylcholine CNS Excitatory or Alzheimer disease (a type of

(ACh) synapses, AN inhibitory senile dementia) is associatedwith a
S decrease in acetylcholine-secreting
synapses,and neurons.Myasthenia gravis (weakness of
neuromuscular skeletal muscles)results from a reduction in
junctions acetylcholine receptors.
Norepinephrine Selected CNS Excitatory Cocaine and amphetamines increase
(NE) synapse and the release and block the reuptake of
some ANS norepinephrine, resulting in overstimulation
synapses of postsynaptic neurons.
Serotonin CNS synapses Generally It is involved with mood, anxiety, and sleep i
inhibitory nduction.Levels of serotonin are elevated in
schizophrenia(delusions, hallucinations,
and withdrawal). Drugs That block serotonin
transporters, such as Prozac,are used to
treat depression and anxiety disorders.
Dopamine Selected CNS Excitatory Parkinson disease (depression
synapses and or inhibitory of voluntary motor control)results from
some ANS destruction of dopamine-secreting neurons.
synapses
Gamma-aminobu Inhibitory Drugs that increase GABA function have be
tyric acid (GABA) CNS synapses en used to treat epilepsy (excessive
discharge of neurons).
Glycine CNS synapses Inhibitory Glycine receptors are inhibited by the poiso
n strychnine.Strychnine increases the
excitability of certain neurons by blocking
their inhibition. Strychnine poisoning results
in powerful muscle contractions and
convulsions.Tetanus of respiratory muscles
can cause death.
Endorphins Descending Inhibitory The opiates morphine and heroin bind to en

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pain pathways dorphin receptors on presynaptic neurons
and reduce pain by blocking the release
of a neurotransmitter.

CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS.

● Spinal Cord
○ Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebra
■ Cauda Equina → inferior end of spinal cord where spinal nerves exiting resemble horse’s tail
○ White matter consists of myelinated axons, gray matter is a collection of neuron cell bodies
○ Babinski Reflex → when no inhibition by CNS is present; stroke of bottom of foot causes flexion in babies
■ White matter is divided into 3 columns:
● Dorsal
● Ventral
● Lateral
■ Each column has 2 types of pathways:
● Ascending Tracts → consist of axons that
conduct action potentials toward the brain
● Descending Tracts → consist of axons that
conduct action potentials away from brain
○ Gray matter has:
■ Posterior (Dorsal) Horns: contains axons which
synapse w/ interneurons
■ Anterior (Ventral) Horns: contain somatic (motor)
neurons
■ Lateral Horns: contain autonomic neurons
○ Central Canal: fluid-filled space in center of the spinal cord
○ Ventral Root: motor (efferent) root of spinal nerve
○ Dorsal Root: sensory root of spinal nerve
■ Dorsal Root Ganglion
● Cell bodies of pseudo-unipolar sensory
neurons are located in the dorsal root ganglia
○ Axons of psuedo-unipolar sensory
neurons originate in periphery and pass through
spinal nerves and dorsal roots to posterior horn
of gray matter
■ In posterior horn, axons either converge with
interneurons or pass into white matter and ascend/descend
○ Ventral and Dorsal Root combine to form spinal nerve!
○ Axons from motor neurons form ventral roots and pass into
spinal nerves

Spinal Cord Reflexes

○ Knee-Jerk Reflex (Patellar Reflex):
■ Stretch reflex (simple)
■ When patellar ligament is tapped, quadriceps femoris muscle
tendon and the muscles themselves are stretched
● Sensory receptors within these muscles are also
stretched and the stretch reflex is activated
■ Clinicians use knee-jerk reflex to see if higher CNS centers that influence this reflex are functional
○ Withdrawal Reflex (flexor reflex):

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■ To remove a limb or another body part from painful stimulus
■ Sensory neurons conduct action potentials through dorsal root to spinal cord, where sensory neurons
synapse with interneurons, which turn synapse w/ motor neurons
● Motor neurons then stimulate flexor muscles to remove limb from source of painful stimulus

● Spinal Nerves ( 31 Pairs )

○ Peripheral nerves exiting from spinal cord
○ Dorsal root → carries sensory info toward CNS
○ Ventral root → carries motor info away from CNS
○ Contain sensory and motor nerves → mixed nerves
○ Dermatome: area of skin supplied w/ sensory innervation by pair of spinal nerves
○ Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific cutaneous sensory distribution
○ Plexuses (3): neurons of several spinal nerves come together and intermingle
■ Cervical Plexus
■ Brachial Plexus
■ Lumbosacral Plexus

1. The spinal nerves exit the vertebral column at the cervical, thoracic,lumbar, and sacral regions.
2. The nerves are grouped into plexuses.
3. The phrenic nerve, which supplies the diaphragm, is the most important branch of the cervical plexus.
4. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to the upper limb.
5. The lumbosacral plexus supplies nerves to the lower limb.

● Brain
○ Brainstem
■ Connects spinal cord to brain
■ Consists of:
● Medulla oblongata
○ Extends from foramen magnum to pons
○ Contains nuclei for functions such as regulation of heart rate and blood vessel diameter, breathing,
wallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, balance, and balance
○ Pyramids: involved in conscious control of skeletal muscle
● Pons
○ Relay information from cerebrum and
cerebellum (functional bridge between them)
○ Controls chewing and salivation (pons
only), as well as functions such as breathing,
swallowing, and balance (like medulla oblongata)
● Midbrain
○ Located between pons and diencephalon
○ Colliculi: four mounds on dorsal part of
midbrain
■ 2 inferior colliculi → relay centers
for auditory nerve pathways in CNS
■ 2 superior colliculi → visual
reflexes and receive touch/auditory input
○ Contains nuclei involved in coordinating
eye movements, controlling pupil diameter, lens
shape and reward/reinforcement
○ Contains substantia nigra: black nuclear
mass which regulates general body movements
■ Damage to brainstem causes death, whereas damage to cerebrum/ cerebellum does not cause death

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■ Reticular Formation: loose network of neuron cell bodies scattered throughout brainstem; involved in regulation
of cycles such as sleep-wake cycle (reticular activating system) → Norepinephrine
● Also regulates cyclical motor functions like respiration, walking, chewing, arousing and maintaining
consciousness, sleep-wake cycle
● Damage to the cells of reticular formation can cause coma
○ Cerebellum
■ Attached to brainstem by cerebellar peduncles
● Provide routes of communication between cerebellum and other parts of CNS
■ Coordinated movement and learning
○ Diencephalon
■ Between brainstem and cerebrum
■ 3 Main Components:
● Thalamus
○ Largest part of diencephalon
○ Connected in center by interthalamic adhesion
○ Relay for sensory information!
○ Influences mood
○ Registers unlocalized, uncomfortable perception of pain
● Epithalamus
○ Superior to thalamus
○ Small, few nuclei involved in emotional/visceral response to odors
○ Pineal Gland: influences onset of puberty; plays role in controlling long-term cycles influenced
by light-dark cycle
● Hypothalamus
○ Inferior part of diencephalon
○ Maintenance of homeostasis
○ Regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst
○ Sensations like sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
relaxation, “nervous perspirations” (emotional responses)
○ Infundibulum: extends from bottom of hypothalamus to pituitary gland
■ Hypothalamus plays role in secretion of hormones from pituitary gland (controls
pituitary gland)
○ Mammillary bodies form visible swellings on backside of hypothalamus → emotional responses
to odors and memory
○ Cerebrum
■ Largest part of brain
■ Divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure
■ Has many folds called gyri (increase surface area of cortex)
■ Has intervening grooves called sulci
■ Divided into lobes:
● Frontal lobe:
○ Control of voluntary motor functions (Phineas Gage), motivation, aggression (impulsivity),
mood, and smell
● Parietal lobe:
○ Evaluates sensory information such as touch, pain, temperature, and balance (sensation)
● Occipital lobe:
○ Vision
○ Not separate from other lobes
● Temporal lobe:
○ Hearing, smell, memory
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
1. The CNS constantly receives sensory input.

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2. We are unaware of much of the input, but it is vital to our survival.
3. Some sensory input results in sensation.

Ascending Tracts
1. Ascending tracts transmit action potentials from the periphery to the brain.
2. Each tract carries a specific type of sensory information.

Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

1. Ascending tracts project to primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex.
2. Association areas are involved in recognizing the sensory input.

MOTOR FUNCTIONS
The motor system of the brain and spinal cord is responsible for maintaining the body’s posture and balance, as well as
moving the trunk, head, limbs, tongue, and eyes and communicating through facial expressions and speech. Reflexes
mediated through the spinal cord and brainstem are responsible for some body movements.

These are called involuntary movements because they occur without conscious thought. Voluntary movements, on the
other hand, are consciously activated to achieve a specific goal, such as walking or typing.

Upper motor neurons have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex. The
axons of upper motor neurons form descending tracts that connect to
lower motor neurons. Lower motor neurons have cell bodies in the
anterior horn of the spinal cord gray matter or in cranial nerve nuclei.
Their axons leave the central nervous system and extend through spinal
or cranial nerves to skeletal muscles.

MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

The primary motor cortex is located in the posterior portion of the
frontal lobe, directly anterior to the central sulcus. Action potentials
initiated in this region control voluntary move
ments of skeletal muscles. The premotor area of the frontal lobe is
where motor functions are organized before they are actually initiated in
the primary motor cortex. Action potentials are then passed to the upper
motor neurons of the primary motor cortex, which initiate each planned
movement.The motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movements
occur in the anterior portion of the frontal lobes, called the prefrontal
area.

DESCENDING TRACTS

The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because they extend

directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral cortex to lower motor
neurons in the spinal cord (a similar direct tract extends to lower motor
neurons in the brainstem).These tracts are called indirect because no
direct connection exists between the cortical and spinal neurons. The descending tracts control different types of
movements. Tracts in the lateral columns are most important in controlling goal-directed limb movements, such as
reaching and manipulating. The lateral corticospinal tracts are especially important in controlling the speed and
precision
of skilled movements of the hands. The lateral corticospinal tract serves as an example of how
descending pathways function. It begins in the cerebral cortex and descends into the brainstem.

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Descending Tracts of the Spinal Cord

Example of Direct Tract

The basal nuclei are a group of functionally related nuclei. Two primary nuclei are the corpus striatum, located deep
within the cerebrum, and the substantia nigra, a group of darkly
pigmented cells in the midbrain.
The basal nuclei are important in planning, organizing, and
coordinating motor movements and posture. Complex neural
circuits link the basal nuclei with each other, with the thalamus, and
with the cerebral cortex.

CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem. The cerebellar cortex is composed of gray matter
and has gyri and sulci, but the gyri are much smaller than those of the cerebrum. Internally, the cerebellum consists of
gray nuclei and white nerve tracts. The cerebellum is involved in maintaining balance and muscle tone and in coordinating
fine motor
movement.

A major function of the cerebellum is that of a comparator. A comparator is a sensing device that compares the data from
two sources—in this case, the motor cortex and
peripheral structures. Action potentials from the cerebral motor cortex descend into the spinal cord to initiate voluntary
movements.Another function of the cerebellum involves
participating with the cerebrum in learning motor skills, such
as playing the piano. Once the cerebrum and cerebellum
“learn” these skills, the specialized movements can be
accomplished smoothly and automatically.

Other Brain Functions

Communication Between the Right and Left

Hemispheres
Cerebellar Comparator Function
Sensory information received by one hemisphere is shared with the other through connections between the two
hemispheres called commissures. The inhibitory circuits facilitate the
actions of the stimulatory circuits by inhibiting muscle activity in antagonist muscles. In addition, inhibitory circuits
inhibit random movements of the trunk and limbs. Inhibitory circuits also decrease muscle tone when the body,
limbs, and head are at rest.

Speech
Action potentials from the ear reach the primary auditory cortex, where the word is perceived; the word is
recognized in the auditory association area and comprehended in portions of the sensory speech area. Action

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potentials representing the word are then conducted through nerve tracts that connect the sensory and motor
speech areas. In the motor speech area, the muscle activity needed to repeat the word is determined. Action
potentials then go to the premotor area, where the movements are programmed, and finally to the primary motor
cortex, where specific movements are triggered.

Brain Waves and Consciousness

Different levels of consciousness can be revealed by different patterns of electrical activity in the brain. Electrodes
placed on a person’s scalp and attached to a recording device can record the brain’s electrical activity, producing an
electroencephalogram (EEG). They can detect the simultaneous action potentials in large numbers of neurons.
Alpha waves are observed in a normal person who is awake but in a quiet, resting state with the eyes closed.
Beta waves have a higher frequency than alpha waves and occur during intense mental activity. During the
beginning of sleep, a rapid transition takes place from a beta rhythm to an alpha rhythm. As sleep deepens,
progressively more delta waves occur.
Delta waves occur during deep sleep, in infants, and in patients with
severe brain disorders.
A fourth type of brain waves, theta waves, are usually observed in
children, but they can also occur in adults who are experiencing
frustration or who have certain brain disorders.

Electroencephalogram
Memory
The storage of memory can be divided into three stages: working, short-term, and long-term.

Working memory- the brain briefly stores information required for the immediate performance of a task. It lasts only
a few seconds to minutes and occurs mostly in the frontal cortex. Short-term memory lasts longer than working
memory and can be retained for a few minutes to a few days.
Short-term memory is transferred to long-term memory, where it may be stored for only a few minutes or become
permanent, by consolidation, a gradual process involving the formation of new and stronger synaptic connections.
Declarative memory, or explicit memory, involves the retention of facts, such as names, dates, and places, as well
as related emotional undertones.
Procedural memory, or reflexive memory, involves the development of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle. A
whole series of neurons, called memory engrams, or memory traces, are probably involved in the long-term
retention of a given piece of information, a thought, or an idea. Repeating the information and associating it with
existing memories help us transfer information from short-term
to long-term memory.

Limbic System and Emotions

The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions and
nuclei of the cerebrum and the diencephalon are grouped
together under the title limbic system.
The limbic system influences long-term declarative memory,
emotions, visceral responses to emotions, motivation, and
mood. A major source of sensory input to the limbic system is the olfactory nerves. The limbic system responds to
olfactory stimulation by initiating responses necessary for survival, such as hunger and thirst.
Limbic System
Meninges
Three connective tissue membranes, the meninges, surround and protect the brain and spinal cord.

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The dura mater function as a single layer but are physically separated into several regions to form dural folds and dural
venous sinuses. Within the skull, the dura mater adheres tightly to the cranial bones. In contrast, within the vertebral canal
is an epidural space between the dura mater and the vertebrae
The arachnoid mater. The space between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater is the
subdural space, which is normally only a potential space containing a very small amount of serous fluid.
The pia mater, is very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord. Between the arachnoid mater and the pia
mater is the subarachnoid space, which is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood vessels.

Ventricles
The CNS contains fluid-filled cavities, called ventricles, which are quite small in some areas and large in others.
Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity called the lateral ventricle.
The third ventricle is a smaller, midline cavity located in the
center of the diencephalon between the two halves of the
thalamus and connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral
ventricles.
The fourth ventricle is located at the base of the cerebellum
and connected to the third ventricle by a narrow canal, called the
cerebral aqueduct.The fourth ventricle is continuous with the
central canal of the spinal cord. It also opens into the
subarachnoid space through foramina in its walls and roof.

Ventricles of the Brain Viewed from the Left

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

✧ Bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a protective cushion around the CNS.
✧ Fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space.
✧ Flows from the lateral ventricles into the third ventricle and then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth
ventricle.
✧ A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of the spinal cord.
✧ Exits the fourth ventricle through small openings in its walls and roof and enters the subarachnoid space.

○ 12 pairs
○ Sensory functions entail senses (vision, touch, etc.)
○ Motor functions are divided into:

■ Somatic Motor

● Innervate skeletal muscles in head and neck

■ Parasympathetic

● Innervate glands, smooth muscle throughout body, and cardiac muscle

Numbe Name General Specific Function
r Function*
I Olfactory S SmellI
II Optic S Vision

III Oculomotor M, P Motor to four of six extrinsic eye muscles and upper eyelid; p

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet
arasympathetic:constricts pupil, thickens lens
IV Trochlear M Motor to one extrinsic eye muscle
V trigeminal S, M Sensory to face and teeth; motor to muscles of mastication (c
hewing)
VI Abducens M Motor to one extrinsic eye muscle
VII Facial S, M, P Sensory: taste; motor to muscles of facial expression; parasy
mpathetic to salivary and tear glands.
VIII Vestibulocochlear S Hearing and balance
IX Glossopharyngeal S, M, P Sensory: taste and touch to back of tongue; motor to pharyng
eal muscles;parasympathetic to salivary glands
X Vagus S, M, P Sensory to pharynx, larynx, and viscera; motor to palate, pha
rynx, and larynx;parasympathetic to viscera of thorax and
abdomen
XI Accessory M Motor to two neck and upper back muscles
XII Hypoglossal M Motor to tongue muscles

Peripheral Nervous System (Autonomic vs. Somatic)

● Autonomic Nervous System

○ Consists of motor neurons from CNS that carry action potentials
to periphery
○ Innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands
○ Involuntary
○ Autonomic neurons do NOT extend all the way from CNS to
target tissues, but there are many
■ Somatic motor neurons do (extend from axons in CNS to
skeletal muscle)
○ Preganglionic Neurons and Postganglionic Neurons synapse in
autonomic ganglia outside the CNS
○ Autonomic nervous system is composed of:
■ Sympathetic division
■ Parasympathetic division
○ Anatomy of Sympathetic division
■ Sphlanic nerves
■ Collateral ganglia
○ Anatomy of Parasympathetic division
■ Vagus nerve (branches to heart, lungs, liver, stomach)
○ Autonomic Neurotransmitters
■ Sympathetic → norepinephrine
■ Parasympathetic → acetylcholine

○ Functions of Autonomic Nervous System

○ Divisions can each produce both stimulatory and inhibitory effects
○ Both can actually act together to coordinate activity of multiple targets
■ In males, parasympathetic initiates penis erection and the sympathetic stimulates release of secretions and
helps initiate ejaculation

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

● Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

○ Plexuses within wall of digestive tract which include:

■ Sensory neurons that connect digestive tract to CNS

■ Sympathetic and Parasympathetic neurons that connect CNS to digestive tract
■ Enteric neurons within Enteric Plexuses
● Enteric neurons monitor and control digestive tract independently of the CNS through local reflexes
(although they also work together occasionally)
○ i.e. stretching of digestive tract is detected by enteric sensory neurons which stimulate enteric
interneurons
■ Interneurons stimulate enteric motor neurons which stimulate glands to secrete
● CNS control of parasympathetic branches of vagus nerve and splanchnic nerve can override actions of
enteric neurons.
○ Independent subdivision of PNS that is integrated with the ANS

● Effects of Aging on Nervous System

○ Sensory function gradually declines with age due to decrease in number of sensory neurons, decrease in
functioning of remaining neurons, and decrease in CNS processing
■ Decreases touch sensation, balance, coordination, etc.
■ Reflexes slow
■ Brain size/weight decreases
■ Short-term memory decreases- Thinking, problem-solving, intelligence declines

● Representative Diseases and Disorders: Nervous System

Name Description

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

ENCEPHALITIS Inflammation of the brain caused by a virus and less often by bacteria
or other agents; symptoms include fever, coma, and convulsions.
MENINGITIS Inflammation of meninges caused by viral or bacterial infection;
symptoms include stiffness in the neck, headache, and fever; severe
cases can cause paralysis, coma, or death.
Multiple sclerosis Autoimmune condition; may be initiated by viral infection; inflammation i
n brain and spinal cord with demyelinationand sclerotic (hard) sheaths
results in poor conduction of action potentials; symptoms include
exaggerated reflexes,tremor, and speech defects.
Parkinson disease Caused by a lesion in basal nuclei; characterized by muscular rigidity, r
esting tremor, general lack of movement, anda slow, shuffling gait.
Alzheimer disease Mental deterioration, or dementia; usually affects older people; involves
loss of neurons in the cerebral cortex; symptoms include general
intellectual deficiency, memory loss, short attention span, moodiness,
disorientation, and irritability.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet
Herpes Family of diseases characterized by skin lesions due to herpes viruses i
n sensory ganglia; different viruses cause orallesions (cold sores),
sexually transmitted disease with lesions on genitalia, or chickenpox in
children (shingles in adults).

Poliomyelitis Viral infection of the CNS; damages somatic motor neurons, leaving mu
scles without innervation, and leads to paralysis and atrophy.
Myasthenia gravis Autoimmune disorder affects acetylcholine receptors; makes the
neuromuscular junction less functional; muscle weakness and
increased fatigue lead to paralysis.

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (20 minutes)

This will serve as a quiz for the students. 1 point is given to each correct answer and another point for the correct rationale
given per number. Superimpositions & erasures are not allowed.

I. Label the following parts.

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

II. Match the pathway into its functions.

1. rubrospinal a. movement coordination

2. vestibulospinal b. muscle tone and movement of trunk muscles
3. spinothalamic c. pain, temperature, light touch
4. anterior corticospinal d. posture and balance
5. dorsal column e. proprioception, deep pressure, vibration

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet

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 Anatomy & Physiology (Laboratory)
Module #8 Student Activity Sheet
Identify what kind of disorder(in column B) is being asked in column A and match your answer to column C. Write your
answer before the number. (Example (B,D 1.)

1. hereditary lipid storage disorder of a. CNS a. Huntington

infants Disorders disease

2. involves severe spasms of throbbing b. PNS b. Leprosy

Disorders

3. involves loss of neurons in cerebral c. Tay-sachs

cortex disease

4. characterized by disfiguring nodules d. Alzheimer

and tissue necrosis disease

5. causes progressive degeneration of e. Neuralgia

basal nuclei

RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY (DURING THE FACE TO FACE INTERACTION WITH THE STUDENTS)
After the prescribed time, the correct answers and their respective rationale will be provided. You are encouraged to ask
questions if there are any.

AL Activity: CAT: LEARNING SHEETS

FIND-OUT QUESTIONS:
1. The Cranial Nerve (CN) VIII is called _____________.
2. The CN IX is called ______________ to the chest.
3. The CN VI is called ______________ to the sternum.
4. True/False. Trigeminal Nerve is capable of sensory, and somatic motor.
5. True/False. The facial muscle is capable of all three (sensory, somatic, and parasympathetic).
LARGER QUESTIONS: (These can only be answered if the FIND-OUT QUESTIONS are completed)
1. What is the total number of cranial nerves?
2. What are the diseases that are classified under the peripheral nervous system?
3. What are the effects of aging into the nervous system?
4. What is the difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic?

CHALLENGE QUESTION:
1. What is the importance of learning the different functions of cranial nerves?

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