Biology f4 Note

LESSON SUMMARY AND ANSWERS OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS FROM F4 BIOLOGY BOOK.
Lesson Summary & Answers Of

Chapter Questions
Teacher, Ibrahim Ali Abdirahman (B.Sc. MPH)

Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS. ....................................... 1
LESSON SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................. 8
Multiple Choice Questions....................................................................................................... 8
Direct Questions ..................................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM.......................................................................... 15
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER QUESTIONS ........................................................................................................... 20
Multiple Choice Questions..................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER THREE: THE SKELETAL, MUSCULAR AND INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS . 24
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER FOUR: THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ....................... 38
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER FIVE: GENETICS ....................................................................................................... 44
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER SIX: BIOTECHNOLOGY ........................................................................................... 54
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 54
CHAPTER SEVEN: BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ....................... 62
LESSON SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 62
Arranged by: Teacher, Ibrahim Ali Abdirahman (B.Sc. MPH) Tell: 0615602903 I
CHAPTER ONE: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE
ORGANS.
LESSON SUMMARY
Nervous System
Nervous system is a highly organized network of cells that detects changes and controls metabolic
processes, mental and physical activities and maintains homeostasis.
Nervous tissue is composed of two kinds of cells
1. Neurons (Nerve cells)
2. Neuroglia (Glia or Glial cells)
Neurons (Nerve cells)
Neurons are the working units of the nervous system that generate and transmit nerve impulses.
Neuroglia (Glia or Glial cells)
Neuroglia do not conduct nerve impulses instead they support and protect the nerve cells.
Difference between neuron and neuroglia
Neurons conduct and transmit nerve impulses while neuroglia support and protect the neurons.
A neuron consists of three main regions (parts)
1. Dendrites
2. Cell body
3. Axon
Function of dendrites
Dendrites receive signals called impulses from sense organs or other neurons and conduct the impulses to
the cell body.
Function of Axon
Axon carries the nerve impulse from the cell body to other neurons and effectors such as muscles and
glands.
Myelin sheath
Myelin sheath is a fatty material that wraps around nerve cell projections.
Function of Myelin sheath
The myelin sheath helps insulate the axon.
Difference between myelinated and non-myelinated neurons.
Myelinated neurons Unmyelinated neurons
1. Contain a myelin sheath. 1. Do not contain myelin sheath.
2. Consist of nodes of Ranvier. 2. Do not consist of nodes of Ranvier.
3. Speed of transmission of nerve impulse is high 3. Speed of nerve impulse conduction is low.
4. Prevents the loss of nerve impulse during 4. Can loss of nerve impulse during conduction.
conduction.
5. They are white in color. 5. They are gray in color.
6. Are found in the CNS 6. Are found in both PNS and CNS
7. Have long axons. 7. Have short axons.
8. carry impulses that are associated with sharp 8. carry impulses that are associated with dull,
pain. throbbing pain.
Nodes of Ranvier
The myelin sheath is broken at one-millimetre intervals by constrictions called nodes of Ranvier.
Function of Nodes of Ranvier
The nodes of Ranvier help to propagate the nerve impulse and speed up the transmission of an impulse.
Arranged by: Teacher, Ibrahim Ali Abdirahman (B.Sc. MPH) Tell: 0615602903 1
Schwann-cells
The Schwann-cell secretes the myelin sheath.
Types of neurons based on their structure
1. Anaxonic neuron: has many dendrites arises from the cell body but no axon.
2. Unipolar neuron: has one dendrite arises from the cell body.
3. Bipolar neuron: has two dendrites arises from the cell body
4. Multipolar neuron: has many dendrites arises from the cell body.
Types of neurons based on their function
1. Sensory neuron
2. Relay neuron
3. Motor neuron
Function of sensory neurons
• Sensory neurons get information about what is going on inside and outside of the body and bring
that information into the brain or spinal cord.
• Its function is to transmit nerve impulses from sense organs to the central nervous system
Function of motor neurons
• Motor neurons get information from the brain or spinal cord and convey commands to the
effector organs such as muscles or glands.
• Its function is to transmits nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
Function of relay neurons
Relay neurons receive information from other neurons and transmit information to other neurons.
The three coverings (layers) of protective connective tissue around a nerve
1. Endoneurium 2. Perineurium 3. Epineurium
Endoneurium
Endoneurium is a delicate tissue, surrounding each individual fibre.
Perineurium
Perineurium is a smooth connective tissue, surrounding each bundle of fibres.
Epineurium
Epineurium is the fibrous tissue which surrounds and encloses a number of bundles of nerve fibres.
Nerve impulse
A nerve impulse is an electrical charge traveling the length of a neuron.
Resting potential
A non-conducting nerve fibre is described to be in a resting potential.
Ion distribution in resting potential.
• There is more Na+ outside the axon membrane.
• There is more K+ inside the axoplasm.
• There are also more anions (negatively charged ions) with in the exoplasm.
• There are also more cations (positively charged ions) outside the exoplasm.
Action potential
An action potential is a localised change in the resting membrane potential between inside and outside of
the nerve fibre caused by a stimulus.
Ion distribution in Action potential.
• There is more Na+ inside the axon membrane.
• There is more K+ outside the axoplasm.
• There are also more anions (negatively charged ions) outside the exoplasm.
• There are also more cations (positively charged ions) with in the exoplasm.
Threshold
Threshold is the minimum stimulus to cause an action potential to be produced.
Synapse or Neuro-junction
A synapse is a junction between dendrites of two adjacent neurons.
Function of synapse
Synapse allows the transmission of a nerve impulse from neuron to neuron.
Synaptic cleft
Synaptic cleft is the point at which the nerve impulse passes from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic
neuron.
Synaptic knobs
The axon of the presynaptic neuron breaks up into minute branches that terminate in small swellings called
synaptic knobs.
Role of neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit an impulse from a neuron across the synaptic
cleft to a target cell.
Examples of neurotransmitters
1. Acetylcholine 5. Histamine
2. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) 6. Serotonin
3. Dopamine 7. Norepinephrine
4. Glutamate
Classification of the nervous system
Meninges
Meninges are three protective membranes (layers) covering the brain and spinal cord.
Layers of meninges
1. The dura mater
2. The pia mater
3. The arachnoid mater
The dura mater
The dura mater is the tough outer membrane covering the brain and spinal cord.
The pia mater
The pia mater is the innermost membrane covering the brain and spinal cord.
The arachnoid mater
The arachnoid mater is a layer of fibrous tissue that lies between the dura and pia maters.
Sub-arachnoid space
Sub-arachnoid space is a narrow space between the arachnoid and pia mater. It is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid.
Function of Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid is a fluid from which oxygen and nutrients diffuse into the brain cells and protect the
brain and spinal cord.
Four portions of the brain
1. The cerebrum
2. The diencephalon (Thalamus and Hypothalamus)
3. The brain stem (Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata)
4. The cerebellum
Cerebrum
Cerebrum is the largest and most complex parts of the brain and constitutes about 90% of the brain’s
volume.
Corpus callosum
Corpus callosum is a bundle of nerve fibres found between cerebral hemispheres. Corpus callosum
connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex is the superficial part of the cerebrum that is composed of cell bodies.
Lobes of the cerebrum
1. Frontal lobe 3. Occipital lobe
2. Parietal lobe 4. Temporal lobe
The three main types of activities associated with the cerebral cortex
a) Higher order functions: The mental activities involved in memory, sense of responsibility, thinking,
reasoning, moral decision making and leaning.
b) Sensory perception: including the perception of pain, temperature, touch, sight, hearing, taste and
smell.
c) Initiation and control: initiation and control of the skeletal muscle contractions and therefore
voluntary movement.
Parts of diencephalon
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
Function of diencephalon
Diencephalon connects the cerebrum and the midbrain.
Location of thalamus
The thalamus is situated within the cerebral hemispheres just below the corpus callosum.
Function of thalamus
The thalamus relays and redistributes impulses from most parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex.
Location of hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is situated below and in front of the thalamus, immediately above the pituitary gland.
Function of hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls
1. The output of hormones from pituitary gland.
2. The autonomic nervous system
3. Appetite and satiety
4. Thirst and water balance
5. Body temperature
6. Emotional reactions such as pleasure, fear, and rage.
7. Sexual behavior and child rearing
8. Sleeping and waking cycle.
Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain 2. Pons 3. Medulla oblongata
Location of the midbrain
The midbrain is the area of the brain situated between the cerebrum above and the pons below.
Function of the midbrain
Midbrain connects the cerebrum with lower parts of the brain and with the spinal cord. It also processes in
visual and auditory information.
Location of the Pons
The pons is situated in front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain and above the medulla.
Function of the Pons
Pons connects the two hemispheres of the cerebellum and also connects the higher levels of the brain and
the spinal cord.
Location of the medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the most interior region of the brain stem extending from the pons above, it is
continuous with the spinal cord below.
Function of the medulla oblongata
Medulla oblongata is responsible for regulating several basic functions including respiration (breathing),
cardiac function and reflexes like vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and swallowing.
Location of the cerebellum
The cerebellum is situated the pons and immediately below the posterior portion of the cerebrum
Function of the Cerebellum
The cerebellum controls and coordinates the movements of various groups of muscles ensuring smooth,
even, precise actions. It coordinates activities associated with the maintenance of posture, balance and
equilibrium.
The spinal cord
The spinal cord is the posterior extension from the brain to the tail.
Functions of spinal cord
1. Transfer of nervous information between the brain and other parts of the body except the head
region.
2. It controls the simple reflex actions.
Reflex Action
Reflex action is a rapid automatic response to a certain stimulus.
The types of reflex action
1. Simple reflex action. 2. Conditional reflex action
Examples of simple reflex action
1. Withdrawal of finger or hand from a hot or sharp object.
2. Blinking of the eye when an object passes close to it.
3. Coughing and sneezing
Examples of conditional reflex action
1. Walking 4. Writing
2. Playing 5. Swimming
3. Cycling 6. Driving
Cranial nerves
Cranial nerves are nerves that arise from the brain and innervate areas in the head and face.
Spinal nerves
Spinal nerves are nerves that arise from the spinal cord and innervate the limbs and the trunk.
Sympathetic nervous system
The sympathetic nervous system is a branch of autonomic nervous system that is most active in times of
emergency or stress.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The parasympathetic nervous system is a branch of autonomic nervous system that is most active when
the body is relaxed.
Diseases of the nervous system
1. Dementia 4. Poliomyelitis
2. Alzheimer disease 5. Epilepsy
3. Bacterial meningitis 6. Stroke
The cause of dementia
Dementia is caused by progressive, irreversible degeneration of cerebral cortex and results in mental
deterioration.
Symptoms of dementia
1. Mental deterioration
2. Gradual impairment of memory (short term), intellect and reasoning.
3. Emotional lability.
4. Personal change.
Alzheimer disease
This condition is the commonest form of dementia in developed countries and affects people with Down
syndrome by the age of 40 years.
Causes of Alzheimer disease
The causes of this disease is unknown although genetic factors may be involved.
Symptoms of Alzheimer disease
1. Progressive atrophy of the cerebral cortex.
2. Deteriorating mental factions.
Meningitis
Meningitis refers to inflammation of the subarachnoid space. Meningitis refers to
inflammation of the meninges.
Common microbes that cause meningitis
1. Haemophilus influenzae
2. Neisseria meningitidis
3. Streptococcus pneumoniae
4. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (bacteria that cause tuberculosis)
5. Treponema pallidum (bacteria that cause syphilis)
Sensory receptors
Sensory receptors are specialized cells in the body that enable us to taste, smell, hear, see, and to detect
touch, pressure, motion and temperature.
Different types of sensory receptors in the human body
1. Chemoreceptors detect chemical substances.
2. Photoreceptors detect light
3. Mechanoreceptors detect touch, pressure, motion, sound.
4. Thermoreceptors detect temperature.
5. Nociceptors detect pain.
Taste buds
Taste buds are areas of specialized chemical receptors on the tongue that detect the tastes of sweet, sour,
salty and bitter.
The mechanism of taste
Receptors of the taste buds on the tongue detect the different combinations of chemicals in the food and
send this information to the taste area in the brain to be processed.
Function of olfactory nerve
Olfactory nerve carries nerve impulses from the receptors in the nose to the brain for interpretation.
The mechanism of smell
Specialized receptors located high in the nose respond to chemicals in the air and send the information to
the olfactory bulb in the brain to be processed.
Cornea
Cornea is a transparent, durable, layer of cells that helps to focus the light through an opening called the
pupil.
Iris
Iris is the colored part of the eye.
Function of lens
Lens inverts the image and projects it onto the retina.
Vitreous humor
Vitreous humor is a colorless, gelatin-like liquid between the lens and the retina.
Rods
Rods are light-sensitive cells that are excited by low levels of light.
Cones
Cones are light-sensitive cells that function in bright light and provide information about color to the
brain.
Function of optic nerve
Optic nerve carries nerve impulses from the retina of the eye to the brain for interpretation.
The mechanism of vision
Receptors of cones and rods send action potentials to the brain via the neurons in the optic nerve, the brain
then interprets the specific combination of signals received from the retina and forms a visual image
Functions of the ear
Hearing and balance are two major functions of the ear.
Function of semi-circular canals
Semi-circular canals are canals responsible for sense of body position and balance.
Function of cochlea
The cochlea is the structure responsible for hearing.
Function of auditory nerve
Auditory nerve carries nerve impulses from the ear to the brain for interpretation.
The mechanism of hearing
Sound waves causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate and the vibrations travel through the bones of the
middle ear to the cochlea then hair cells in the cochlea generate nerve impulses which are sent to the brain
through the auditory nerve for interpretation.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Multiple Choice Questions
Q1: Choose the correct answer of the following:
The diagram below shows a neuron. Use the diagram to answer the questions that follow.
1. Which number indicates the structure from which the neuron receives information from
other neurons?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4
2. Which is the characteristic of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
a. Stimulates digestion
b. Slows the heart rate
c. Dilates the bronchi
d. Converts glucose to glycogen
Use the diagram below to answer question 3
3. What is occurring in the diagram above?

a. K+ ions are entering the neuron.
b. Negatively charged proteins are the leaving the neuron.
c. Na+ ions are entering the neuron.
d. The myelin coat has broken down, allowing ions to freely cross the plasma membrane.
4. If the portion indicated by the arrow was damaged due to trauma, what effects would this
person most likely experience?
a. Partial or complete memory loss
b. Trouble maintaining balance
c. Body temperature fluctuations
d. Rapid breathing
5. Which nervous system is the hypothalamus most involved in regulating?
a. Voluntary c. Sensory
b. Peripheral d. Autonomic
6. If there were a power outage in a movie theater and only a few dim emergency lights were lit,
which cells of the retina would be most important for seeing your way to the exist?
a. Rods
b. Cones
c. Rods and cones are equally important
7. Which represents the correct sequence as sound waves travel in the ear to trigger an
impulse?
a. Cochlea, incus, stapes, eardrum.
b. Tympanum, bones in the middle ear, cochlea, hair cells.
c. Auditory canal, tympanum, hair cells, cochlea.
d. Hair cells, auditory canal, cochlea, malleus.
8. With which sense are free nerve endings associated?

a. Taste
b. Hearing
c. Touch
d. Sight
9. Some rides at amusement parks cause a person to become dizzy when the ride stops. Which
structure in the diagram is most likely involved with the dizzy feeling?
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
10. A functional reflex requires
a. Only a sensory neuron and a motor neuron
b. A sensory neuron, the thalamus, and a motor neuron
c. The cerebral cortex and a motor neuron and a motor neuron
d. Only the cerebral cortex and thalamus
11. As you sit quietly reading this sentence, the part of the nervous system that is most active is
the
a. Somatic nervous system
b. Sympathetic nervous system
c. Parasympathetic nervous system
d. None of the choices is correct
12. A fight-or-flight response in the body is controlled by the

a. Sympathetic division of the nervous system
b. Parasympathetic division of the nervous system
c. Release of acetylcholine from postganglionic neurons.
d. Somatic nervous system
13. The _______________ cannot be controlled by conscious thought.

a. Motor neurons c. Autonomic nervous system
b. Somatic nervous system d. Skeletal muscles
14. White matter is, and gray matter is

a. Comprised of axons; comprised of cell bodies and dendrites
b. Myelinated; unmyelinated
c. Found in the CNS; also found in the CNS
d. All of the choices are correct.
Direct Questions
Q2: Answer all of the following questions.
1. For each pair of terms, explain the relationship between the terms.
a. Stimulant and depressant
b. Motor neuron and sensory neuron
c. Brain stem and diencephalon
d. Resting potential and action potential
Answer
a. Stimulant is a drug which increases (stimulates) the activities of the nervous system.
Depressant is a drug which lowers (depress) the activities of the nervous system.
b. Sensory neuron is a neuron that gets information about what is going on inside and outside of the
body and brings that information into the brain or the spinal cord.
Motor neuron is a neuron that gets information from the brain or spinal cord and conveys
commands to the effector organs such as muscles and glands.
c. Brain stem is a part of the brain that consists of midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.
Diencephalon is a part of the brain that consists of thalamus and hypothalamus.
d. Resting potential is the state in which the neuron is not conducting a nerve impulse.
Action potential is the state in which the neuron is conducting a nerve impulse.
Action potential is a localised change in the resting membrane potential between the inside and
outside of the nerve fibre caused by a stimulus.
2. Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence: neuron, dendrite, myelin sheath, and
synapse.
Answer
• Neuron is a working unit of the nervous system that generates and transmits nerve impulses.
• Dendrite is a part of the neuron that receives signals called impulses from sensory organs or
other neurons and conducts the impulses to the cell body.
• Myelin sheath is a fatty material that wraps around nerve cell projections (axons).
• Synapse is the junction between dendrites of two adjacent neurons.
3. Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence: thalamus, hypothalamus, pons, and
medulla oblongata.
Answer
• Thalamus is a part of diencephalon which is situated within the cerebral hemispheres just
below the corpus callosum.
• Hypothalamus is a part of diencephalon which is situated below and in front of the thalamus,
immediately above the pituitary gland.
• Pons is a part of brain stem which is situated in front of the cerebellum, below the midbrain
and above the medulla.
• Medulla oblongata is a part of brain stem which is the most interior region of the brain stem
extending from the pons above, it is continuous with the spinal cord below.
4. The word pons is derived from the Latin pons, which means, “bridge.” Using this information,
explain how pons is an appropriate term for the part of the brain it describes.
Answer
Pons is an appropriate term for the part of the brain it describes because the pons acts as a bridge
between two hemispheres of the cerebellum and between higher levels of the brain and the spinal
cord.
5. Discuss the structure of a neuron.
Answer
Structurally, a typical neuron consists of three main regions namely, the cell body, the dendrites and the
axon.
The cell body (soma) is a part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and many of the cell organelles. The
function of the cell body is to connect the dendrites and the axon.
The dendrites are many short projections extending from the cell body that receive signals called impulses
from sensory organs or other neuron and conduct impulses to the cell body.
The axon is a long projection arising from the cell body that carries the nerve impulse from the cell body
to other neurons and effectors.
At the end of the axon are terminal dendrites which involve neuron to neuron communication. The axon
is covered and protected by myelin sheath. Myelin sheath is a fatty material that wraps around the axon.
Myelin sheath is produced by the Schwann cell. The gap between two adjacent myelin sheaths is called
node of Ranvier.
6. Describe the chemical conditions within a neuron during resting potential and action potential.
Answer
• During resting potential, the outside of the neuron is positively charged due to the more sodium
ions than potassium ions outside the neuron, and inside of the neuron is negatively charged due to
more potassium ions than sodium ions inside the neuron.
• During action potential, the outside of the neuron is negatively charged due to the more potassium
ions than sodium ions outside the neuron, and inside of the neuron is positively charged due to more
sodium ions than potassium ions inside the neuron.
7. Explain how action potentials are transmitted from a neuron to another cell.
Answer
An action potential begins when a neuron receives a stimulus. The action potential travels down the axon
to the axon terminals (terminal dendrites). The axon terminals release neurotransmitters that transmit the
action potentials to another cell.
8. Describe the roles of the two main organs of the central nervous system.
Answer
• The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, the brain
controls our intelligence, creativity, emotion, memory, speech, learning, thoughts, movement of the
arms and legs, and the function of many organs within our body.
• The spinal cord transfers nervous information between the brain and other parts of the body except
the head region. It also controls the simple reflex actions.
9. Define the roles of four portions of the brain

Answer
• The cerebrum controls activities involved intelligence, memory, sense of responsibility, thinking,
reasoning, moral decision making, learning, planning, and problem solving. The cerebrum is also
responsible sensory perception such as perception of pain, temperature, sight, hearing, taste and
smell. It is also responsible the initiation, coordination and control of voluntary movement.
• The brain stem connects the higher levels of the brain and the spinal cord, controls autonomic
reflex activities such as respiration (breathing), cardiac function, salivation, vomiting, coughing,
sneezing, and swallowing. It also processes in visual and auditory information.
• The diencephalon controls the output of hormones from pituitary gland, the autonomic nervous
system, homeostasis, and emotional reactions. It also relays and redistributes impulses from most
parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex.
• The cerebellum controls and coordinates the movements of various groups of muscles ensuring
smooth, even, precise actions. It coordinates activities associated with the maintenance of posture,
balance and equilibrium.
10. Summarize the roles of sensory and motor divisions of peripheral nervous system.
Answer
• Sensory division of the peripheral nervous system carries sensory information from outside
and inside of the body to the central nervous system.
• Motor division of the peripheral nervous system carries motor information from central
nervous system to the effector organs such as muscles and glands throughout the body.
11. Relate the relationship between motor neurons, interneurons and sensory neurons.
Answer
• Sensory neurons get information about what is going on inside and outside of the body and
bring that information into the brain or the spinal cord.
• Motor neurons get information from the brain or spinal cord and convey commands to the
effector organs such as muscles and glands.
• Interneurons receive information from sensory neurons and transmit that information to the
motor neurons.
12. Describe the role of chemoreceptors in taste and smell.
Answer
• Chemoreceptors in the nose detect chemicals in the air and send the information to the olfactory
bulb in the brain.
• Chemoreceptors on the tongue detect different combinations of chemicals in food such as tastes
of sweet, sour, salty and bitter, and send this information to the brain.
13. List five different types of sensory receptors in the human body.
Answer
1. Photoreceptors
2. Mechanoreceptors
3. Chemoreceptors
4. Thermoreceptors
5. Nociceptors (pain receptors)
14. Identify the parts of the ear responsible for hearing and for balance.
Answer
Semi-circular canals are responsible for balance and Cochlea is responsible for hearing.
15. Compare how rods and cones respond to light.

Answer
Rods are light-sensitive cells that are excited by low levels of light but Cones are light-sensitive
cells that function in bright light and provide information about color to the brain.
16. Describe how the eye receives light stimulus and sends a signal to the brain.
Answer
Light first enters the eye through a transparent layer called cornea. The cornea focuses the light
through an opening called the pupil. From the pupil, the light then hits the lens which inverts the
image and projects it onto the retina. The retina contains numerous receptor cells called rods and
cones which generate and send nerve impulses to the brain via the optic nerve.
17. State the type of receptors that function in taste and smell.
Answer
The type of receptors that function in taste and smell are Chemoreceptors.
18. Explain the role of skin in sensing touch, temperature, and pain.
Answer
The skin acts as a sense organ because the layers of skin contain sensory receptors that detect
touch, temperature and pain.
19. State the types and roles of the peripheral nervous system
Answer
Functionally, there are two types of peripheral nervous system
1. Sensory division of the peripheral nervous system which carries sensory information from
outside and inside of the body to the central nervous system.
2. Motor division of the peripheral nervous system which carries motor information from
central nervous system to the effector organs such as muscles and glands throughout the body.
Anatomically, there are also two types of peripheral nervous system
1. Cranial nerves which are nerves arise from the brain and innervate areas in the head and face.
2. Spinal nerves which are nerves arise from the spinal cord and innervate the limbs and the
trunk.
20. Outline the diseases of the nervous system.

Answer
1. Dementia 4. Poliomyelitis
2. Alzheimer disease 5. Epilepsy
3. Bacterial meningitis 6. Stroke
CHAPTER TWO: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
LESSON SUMMARY
Endocrine glands
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands
Exocrine glands are duct glands that secrete substances through ducts to specific locations inside and
outside the body.
Hormones
Hormones are substances (chemical messengers) secreted by endocrine glands that act to regulate the
activity of other cells in the body.
Classification of hormones
1. Steroid and non-steroid hormones.
2. Hydrophilic and lipophilic hormones.
Difference between Steroid and non-steroid hormones
Steroid hormones non-steroid hormones
1. Made up of cholesterol. 1. Made up of amino acids.
2. Are soluble in lipids. 2. Are insoluble in lipids.
3. travel in the blood attached to transport proteins 3. can freely soluble in blood
4. Can diffuse through the plasma membrane 4. Cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane
5. They bind to a receptor in the cell 5. They bind to a surface receptor of the cell.
6. The hormone receptor complex bind to DNA to 6. The receptor activates an enzyme inside the cell
activate specific genes to initiate biochemical pathway.
7. Examples include: testosterone and progesterone 7. Examples include: Antidiuretic and calcitonin
Lipophilic hormones
Lipophilic hormones are fat-soluble hormones
Hydrophilic hormones
Hydrophilic hormones are water soluble hormones
Difference between lipophilic and hydrophilic hormones
No. Lipophilic hormones Hydrophilic hormones
1 Are fat soluble hormones Are water soluble hormones
Lipophilic hormones travel in the blood attached to Hydrophilic hormones can freely soluble in blood
2
transport proteins
Lipophilic hormones can pass through the Hydrophilic hormones cannot pass through the
3
membrane of a target cells membrane of a target cells
Lipophilic hormones bind to receptor proteins Hydrophilic hormones bind to receptor proteins
4 found in the nucleus of a target cells found on the membrane of a target cells
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is defined as a stable internal environment.
Feedback mechanism
Feedback mechanism is one in which the last step in a series of events controls the first.
The two types of feedback mechanisms
1. Negative feedback mechanism
2. Positive feedback mechanism
Negative feedback
Negative feedback is a type of feedback mechanisms in which the final step in a series inhibits the initial
signal in the series.
Positive feedback
Positive feedback is a type of feedback mechanisms in which the release of an initial hormone stimulates
release of other hormones that stimulate further release of the initial hormone.
Antagonistic hormones
Antagonistic hormones are hormones that their actions have opposite effects.
Major endocrine glands
1. Pituitary gland 6. Ovaries
2. Thyroid gland 7. Testes
3. Parathyroid glands 8. Pineal gland
4. Adrenal glands 9. Thymus gland
5. The pancreas
Pituitary gland
Pituitary gland is a small gland with the diameter of 1 cm that is located at the base of the hypothalamus.
Function of pituitary gland
The function of pituitary gland is to secrete a number of hormones that regulate and control a number of
other endocrine glands.
The two lobes (parts) of pituitary gland
1. Anterior pituitary gland
2. Posterior pituitary gland
Major hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
1. Growth hormone (GH)
2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
3. Prolactin (PRL)
4. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
5. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Major hormones secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin
Function of growth hormone (GH)
Growth hormone (GH) stimulates cell division and growth especially bone and muscular cells in
childhood and adolescence.
Function of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid gland to produce the thyroid hormones.
Function of Prolactin (PRL)
Prolactin (PRL) stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk in mammals.
Function of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in females
In females, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of ovarian follicles.
Function of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in males
In males, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of sperm.
Function of luteinizing hormone (LH) in females
Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries and
also stimulates the release of an egg from the ovary (ovulation).
Function of luteinizing hormone (LH) in males
Luteinizing hormone stimulates the testes to produce a group of male sex hormones known as androgens
such as testosterone.
Function of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce the steroid hormones
cortisol and aldosterone.
Function of Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
ADH stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys, and in doing so inhibits dieresis (urine production).
Functions of Oxytocin
Oxytocin stimulates milk ejection reflex during suckling or breastfeeding.
Oxytocin also stimulates uterine contractions in women during childbirth.
Function of pancreas
As endocrine gland the function of pancreas is to regulate the levels of sugar in the blood by secreting the
hormones insulin and glucagon.
Islets of Langerhans (Islands of Langerhans)
Islets of Langerhans are endocrine cells within the pancreas that are responsible for the release of
hormones that regulate the level of sugar in the blood.
Hormones secreted by the pancreas
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
The major types of Islets of Langerhans
1. Beta cells which secrete hormone Insulin
2. Alpha cells which secrete hormone glucagon
Function of Insulin
Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by stimulating body cells, especially muscles, to store or use it for
energy.
Function of Glucagon
Glucagon raises the blood sugar level by stimulating release of glucose into the bloodstream by liver cells.
Function of thyroid gland
The function of the thyroid gland is to secrete thyroid hormones which maintain normal heart rate, blood
pressure and temperature. The thyroid hormones also regulate body’s metabolic rate, growth and
development.
Hormones secreted by the thyroid gland
1. Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine or T4
2. Triiodothyronine or T3
3. Calcitonin
Function of thyroid hormones
Thyroid hormones maintain normal heart rate, blood pressure and temperature. The thyroid hormones
also regulate body’s metabolic rate, growth and development.
Function of calcitonin
Calcitonin lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating the uptake of calcium into bones.
Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid glands are four small glands attached to the thyroid gland that secrete parathyroid hormone.
Function of parathyroid glands
The function of the parathyroid glands is to secrete parathyroid hormone which increases blood calcium
levels by stimulating the bones to release calcium.
Function of parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels by stimulating the bones to release calcium.
Function of adrenal glands
The function of the adrenal glands is to secrete hormones which orchestrate or prepares the nervous system’s
reaction to stress and its “fight or flight” response to danger, regulate metabolism and maintain salt and water
balance in blood.
Two portions (layers) of adrenal gland
1. Inner portion (layer) which is called adrenal medulla
2. Outer portion (layer) which is called adrenal cortex
Function of adrenal medulla
The function of adrenal medulla is to secrete the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine which
orchestrate the nervous system’s reaction to stress and its “fight or flight” response to danger.
Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla
1. Epinephrine (Adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)
Function of epinephrine and norepinephrine
Epinephrine and norepinephrine orchestrate or prepares the nervous system’s reaction to stress and its
“fight or flight” response to danger.
Function of adrenal cortex
The function of adrenal cortex is to secrete hormones which regulate response to stress, metabolism and
maintain salt and water balance in blood.
Hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex
1. Cortisol
2. Aldosterone
Function of cortisol
Cortisol promotes the production of glucose from proteins making usable energy available to cells.
Function of aldosterone
Aldosterone helps raise blood pressure and volume by stimulating salt and water retention by the kidneys.
Gonads
Gonads are gamete-producing organs that also produce a group of steroid sex hormones.
Types of gonads
1. Ovaries
2. Testes
Function of gonads
The function of gonads is to produce gametes and a group of sex hormones.
Diabetes
Diabetes is a disease that results from the body not producing enough insulin or not properly using insulin.
Treatment of type 1 diabetes
Treatment for these patients consists of exogenous insulin injections.
Treatment of type 2 diabetes
People with type 2 diabetes often control their diabetes through diet and exercise.
Abnormalities (Disorders) in thyroid activity
1. Hyperthyroidism
2. Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Overproduction of thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism
1. Weight loss
2. High blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature
Treatment of hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism can be treated with medication or by surgical removal of part of thyroid gland.
Hypothyroidism
Thyroid-hormones deficiency is known as hypothyroidism
Symptoms of hypothyroidism
1. Growth retardation
2. Lethargy
3. Weight gain
4. Low heart rate and body temperature
Treatment of hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism can be treated with supplementary thyroxine. Hyperthyroidism can also be treated by
frequent consumption of seafood or iodized table salt.
Growth hormone disorders
1. Hyposecretion of growth hormone
2. Hypersecretion of growth hormone
When growth hormone deficiency (GHD) occurs?
Growth hormone deficiency (GHD) occurs when the pituitary gland does not produce enough growth
hormone.
Symptoms of children with GHD
1. Shorter than their peers
2. Have younger, rounder faces
3. They may also be chubby
4. Have “baby fat” around the abdomen
Cause of dwarfism
Dwarfism can cause too low growth hormone
Cause of gigantism
Gigantism can cause too much growth hormone
Acromegaly
Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder that develops when your pituitary gland produces too much growth
hormone during adulthood.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the correct answer from the following.
1. The graph shows blood glucose levels over a period of time. Which hormone might have
caused a sudden surge as indicated by the arrow?
a. antidiuretic hormone
b. growth hormone
c. glucagon
d. Insulin
2. Which hormones are released from nerve cells rather than endocrine glands?
a. antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin
b. growth hormone and thyroxine
c. insulin and glucagon
d. norepinephrine and epinephrine
3. Which pairs of hormones have opposite effects?

a. calcitonin and parathyroid hormone
b. epinephrine and norepinephrine
c. growth hormone and thyroxine
d. aldosterone and cortisol
4. Endocrine glands
a. function only after puberty
b. function only before puberty
c. release products through ducts
d. release products into the bloodstream
5. What happens after food is eaten? Study the graph below to answer this question.
a. Blood glucose level increase

b. Blood glucose level decrease.
c. Blood glucose levels remain the same
d. Blood glucose levels decrease and then increase
6. Which hormones are primarily responsible for the changes in blood glucose levels about 2
hours after food is eaten? Study the graph below to answer this question.
a. insulin
b. estrogen and progesterone
c. epinephrine and norepinephrine
d. aldosterone and parathyroid hormones
7. Steroid hormones
a. can diffuse through the membrane without a carrier
b. have a direct effect on gene expression
c. bind to membrane receptors
d. both a and b are correct
8. An organ is classified as part of the endocrine system if it

a. produces cholesterol
b. is capable of converting amino acids into hormones
c. has intracellular receptors for hormones
d. secretes hormones into the circulatory system
9. Complete the following analogy:
neurotransmitters: nervous system: hormones:
a. feedback system
b. endocrine system
c. circulatory system
d. respiratory system
10. Which of the following is true about lipophilic hormones?

a. They are freely soluble in the blood
b. They require a transport protein in the bloodstream
c. They cannot enter their target cells
d. They are rapidly deactivated after binding to their receptors
Direct Questions
Q2: Answer all of the following questions.
1. How do the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland interact to control the release of some of
the hormones in the endocrine system?
Answer
The hypothalamus secretes releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones that stimulate or inhibit
production of hormones from the pituitary gland which in turn regulate the secretions of other
endocrine glands.
2. List six major endocrine glands and the function of these glands.
Answer
1. The pituitary gland: The function of pituitary gland is to secrete a number of hormones that regulate
and control a number of other endocrine glands.
2. The pancreas: As endocrine gland the function of pancreas is to regulate the levels of sugar in the
blood by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon.
3. The thyroid gland: The function of the thyroid gland is to secrete thyroid hormones which maintain
normal heart rate, blood pressure and temperature. The thyroid hormones also regulate body’s
metabolic rate, growth and development.
4. Gonads: The function of gonads is to produce gametes and a group of sex hormones.
5. The parathyroid glands: The function of the parathyroid glands is to secrete parathyroid hormone
which increases blood calcium levels by stimulating the bones to release calcium.
6. The adrenal glands: The function of adrenal glands is to secrete the hormones epinephrine and
norepinephrine which orchestrate the nervous system’s reaction to stress and its “fight or flight”
response to danger, regulate metabolism and maintain salt and water balance in blood.
3. How do feedback mechanisms help maintain homeostasis?

Answer
To maintain homeostasis, feedback mechanisms control hormone secretion.
4. How do negative feedback mechanisms differ from positive feedback mechanisms?

Answer
In negative feedback, the final step in a series of events inhibits the initial signal in the series.
In positive feedback, release of an initial hormone stimulates release of other hormones, which
stimulate further release of the initial hormone.
5. Compare the effects of glucagon and insulin on blood glucose levels.

Answer
Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by stimulating body cells, especially muscles, to store glucose or
use it for energy.
Glucagon increases the blood sugar level by stimulating release of glucose into the bloodstream by
liver cells.
6. Name four functions of hormones.

Answer
1. Maintain homeostasis
2. Regulate growth and development
3. Promote sexual maturation and facilitate reproduction
4. Regulate cellular metabolism
7. How do endocrine glands differ from exocrine glands?

Answer
Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands are duct glands that secrete substances through ducts to specific locations inside and
outside the body.
8. Explain how most amino-acid based hormones affect their target cells.
Answer
Amino-acid based hormones bind to receptors found on the plasma membrane of a target cells. Once
the hormone binds to the receptor, the receptor, the receptor activates an enzyme found inside the
plasma membrane. This usually initiates a biochemical pathway, eventually causing the target cells to
produce the desired response.
9. Explain how steroid and thyroid hormones affect their target cells.
Answer
Steroid and thyroid hormones can diffuse through the plasma membrane of a target cell. Once inside
the target cell, they bind to a receptor in the cell. The hormone and the receptor that are bound together
bind to DNA in the nucleus, which eventually causing the target cells to initiate protein synthesis.
10. Explain why the pancreas is considered to be both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.
Answer
The pancreas acts as both an exocrine and endocrine gland. As an exocrine gland, the pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct. As an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes insulin and
glucagon hormone that regulate the level of sugar in the blood.
11. Why pituitary gland is called the master gland?

Answer
The pituitary gland is called the master gland because it controls the activities of the other endocrine
glands.
12. Describe the conditions of gigantism and dwarfism, their causes and treatment methods.
Answer
Dwarfism is caused by too low growth hormone. Dwarfism is treated with regular injections of
synthetic human growth hormone.
Gigantism is caused by too much growth hormone. Treatment of gigantism is by surgically remove
pituitary tumor. In cases when surgery is not an option, drugs which reduce growth hormone release
such as somatostatin analogs is used to treat gigantism.
13. Identify and describe the type of feedback mechanism operating in the diagram shown below.
Answer
Negative feedback mechanism
CHAPTER THREE: THE SKELETAL, MUSCULAR AND
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEMS
LESSON SUMMARY
The two main types of skeleton in animals
1. Exoskeleton
2. Endoskeleton
Exoskeleton
Exoskeleton is a rigid, hard external skeleton that surrounds the body, protects the internal organs and
provides attachment sites for the muscles.
Endoskeleton
Endoskeleton is a rigid internal skeleton that forms the body’s framework and offers surfaces for muscle
attachment.
The two parts (divisions) of the human skeletal system
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton
Axial skeleton
Axial skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of the skull, the vertebral column,
the ribs and the sternum.
Appendicular Skeleton
Appendicular skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of the bones of the
shoulders, arms, hands, hips, legs and feet.
Appendicular skeleton is the part (division) of the skeletal system that consists of the bones of the
limbs and the supporting bones (Pectoral and pelvic girdles) that connect the limbs to the trunk.
The skull
The skull is a bony structure which encases and protects the brain and gives form to the head and face.
Function of cranial bones
Cranial bones form the hard protective outer covering called the cranium which encases and protects the
brain.
Function of facial bones
Facial bones protect and support the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tracts.
Foramen magnum
Foramen magnum is a large oval opening found at the base of the skull.
Names of cranial bones
Cranial bones are 8 in number.
a. Parietal bone (2) d. Frontal bone (1)
b. Temporal bone (2) e. Ethmoid bone (1)
c. Occipital bone (1) f. Sphenoid bone (1)
Function of vertebral column (Vertebrae)
1. The vertebral column provides a column of support, bearing the weight of the head, neck, and
trunk, and ultimately transferring the weight to the lower limbs.
2. The vertebral column protects the spinal cord and helps maintain an upright body position.
3. The vertebral column also connects the lower and upper parts of the body.
Parts of the vertebral column
1. Cervical vertebrae 4. Sacrum
2. Thoracic vertebrae 5. Coccyx
3. Lumbar vertebrae
The Thoracic cage (ribcage)
The thoracic cage is formed by the sternum, twelve pairs of ribs and the twelve thoracic vertebrae.
Function of thoracic cage (ribcage)
The thoracic cage (ribcage) encloses the thoracic cavity protecting delicate organs such as the heart and
lungs.
The sternum
The sternum or the breast bone is a flat bone that can be felt just under the skin in the middle of the chest.
Ribs
Ribs are long, curved, flattened bones and each of us, regardless of sex, has 12 pairs of ribs.
The three types of ribs
1. True ribs 2. False ribs 3. Floating ribs
True ribs
True ribs are the first seven pairs of ribs that articulate directly with the sternum.
False ribs
False ribs are the 8th, 9th and 10th pairs of ribs that articulate indirectly with the sternum.
Floating ribs
Floating ribs are the lowest two pairs of ribs that do not join the sternum at all.
Function of pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle connects the upper limbs to the axial skeleton.
Function of pelvic girdle
The pelvic girdle connects the lower limbs to the axial skeleton.
The clavicle (Collarbone)
Clavicle (collarbone) is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum
(breastbone).
The scapula (shoulder bone)
The scapula (shoulder bone) is the bone that connects the humerus with the clavicle.
The two parts of limbs
The limbs consist of
1. Upper limbs (arms)
2. Lower limbs (legs)
Types of bones
1. Long bones (Femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, ulna and radius)
2. Short bones (carpal bones and tarsal bones)
3. Irregular bones (Vertebrae and some skull bones)
4. Flat bones (sternum, ribs, and most skull bones)
5. Sesamoid bones (patella)
Bone
Bone is a strong and durable connective tissue that forms the skeleton of a vertebrate.
Collagen
Collagen is the main structural protein in extracellular matrix of bone that is responsible for its flexibility.
The two tissues of the bone
1. Compact bone 2. Spongy bone
Haversian systems ( haversian canals) or Osteons
Haversian systems (haversian canals) or Osteons are tube-like structures which contain nerves and
blood vessels that provide oxygen and nutrients to osteocytes.
Osteocytes
Osteocytes are living bone cells.
The two types of bone marrow
1. Red bone marrow
2. Yellow bone marrow
Function of red bone marrow
Red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells and platelets
Where is found the red bone marrow?
The red bone marrow is found in the humerus bone of the arm, the femur bone of the leg, the sternum
and ribs, the vertebrae and the pelvis.
Ossification
The formation of bone from osteoblasts is called ossification.
Osteoblasts
Osteoblasts are specialized cells that form or synthesize bone.
Osteoblasts are specialized cells that are responsible for the formation, growth and repair of bones.
Cartilage
Cartilage is an elastic supportive tissue that can withstand constant pressure and friction which covers and
protects the ends of bones at the joints.
Chondrocytes
Chondrocytes are cartilage cells that produce large amounts of chondrin and collagen protein.
Ligaments
Ligaments are tough bands of connective tissue that attach one bone to another.
Joint
Joint is the place where two or more bones meet.
The three major kinds of joints
There are three major kinds of joints
1. Fixed joints
2. Semi-movable joints
3. Movable joints
Fixed joints
Fixed joints are joints that prevent movement. Fixed joints are found in the skull.
Semi-movable joints
Semi-movable joints are joints that permit only limited movement. Semi-movable joints are found in the
vertebral column and the rib-cage.
Movable joints
Movable joints are joints that enable the body to perform a wide range of movements and activities.
Types of movable joints
1. Hinge joints 4. Saddle joints
2. Ball-and- socket joints 5. Gliding joints
3. Pivot joints
Hinge joints
Hinge joints are joints found in the elbows, knees and ankles and allow only bending and straightening the
limb.
Ball-and-socket joints
Ball-and-socket joints are shoulder joints, which enable you to move your arms up, down, forward and
backward, as well as to rotate them in a complete circle.
Pivot joints
Pivot joints are joints formed by the top two vertebrae of your spine which allows you to turn your head
from side to side.
Saddle joints
Saddle joints are joints found at the base of each thumb, allow you to rotate your thumbs and help you
grasp objects with your hands.
Gliding joints
Gliding joints are joints allow bones to slide over one another.
Function of synovial fluid
Synovial fluid helps protect the ends of bones from damage by friction.
Functions of the skeletal system
1. The skeletal system Supports the body
2. The skeletal system protects internal organs
3. The skeletal system allows movements
4. The skeletal system responsible the formation of blood cells.
5. The skeletal system acts as a reservoir that store mineral salts such as calcium and
phosphorus.
Health complications that affect the skeletal system
Bone fracture
Osteoporosis
Arthritis
Types of bone fracture
Simple fracture
Compound fracture
Stress fracture.
Simple fracture
Simple fracture is when a bone breaks but does not come through the ski.
Compound fracture
Compound fracture is a fracture in which the bone protrudes through the skin.
Stress fracture
Stress fracture is a thin crack in the bone.
Main steps in the repair of broken bone
1. Fracture 2. Callus formation 3. Remodeling
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by the decrease of bone density, mass and strength that
causes bones to become weak and brittle.
Arthritis
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints
The two common forms of arthritis
1. Osteoarthritis 2. Rheumatoid arthritis
Types of muscles based on their structure
1. Skeletal muscles 2. Smooth muscles 3. Cardiac muscles
Types of muscles according to their function
1. Voluntary muscles 2. Involuntary muscles
Tendons
Tendons are tough fibrous connective tissues that connect muscle to bone.
Flexor muscle
Flexor muscle is a muscle that bends a joint. Biceps muscle is a flexor muscle.
Extensor muscle
Extensor muscle is a muscle that straightens the limb. Triceps muscle is an extensor muscle.
Slow-twitch muscle fibers
Slow-twitch muscle fibers are muscle fibers that contract slowly.
Fast-twitch muscle fibers
Fast-twitch muscle fibers are muscle fibers that contract quickly.
Comparison between slow-twitch fibers and fast-twitch fibers
Slow-twitch fibers Fast-twitch fibers
They have many capillaries (blood vessels). They have few capillaries (blood vessels).
They have numerous mitochondria. They have small number of mitochondria.
They have a high concentration of myoglobin They have a low concentration of myoglobin
pigment. pigment.
They contract slowly They contract fast
They are resistant to fatigue They fatigue quickly
They can respire aerobically They can respire anaerobically
They use oxygen They use glycogen
They have high concentration of aerobic They have high concentration of glycolytic
respiratory enzymes. enzymes.
Health complications of muscles
1. Muscle cramps 3. Muscle strain
2. Muscle fatigue 4. Muscle tearing
Muscle cramp
Muscle cramp is a state of sudden and involuntary contractions in one or a group of muscles.
Muscle fatigue
Muscle fatigue is the physiological inability of a muscle to contract.
Functions of the integumentary system
The integumentary system is a system consists of the skin, hair, nails and glands that acts as a barrier to
protect the body from the outside world. It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease,
eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature.
Four types of skin tissues
1. Epithelial tissue 3. Muscle tissue
2. Connective tissue 4. Nerve tissue
The two main layers of skin
1. Epidermis 2. Dermis
Epidermis
Epidermis is the most superficial layer of the skin and is composed of stratified keratinized squamous
epithelium.
Dermis
Dermis is the inner layer of skin and it is composed of living cells and specialized structures such as
sensory receptors, blood vessels, muscle fibers, hair follicles, and glands.
Melanocytes
Melanocytes are cells in the skin that produce melanin.
Function of melanin
Melanin is responsible for skin color, it also helps to protect the skin from harmful effects of ultraviolet
rays in sunlight.
Main functions of the skin
1. Protection 4. Sensation
2. Regulation of body temperature 5. Excretion
3. Formation of vitamin D
The two main exocrine glands of skin
1. Sweat glands
2. Sebaceous glands (oil glands)
Function of sweat glands
Sweat glands release sweat that is composed of water, salts and sometimes urea.
Function of Sebaceous glands (oil glands)
Sebaceous glands (oil glands) secrete a fatty substance called sebum.
Function of sebum
The sebum coats the surface of the skin and shafts of the hairs, preventing excess water loss and softening
the skin and hair. Sebum is also toxic to some bacteria.
Structure of the hairs
Hairs are made of a tough protein called keratin. Hairs grow from hair follicles that anchor each hair into
the skin. At the base of the follicle is a cluster of cells called hair bulb. In the hair bulb, living cells divide
and grow to build the hair shaft.
Hair shaft
Hair shaft is the part of the hair above the skin.
Hair root
Hair root is the part of the hair inside the skin.
Structure of the nails
Nails are made of a tough protein called keratin. Structurally, the nail consists of several parts including
the nail root, the nail plate, the nail bed, lunula, cuticle and free edge.
The nail root
The nail root is the portion of the nail that is embedded in the skin.
The nail plate
The nail plate is the exposed part that has grown out from the nail bed.
The nail bed
The nail bed is the skin beneath the nail plate.
Lunula
Lunula is the place where each nail begins growing.
Cuticle
Cuticle is the part of the skin covering at the base of the nails.
Free edge
Free edge is the end of the nail plate.
Skin disorders
The diseases and disorders of skin include:
a. Eczema d. Psoriasis g. Hives
b. Acne e. cold sores h. Warts
c. Seborrheic dermatitis. f. impetigo
Eczema
Eczema is an allergic reaction that manifests as dry, itchy patches of skin that resembles rashes.
Symptoms of Eczema
Dry and itchy patches of skin that resemble rashes.
Acne
Acne is a skin disturbance that typically occurs on areas of skin when ducts of oil glands become clogged
with excessive amounts of sebum, dead cells, and bacteria.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the correct answer from the following.
1. Exoskeletons and endoskeleton differ in that

a. An exoskeleton is a rigid, and an endoskeleton is flexible.
b. Endoskeletons are found only in vertebrates.
c. Exoskeletons are composed of calcium, and endoskeletons are built from chitin.
d. Exoskeletons are external to the soft tissues, and endoskeletons are internal.
2. How can osteocytes remain alive within bone?

a. Bones are composed of only dead or dormant cells.
b. Haversian canals are bone structures that contain blood vessels that provide materials for the
osteocytes.
c. Osteocytes have membrane extensions that protrude from bone and allow them to exchange
materials with the surrounding fluids.
d. Bones are hollow in the middle and the low pressure there draws fluid from the blood that
nourishes the osteocytes.
3. Where would you find the type of joints shown below?
a. hip c. elbow
b. Vertebrae d. Skull
4. Which is not a function of bone?
a. Production of vitamin body
b. Internal support
c. Protection of internal organs
d. Storage of calcium
5. What is the characteristic of the portion of the bone indicated by the arrow?
a. It contains no living cells

b. It contains bone marrow.
c. It is the only type of bone tissue in long bones
d. It is made of overlapping osteon systems
6. Which set of terms is mismatched?

a. Cranium −─ sutures
b. Wrist ── pivot joint
c. Shoulder ── ball-and-socket joint
d. Knee ── hinge joint
7. Which is not part of the axial skeleton?

a. Skull c. Hip bone
b. Ribs d. Vertebral column
8. Which is part of the appendicular skeleton?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
9. The main structural protein in the extracellular matrix of bone that is responsible for its
flexibility is
a. Osteocyte c. Haversian canal
b. Collagen d. Osteon
10. Which type of bone is classified as irregular?

a. Leg bones c. Vertebrae
b. Skull d. Wrist bones
11. How do the muscles move your hand through space?
a. By contraction
b. By attaching to two bones across a joint
c. By lengthening
d. Both a & b are correct.
12. Which of the following statements best describes the sliding filament mechanism of muscle
contraction?
a. Actin and myosin filaments do not shorten, but rather, slide past each other.
b. Actin and myosin filaments shorten and slide past each other.
c. As they slide past each other, actin filaments shorten, but myosin filaments do not shorten.
d. As they slide past each other, myosin filaments shorten, but actin filaments do not shorten.
13. Which requires ATP?

a. Muscle contaction
b. Muscle relaxation
c. Both muscle contraction and relaxation
d. Neither muscle contraction nor relaxation
14. Which is the characteristic of fast-twitch muscle fibers?

a. They contain more myoglobin than slow-twitch fibers?
b. They are resistant to fatigue.
c. They have fewer mitochondria than slow-twitch fibers
d. They require high amounts of oxygen in order to function.
15. What muscles shown below are classified as voluntary muscles?
a. The muscle type shown in A c. the muscle type shown in C

b. The muscle type shown in B d. All muscles.
16. An injection is administered through the skin using a hypodermic needle. Identify the first
integumentary structure through which the needle will pass.
a. Reticular layer
b. Epidermis
c. Papillary layer
d. Hypodermis
17. Sebaceous glands are located in all of the following areas, EXCEPT the
a. Palms and soles
b. Scalp
c. Abdominal region
d. Thoracic region
18. The epidermis is composed of which of the following tissues?
a. Stratified columnar epithelial tissue
b. Keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue
c. Dense irregular connective tissue
d. Areolar connective tissue
19. What is the primary function of melanin?
a. To produce vitamin D
b. To waterproof the skin
c. To produce sebum
d. To provide protection against the sun’s UV rays
20. Which of the following is most important in determining skin coloration?

a. Collagen
b. Melanin
c. Carotene
d. Keratin
21. Which of the following is NOT a function of the skin?

a. Respiratory gas exchange
b. Preventing unnecessary water loss
c. Excretion
d. Regulation of body temperature
Use the diagram below to answer question 22.
22. Which tissue type is responsible for the standing the hair upright?
a. A c. C
b. B d. D
23. When are blackheads formed?

a. When sebaceous glands become clogged
b. When there is an excessive of keratin produced
c. When grooves in the epidermis gather dirt
d. When hair follicles grow inward rather than outward
24. How does the skin regulate body temperature?

a. By increasing sweat production
b. By retaining water
c. By producing vitamin D
d. By regulating fat content in the epidermis
25. Which are not found in the dermis?

a. Muscles c. Nerve cells
b. Sweat and oil glands d. Fat cells
Direct Questions
Q2: Answers of direct questions
1. Differentiate between
a. Axial and appendicular skeletons
b. Bone and cartilage
c. Exoskeleton and endoskeleton
Answer
a. Axial skeleton is a part of skeleton that consists of the skull, ribs sternum and vertebral column.
Appendicular skeleton is a part of skeleton that consists of the bones of the shoulders, arms,
hands, hips, legs and feet.
Appendicular skeleton is a part of skeleton that consists of the limbs and girdles (pectoral and
pelvic girdles) that connect the limbs to axial Skeleton.
b. Bone is a strong and durable connective tissue that forms the skeleton of a vertebrate.
Cartilage is an elastic supportive tissue that can withstand constant pressure and friction which
covers and protects the ends of bones at the joints.
c. Exoskeleton is a rigid, hard external skeleton that surrounds the body, protects the internal organs
and provides attachment sites for the muscles. Endoskeleton is a rigid internal skeleton that forms
the body’s framework and offers surfaces for muscle attachment.
2. Describe the shapes of bones and bone formation.

Answer
Bones can be classified into five types based on their shape: long, short, flat, irregular and
sesamoid bones.
During fetal development, cells in fetal cartilage develop into bone forming cells called
osteoblasts that synthesize the bone. The process of bone formation is called ossification or
osteogenesis.
3. Draw a labeled diagram of the structure of a long bone. Answer
4. Identify the types of joints with respect to form and function. Answer
There are three types of joints in the functional classification:
1. Fixed joints (Immovable joints) are joints that prevent movement.
2. Semi-movable joints are joints that permit only limited movement
3. Movable joints are joints that enable the body to perform a wide range of movements and
activities.
5. Outline the functions of skeletal system. Answer

1. The skeletal system Supports the body
2. The skeletal system protects internal organs
3. The skeletal system allows movements
4. The skeletal system responsible the formation of blood cells.
5. The skeletal system acts as a reservoir that store mineral salts such as calcium and
phosphorus.
6. Describe arthritis. What are the two most common forms of arthritis? And which type of
arthritis is not related to age?
Answer
Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. The two common forms of arthritis are Osteoarthritis
and Rheumatoid arthritis. The type of arthritis that is not related to age is Rheumatoid
arthritis.
7. For healthy bones, sun exposure is advised, justify that.

Answer
Sunlight causes the body to make its own vitamin D, which is crucial for strength of the bones by
facilitating absorption of calcium.
8. What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a bone disease characterized by the decrease of bone density, mass and strength
that causes bones to become weak and brittle.
9. What is the significance of synovial fluids?

Answer
Synovial fluid is a lubricating substance which helps protect the ends of bones from damage by
friction.
10. What are the major kinds of joints in the human body?
Answers
The major kinds of joints found in human body are
1. Fixed joints 2. Semi-movable joints 3. Movable joints
11. Define ossification?

The formation of bone from osteoblasts is called ossification.
12. Compare between the types of muscles with respect to form and function.
Answer
There are three types of muscles based on their structure.
1. Cardiac muscles are muscles located in the walls of the heart, appear striated, and are under
involuntary control.
2. Smooth muscles are muscles located in the walls of visceral organs except the heart, they are
not striated in appearance, and are also under involuntary control.
3. Skeletal muscles are muscles attached to the bones (skeleton), appear striated and are under
voluntary control.
Three are two types of muscles according to their function:
1. Voluntary muscles: are muscles that their movement is under conscious control.
2. Involuntary muscles: are muscles that their movement is not under conscious control.
13. Describe microscopic structure of striated muscle fibers.

Answer
The microscopic structure of striated muscle fibers is sarcomere.
14. Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction or the sliding filament theory.
Answer
When a nerve impulse stimulates a muscle to contract, the myosin filaments’ heads attach to the
actin filaments. The myosin heads then bend, pulling the actin filaments. The myosin head then let
go, return back into their original position, attach to a new point on the actin filament, and pull
again. This action shortens the sarcomere. The synchronized shortening of sarcomeres causes the
whole muscle to contract.
15. Give an account of the common muscle injuries inflicted on football players.
Answer
1. Hamstring strains 3. Rotator cuff tear
2. Quadriceps contusion 4. Muscle cramps
16. Differentiate between fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscles.
Answer
Slow-twitch muscle fibers are muscle fibers that contract slowly. Fast-twitch muscle fibers
are muscle fibers that contract quickly.
17. Contrast the functions of flexors and extensors.
Answer
Flexor muscle is a muscle that bends a joint (limb), while Extensor muscle is a muscle that
straightens a joint (limb).
18. What causes muscles to become fatigued? And why do you think the heart muscle never
suffers from fatigue?
Answer
Muscle fatigue is caused by a relative depletion of ATP. Because, cardiac muscle resists fatigue
so well because it has more mitochondria.
19. Explain briefly the structure and function of the skin.

Answer
Structurally, the skin consists of two layers: epidermis which is the most superficial layer of the
skin and dermis which is the inner layer of skin. The skin is composed of four types of tissues:
epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.
Functionally, the skin has five main functions which are protection, regulation of body
temperature, formation of vitamin D, sensation and excretion.
20. Describe the derivatives of skin
Answer
The main derivatives of skin are sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair, nails, claws, hooves and
horns.
21. Identify two types of glands found in the skin, and describe their functions.
Answer
1. Sweat glands release sweat that is composed of water, salts and sometimes urea.
2. Sebaceous glands (oil glands) secrete a fatty substance called sebum.
22. Describe the structure of nails and hairs.
Answer
Both the nails and hairs are made of a tough protein called keratin. Hairs grow from hair follicles
that anchor each hair into the skin. At the base of the follicle is a cluster of cells called hair bulb
which divide and grow to build the hair shaft.
Structurally, the nail consists of several parts including the nail root, the nail plate, the nail bed,
lunula, cuticle and free edge.
23. Recognize the diseases and disorders of integumentary system
Answer
The diseases and disorders of integumentary system include
a. Eczema e. Cold sores
b. Acne f. Impetigo
c. Seborrheic dermatitis g. Hives
d. Psoriasis h. Warts
24. Identify the substance that prevents the hair and skin from drying out, and the gland where
this substance is produced.
Answer
The substance that prevents the hair and skin from drying out is sebum. The gland which produces
sebum is sebaceous gland (oil gland).
CHAPTER FOUR: THE GENETIC MATERIAL AND PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS
LESSON SUMMARY
The notable experiments to discover DNA
Griffith
Avery and his assistants.
Hershey and chase
The two main components of the chromosome
The chromosome is made up of DNA and histone proteins.
Nucleosome
Nucleosome is a group of eight histone proteins with a DNA molecule.
DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids made up of structural units
called nucleotides that are linked together by covalent bond.
Nucleotides
Nucleotides are building (structural) units of nucleic acids.
Components (parts) of the nucleotide
1. Five carbon sugar (pentose sugar)
2. Phosphate group (phosphate molecule)
3. Nitrogenous bases (organic bases)
Bonds that held the DNA together
1. Nucleotides are held together by phosphodiester bond.
2. The two strands bind with each other by hydrogen bonds.
Ribose sugar
Ribose sugar is a type of sugar which is found in the structure of RNA
Deoxyribose sugar
Deoxyribose sugar is a type of sugar which is found in the structure of DNA.
Nitrogenous bases of DNA
1. Adenine (A) 2. Guanine (G) 3. Cytosine (C) 4. Thymine (T)
Nitrogenous bases of RNA
1. Adenine (A) 2. Guanine (G) 3. Cytosine (C) 4. Uracil (U)
Types of RNA
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfere RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Importance of Nucleic acid DNA
1. DNA is the main component of the chromosome
2. DNA is responsible for determining the inherited traits and its transmission from one generation to
another.
3. DNA also regulates all vital activities of cells through what is known as genes.
The Gene
The gene is part of the DNA, which has a special sequence of nitrogenous bases to represent a specific
trait, and has a specific location on the chromosome.
The DNA replication stages
The process of DNA replication occurs in three stages
1. Unwinding the double helix by helicase enzyme.
2. Linking of nitrogenous bases in pairs by DNA polymerase
3. Reconnecting the chain by ligase enzyme.
Function of helicase enzyme
Helicase enzyme moves along the DNA double helix, breaking the torsions and separating the two chains.
Function of DNA polymerase enzyme
DNA polymerase enzyme binds the new nucleotides with older chains as a complementary.
The importance of DNA replication
1. Maintain the survival and continuity of the organism.
2. The quantity and quality of the genetic material of an organism are preserved.
Mutation
Mutation is a sudden change in the genetic material that controls certain characteristics, which may result
in a change in these characteristics.
Mutagens
Mutagens are substance such as chemicals or radiations which causes mutations.
The two types of mutations
1. Chromosomal mutations 2. Gene mutations
Chromosomal mutations
Chromosomal mutations are mutations involve changes in whole chromosome set, chromosome number
or parts of chromosomes.
Gene mutations
Gene mutations are mutations due to changes in the structure of the gene.
Types of gene mutations
1. Deletion 3. Insertion
2. Duplication 4. Substitution
Central dogma
DNA transcription mRNA translation protein
Protein synthesis
Protein synthesis is the synthesis of proteins based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA.
Function of Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic “message” from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes in the
cytosol.
Function of Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is an RNA that is part of the structure of ribosomes.
Function of Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an RNA which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes.
Stages of protein synthesis
The process of protein synthesis occurs in two stages:
1. Transcription 2. Translation
Transcription
Transcription is the process by which the genetic instructions in a specific gene are transcribed or
“rewritten” into an RNA molecule.
Three stages of transcription
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
Primary mRNA (Pre-mRNA)
Primary mRNA (Pre-mRNA) is the first mRNA that is produced from transcription.
RNA processing
RNA processing is the process by which primary mRNA is modified and converted it into mature RNA.
Three steps of RNA processing
1. Capping: is adding of a modified form of a guanine (G) nucleotide onto the 5’ end.
2. Polyadenylation: is adding of 50-250 more adenine (A) nucleotides onto the 3’ end.
3. Splicing: is the removing of introns and rejoining of exons.
Introns (non-coding regions)
Introns (non-coding regions) are regions of DNA or RNA that do not code for proteins
Exons (coding regions)
Exons (coding regions) are regions of DNA or RNA that code for proteins
The genetic code
The genetic code is a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA and RNA that determines the amino-acid
sequence of proteins.
The codon
The codon is triple bases or nucleotides of the mRNA.
The anticodon
The anticodon is a sequence of three nucleotides that is complementary to the codon in a messenger RNA
(mRNA).
Translation
Translation is the process of converting the information of mRNA (codons) into a sequence of amino-
acids in the process of protein synthesis.
Three stages of translation
1. Initiation
2. Elongation
3. Termination
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the correct answer of the following.
1. For which of the following is DNA responsible?
a. Directing RNA to make lipids
b. Directing RNA to produce glucose
c. Encoding information for making proteins
d. Encoding information for changing the genetic code
2. Where is RNA found?

a. Only in proteins c. Only in the cytoplasm
b. Only in the nucleus d. In the nucleus and cytoplasm
3. What is the basic unit of DNA called?

a. Sugar c. Phosphate
b. Nucleotide d. Nucleic acid
4. Which of the following nucleic acids is involved in translation?

a. DNA only c. DNA and mRNA
b. mRNA only d. mRNA and tRNA
5. Within each organism, which nucleotides are found in similar percentage?

a. A and T, G and C c. A and C, G and U
b. A and C, G and T d. A and G, T and U
6. Which of the following is NOT a component of DNA?

a. The pyrimidine uracil c. The purine adenine
b. Five-carbon sugars d. Phosphate groups
7. The basic mechanism of DNA replication is semi-conservative with two new molecules,
a. Each with new strands.
b. One with all new strands and one with all old strands
c. Each with one new and one old strand
d. Each with a mixture of old and new strands.
8. The bonds that hold two complementary strands of DNA together are
a. Hydrogen bonds
b. Peptide bonds
c. Ionic bonds
d. Phosphodiester bonds
9. If one strand of DNA is 5’ ATCGTTAAGCGAGTCA 3’, then the complementary strand

will be:
a. 3’ TAGCAATTCGCTCAGT 5’ c. 5’ TGACTCGCTTAACGAT 3’
b. 5’ ACTGAGCGAATTGCTA 3’ d. 5’ ATCGTTAAGCGAGTCA 3’
10. Pre-mRNA contains which of the following?
a. Exons only c. Both introns and exons
b. Introns only d. Neither introns nor exons
11. In the genetic code, one codon
a. Consists of three bases.
b. Specifies a single amino acid
c. Specifies more than one amino acid.
d. Both a and b are correct
12. An anticodon would be found on which of the following types of RNA?

a. mRNA c. tRNA
b. rRNA d. none of all
13. During translation, the codon in mRNA is actually “read” by

a. The A site in the ribosome c. The anticodon in a tRNA
b. The P site in the ribosome d. The anticodon
14. The splicing process

a. Occurs in prokaryotes
b. Joins introns together
c. Can produce multiple mRNAs from the same transcript
d. Only joins exons for each gene in one way.
15. If the sequence of (AGC) is the part of the DNA, what is the complementary codon of mRNA?
a. GGC c. UCG
b. AGC d. GCU
Direct Questions
Q2: Answers the direct questions:
1. Name the three parts of a nucleotide.
Answer
1. A five-carbon sugar
2. Phosphate group
3. Nitrogenous bases
2. State the base-paring rules in DNA.

Answer
Adenine (A) always pairs with Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) always pairs with guanine (G)
3. A template strand of DNA has the following sequence:

3’-CGTTACCCGAGCCGTACGATTAGG-5’
Use the sequence information to determine
a. The predicted sequence of the mRNA for this gene.
b. The predicted amino acid sequence of the protein.
Answer
a. 5’- GCAAUGGGCUCGGCAUGCUAAUCC-3’
b. Alanine-Methionine-Glycine-Serine-Alanine-Cysteine-Stop
4. What is the meaning of: genetic code, codon, anticodon, intron, exon, transcription and
translation?
Answer
Genetic code: is a sequence of nucleotides in the DNA and RNA that determines the amino-acid
sequence of proteins.
Codon: are triple bases or nucleotides of the mRNA.
Anticodon: is a sequence of three nucleotides that is complementary to the codon in a messenger
RNA (mRNA).
Intron (non-coding region): is a region of DNA or RNA that does not code for proteins.
Exon (coding region): is a region of DNA or RNA that codes for proteins. Transcription: is the
process by which the genetic instructions in a specific gene are transcribed or “rewritten” into an
RNA molecule.
Translation: is the process of converting the information of mRNA (codons) into a sequence of
amino acids in the process of protein synthesis.
5. Compare types of RNA according structure and function.

Answer
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA): is an RNA which carries the genetic “message” from DNA in the
nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytosol.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): is an RNA that is part of the structure of ribosomes which are
made of rRNA and proteins.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA): is an RNA which transfers amino acids to the ribosomes to make a
protein.
6. Describe the role of helicase and DNA polymerase during replication.

Answer
Helicase: moves along the DNA double helix, breaking the torsions and separating the two chains.
DNA polymerase: bind the new nucleotides with older chains as a complementary.
7. State why DNA replication is a semi-conservative process.

Answer
DNA replication is a semi-conservative process because in each DNA double helix, one strand is
from the original molecule, and one strand is new.
8. Summarize the flow of genetic information

Answer
DNA transcription mRNA translation protein
Information passes from DNA to RNA to protein.
9. Sequence the main steps of transcription.
Answer
Initiation−Elongation−Termination
10. List the four ways in which the structure of RNA differs from that of DNA.
Answer
1. DNA has the bases adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine.
RNA has the bases adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine.
2. DNA has deoxyribose sugar. RNA has ribose sugar.
3. DNA is double stranded. RNA is single stranded.
4. DNA can duplicate itself RNA cannot duplicate itself.
CHAPTER FIVE: GENETICS
LESSON SUMMARY
Genetics
Genetics is a branch of biology which deals the study of inheritance and variation.
Genetics is the field of biology devoted to explain how characteristics are transmitted from parents
to offspring. (Form 3 Book)
Inheritance
Inheritance is the transmission (passing on) of genetic traits from parents to offspring.
Variation
Variation is an observable difference among living organisms.
Alleles
Alleles are the different forms of a gene.
Character
Character is a heritable feature that varies among individuals, such as a flower color.
Trait
Trait is each variant of a character, such as purple or white color for flowers,
Genotype
Genotype is the genetic makeup of the organism.
Phenotype
Phenotype is the physical appearance of the organism.
Heterozygote
Heterozygote is an organism whose genotype consists of two different alleles.
Homozygote
Homozygote is an organism whose genotype consists of two identical alleles.
Dominant gene
A dominant gene is a gene which can express itself in both its homozygous and heterozygous state.
Recessive gene
A recessive gene is a gene which can only express itself in its homozygous state.
Monohybrid cross
Monohybrid cross is a cross in which only one character is tracked or considered.
Dihybrid cross
Dihybrid cross is a cross in which two characters are tracked or considered.
Trihybrid cross
Trihybrid cross is a cross in which three characters are tracked or considered.
Some of the sex-linked diseases
1. Color blindness
2. Hemophilia
Color blindness
Color blindness is the inability to distinguish certain colours by some people.
Hemophilia
• Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more of the proteins
required for blood clotting. (The best choice)
• Haemophilia is a sex-linked trait where the blood of the sufferer takes an abnormally long time to
clot.
Breeding
Breeding is the application of genetic principles in animal husbandry, agriculture and horticulture to
improve desirable qualities.
The rule of multiplication (The product rule)
The rule of multiplication (The product rule) states that the probability of two independent events both
occurring is the product of their individual probabilities.
The rule of addition
The rule of addition states that the probability of either of two mutually exclusive events occurring is the
sum of their individual probabilities.
The first law of inheritance, “The law of segregation”
The first law of inheritance, “The law of segregation”, states that a pair of corresponding factors
(alleles) for a single genetic trait is randomly separated when forming gametes during the process of
meiosis.
The second law of inheritance, “The law of independent assortment”
The second law of inheritance, “The law of independent assortment” states that two or more genes
assort independently-that is, each pair of alleles segregates independently of any other pair of alleles
during gamete formation.
Test cross
A test cross is a cross which involves breeding an organism that has the unknown genotype with one
that is homozygous recessive for the trait. (The best choice)
A test cross is a cross between an individual of unknown genotype with an individual of recessive
genotype.
Back cross.
A back cross is a test cross where an offspring is crossed with one of its parents
Incomplete dominance
Incomplete dominance is when the phenotypes of the two parents blend together to create a new
phenotype for their offspring. An example is a white flower and a red flower producing pink
flowers.
Incomplete dominance is when the heterozygous phenotype is an intermediate phenotype between
two homozygous phenotypes. An example is a white flower and a red flower producing pink
flowers. (Definition of the Book)
Codominance
Codominance is when the two parent phenotypes are expressed together in their offspring.
Codominance is when both alleles are expressed themselves equally in the heterozygous condition.
Examples of codominant inheritance:
1. In cows black coat color and white coat color are codominant. Heterozygous offspring will be
spotted with black and white.
2. The blood group AB follows codominant inheritance.
Sickle-cell trait
Sickle-cell trait is a heterozygous condition where less than half the number of red blood cells are sickle-
shaped.
Polygenic inheritance
Polygenic inheritance is when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes.
Examples of human polygenic inheritance
1. Height
2. Skin color
3. Eye color
4. Weight
5. Intelligence
Sex-linked trait
A sex-linked trait is a one in which the gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, which makes it
more common in one sex than the other.
Examples of sex-linked traits
1. Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
2. Hemophilia
3. Color blindness
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy is a genetic disease linked to sex caused by recessive gene mutation
carried on the X chromosome that leads to disorder in the production of the Dystrophin protein required
for the growth and production of muscle fibers.
Sex-influenced trait
Sex-influenced trait is when an allele is dominant in one sex but recessive in the other. For example, the
baldness allele is dominant in males but recessive in females.
Types of chromosomal mutations
1. Deletion 4. Translocation
2. Duplication 5. Non-disjunction
3. Inversion
Examples of genetic disorders related to genetic mutations.
1. Krabbe disease
2. Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Krabbe Disease
Krabbe Disease is a genetic disorder caused by a recessive gene mutation on chromosome number 14, and
causing damage to the myelinated neurons.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disease caused by a recessive gene mutation on chromosome number
12, leading to a lack of production of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase.
Non-disjunction
Non-disjunction is when members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly
during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis II, which results in daughter cells with
abnormal chromosome number.
Aneuploidy
Aneuploidy is when the zygote has an abnormal number of a particular chromosome.
Monosomy
Monosomy is a form of aneuploidy with the absence of one member of a pair of chromosomes. Human
conditions due to monosomy include Turner syndrome.
Trisomy
Trisomy refers to the presence of three copies, instead of the normal two, of a particular chromosome.
Human conditions due to trisomy include Down syndrome.
Polyploidy
Polyploidy is when the organism has more than two complete chromosome sets in all somatic cells.
Selective Breeding
Selective breeding is the process by which desired traits of certain plants and animals are selected and
passed on to their future generations.
The processes of selective breeding
1. Hybridization
2. Inbreeding
Hybridization
Hybridization is the crossing of parent organisms with different forms of traits to produce offspring with
specific traits.
Inbreeding
Inbreeding is the process in which two closely related organisms are bred to have the desired traits and to
eliminate the undesired ones in future generations.
Inbreeding depression
Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness in a given population as a result of inbreeding.
Biological fitness
Biological fitness refers to an organism’s ability to survive and perpetuate its genetic material.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the Correct Answer of the Following Questions
1. Which can a chromosomal map show?
a. The sex of the individual
b. The positions of genes on a chromosome
c. The presence of mutant alleles
d. Whether a gene is autosomal or recessive
2. Which can result from the deletion of a single nucleotide?

a. Trisomy
b. Non-disjunction
c. Translocation
d. Frame-shift mutation
The table below shows the genotypes and phenotypes of pattern baldness. Use the table to answer
the questions that follows.
Genotypes and phenotypes of pattern baldness
Phenotype
Genotype
Female Male
BB Bald Bald
Bb Not bald Bald
bb Not bald Not bald
3. Which statement best explains why men and women express the Bb genotype differently?
a. The trait is polygenic.
b. Pattern baldness is a sex-linked trait.
c. The trait has multiple alleles.
d. Pattern baldness is a sex-influenced trait
4. In garden peas, purple flowers (P) are dominant to white flowers (p), and tall plants (T) are
dominant to short plants (t). If a purple tall plant (PpTt) is crossed with a white short plant (pptt),
what is the resulting phenotypic ratio?
a. 1:1:1:1 purple tall to purple short to white tall to white short
b. 9:3:3:1 purple tall to purple short to white tall to white short
c. 3:2 purple tall to purple short
d. All purple tall
5. Which does not contribute to genetic variation?

a. Chromosome number
b. Meiosis
c. Crossing over
d. Random mating
6. Which concept is considered an exception to Mendel’s law of independent assortment?
a. Crossing over
b. Polyploidy
c. Gene linkage
d. Law of segregation
Use the figure below to answer questions 7 and 8.
7. Houseflies, as shown in the photo above, have six pairs of chromosomes. If two houseflies are
crossed, how many possible types of fertilized eggs could result from the random lining up of
the pairs?
a. 256
b. 1024
c. 4096
d. 16,384
8. For the housefly with its six pairs of chromosomes, how many possible combinations of
gametes can be produced by the random lining up of pairs in meiosis?
a. 32
b. 48
c. 64
d. 120
9. If a black cattle (Bb) were crossed with a white cattle (bb) what would be the resulting
phenotypic ratio?
a. 0:1 black to white
b. 1:0 black to white
c. 1:1 black to white
d. 3:1 black to white
10. What determines gender in humans?
a. The X and Y chromosome
b. Chromosome 21
c. Codominance
d. Epistasis
11. Which two terms best describe the inheritance of human blood types?
a. Incomplete dominance and Codominance
b. Incomplete dominance and multiple alleles
c. Codominance and multiples alleles
d. Codominance and epistasis
Use the photos below to answer question 12.
12. In radishes, color is controlled by incomplete dominance. The figure above shows the
phenotype for each color. What phenotypic ratios would you expect from crossing two
heterozygous plants?
a. 2:2 red : white
b. 1:1:1 red : purple : white
c. 1:2:1 red : purple : white
d. 3:1 red : white
Use the photo below to answer question 14.
13. What disorder can be identified in the karyotype?

a. Turner’s syndrome
b. Down syndrome
c. Klinefelter’s syndrome
d. The karyotype shows no disorder
14. Why does non-disjunction occur?

a. Cytokinesis does not occur properly?
b. The sister chromatids do not separate.
c. The nucleoli do not disappear.
d. The chromosomes do not condense properly?
Direct Questions
Q2: Answer all of the following questions
1. Explain the differences between the terms in the following sets.
I. Dominant and recessive
II. Genotype and phenotype
Answer
I. Genotype is the genetic makeup of the organism while Phenotype is the physical appearance of
the organism.
II. A dominant gene is a gene which can express itself in both its homozygous and heterozygous
state while a recessive gene is a gene which can only express itself in its homozygous state.
2. Which term describes a person who is heterozygous for a recessive disorder?

Answer
Carrier
3. How is the inheritance pattern between parents and offspring represented

diagrammatically?
Answer
The inheritance pattern between parents and offspring represented diagrammatically by using
Pedigree diagram, Punnett square diagram and Genetic cross diagram.
4. Predict the genotypes of the children of a father with Huntington’s disease and an unaffected
mother.
Answer
H: Allele for Huntington’s disease h: Allele for no disease
Father with Huntington’s disease: Homozygous dominant (HH) or
Heterozygous (Hh) Unaffected mother: Homozygous recessive (hh)
If the father with Huntington’s disease is homozygous dominant (HH), the genotype of the
children will be Hh 4/4 100%. But if the father with Huntington’s disease is heterozygous (Hh),
the genotype of the children will be Hh ½ 50% and hh ½ 50%.
Use the photo below to answer question 5
5. Describe a fetal test that results in the karyotype shown above.
Answer
Amniocentesis
6. What characteristics are associated with Down syndrome.

Answer
1. Distinctive facial features
2. Slit-eye appearance
3. Reduced resistance to infection
4. Always mentally deficient
5. Thick tongue
6. Cardiac malfunctions
7. Short body with chubby fingers and toes.
7. In pea plants, yellow seed color is the dominant trait, and green seed color is the recessive
trait. Use a Punnett square to show the results of a cross between a heterozygous yellow-seed
plant and a green-seed plant.
Answer
Heterozygous yellow seed plant: Yy Green seed plant: yy
Offspring phenotypes
Yellow seed plant: ½ or 50%
Green seed plant: ½ or 50%
8. Based on your Punnett square from question 7, what percentage of the offspring would have
a homozygous genotype? Explain your answer.
Answer
The percentage of the offspring would have a homozygous genotype is 50%. The punnett square
from question 7 consists of four squares, each of them represents 25%. Two of the four squares
show homozygous genotypes and that is why the percentage of the offspring would have a
homozygous genotype is 50%.
9. Color blindness is caused by a sex-linked, recessive gene. If a women, whose father was color
blind, marries a man with normal color vision, what percentage of their children will be
color blind? What percentage of male children and female children will be color blind?
Answer
N: Gene for normal color vision. n: Gene for color blindness.
Women whose father was color blind: XN Xn
Man with normal color vision: XNY
The percentage of their children will be color blind is 25%.
The percentage of their children will be normal color vision is 75%.
The percentage of their female children will be normal color vision is 100%.
The percentage of their male children will be normal color vision is 50%. The percentage of
their female children will be carrier is 50%.
The percentage of their male children will be color blind is 50%
The percentage of their female children will be color blind is 0%
10. Assume that the genes for seed color and seed shape are located on the same chromosome. A
plant heterozygous for both genes is test-crossed wrinkled green with the following results:
Green, wrinkled 645
Green, round 36
Yellow, wrinkled 29
Yellow, round 590
What were the genotypes of the parents, and how far apart are these genes?
Answer
Y: Yellow y: Green R: Round r: wrinkled
Parental genotype: RrYy (heterozygous plant) x rryy (green wrinkled plant)
(36+29)/(645+590+36+29) x 100= 5 map units apart.
CHAPTER SIX: BIOTECHNOLOGY

LESSON SUMMARY
Biotechnology
Biotechnology is a branch of science that involves manipulating biological systems to generate useful
products or to improve environmental, medical or agricultural processes.
Recombinant DNA
Recombinant DNA is a single DNA molecule made DNA fragments from two different sources.
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology.
Genome
Genome is the complete set of an organism’s DNA, including all of its genes.
Techniques used in genetic engineering
1. Restriction enzymes
2. Gel electrophoresis
3. Recombinant DNA technology
4. Gene cloning
5. DNA sequencing
6. Polymerase chain reaction
7. DNA fingerprinting
Restriction enzymes (Restriction endonuclease)
Restriction enzymes are proteins produced by bacteria that recognize and bind to specific DNA sequences
and cleave the DNA within that sequence.
Gel electrophoresis
Gel electrophoresis is a common technique to separate different fragments of cut DNA so they can be
isolated.
Recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology is the technology that involves the joining together of DNA molecules
from different organisms and inserting it into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations that
are of value to science, medicine, agriculture and industry.
Clone
Clone is an exact copy of a DNA segment, whole cell, or a complete organism.
Gene cloning
Gene cloning is the making of an exact copy of a gene of interest (DNA segment) by using genetic
engineering techniques.
Cloning vector
Cloning vector is a small piece of DNA that can be stably maintained in an organism, and into which a
foreign DNA fragment can be inserted for cloning purposes.
Examples of cloning vectors
1. Bacteriophage (phage)
2. Plasmids
Plasmid
Plasmid is a small circular DNA molecule that is usually found in bacteria and that can replicate
independently of the chromosomes.
DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing is the determining the order of DNA nucleotides of an organism.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a method of making many copies of specific segment of DNA that is
used for the amplification of DNA.
Taq polymerase
Taq polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase isolated from the thermophilic bacterium, Thermus
aquaticus.
The major steps of PCR
The major steps of PCR are
1. Denaturation
2. Annealing of primers
3. Synthesis (extension)
DNA fingerprinting
DNA fingerprinting is a technique that involves separating DNA fragments from known sources such as
victims and suspects by using gel electrophoresis in order to observe and identify the distinct banding
patterns that are unique to every individual.
This table shows summary of major tools in genetic engineering
Transgenic organisms
Transgenic organisms are organisms which contain foreign DNA that has been introduced using
biotechnology.
Significance of transgenic organisms
Transgenic organisms are used for research, medical, agricultural and industrial purposes.
Significance of transgenic bacteria
The significance of transgenic bacteria include
1. Insulin, growth hormones, and substances that dissolve blood clots are made by transgenic
bacteria.
2. Transgenic bacteria slow the formation of ice crystals on crops to protect them from frost damage.
3. Transgenic bacteria also clean up oil spills more efficiently, and decompose garbage.
Applications of biotechnology
1. Medical applications 4. Agricultural applications
2. Industrial applications 5. Forensic applications
3. Environmental applications
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is a technique aimed at correcting mutated genes that cause human diseases.
Gene therapy is the replacement of faulty genes with normal ones aimed at correcting genetic disorders.
Genomics
Genomics is the study of an organism’s genome.
Proteomics
Proteomics is the large-scale study and cataloging of the structure and function of proteins in human body.
Bioethics
Bioethics is the study of ethical issues related to DNA technology.
Genetically modified organism
Genetically modified organism is a transgenic organism which has artificially acquired one or more
genes from another species or even from another variety of the same species.
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the correct answer for the following:
1. What is the basis of separation of different DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis?
a. The positive charge on DNA
b. The size of DNA fragments
c. The sequence of the fragments
d. The presence of a dye
2. Which of the following statements is accurate for DNA replication in your cells, but not
PCR?
a. DNA primers are required.
b. DNA polymerase is stable at high temperatures.
c. Ligase is essential.
d. dNTPs are necessary
3. Why is the polymerase chain reaction used?

a. to amplify DNA
b. to cut DNA
c. to ligate DNA
d. to separate DNA
4. For what purpose is DNA fingerprinting is used?

a. to sequence DNA from bacteria
b. to separate DNA fragments
c. to identify individuals who have committed crimes
d. to identify single nucleotide polymorphism
5. Which of the following is used to cut DNA molecules in specific locations?

a. Cloning vectors
b. Cloning enzymes
c. Restriction enzymes
d. Polymerase chain reaction
6. What is the term used for inserting a healthy copy of a gene into a person who has a
defective gene?
a. Cloning vector
b. Gene therapy
c. Recombinant DNA
d. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
7. Which best describes molecule A?
a. It is an insulin gene c. It is bacterial plasmid.

b. It is recombinant DNA. d. It is a disease causing virus.
8. Compare the following analogy. Proteomics: proteins: Genomics:
a. Lipids c. Proteins
b. Genes d. Carbohydrates
9. Which nucleotide sequence must be sticky end labeled 2 have if it is to bond with sticky end
labeled 1?
a. UGGCCU c. ACCGGT
b. TCCGGA d. CTTAAG
10. What is this machine used for?
a. Polymerase chain reaction

b. Gel electrophoresis
c. DNA sequencing
d. Incubation of bacterial culture
Direct Questions
Q2: Answer all of the following questions
1. Define the following terms:
a. Biotechnology
b. Plasmid
c. Genetic engineering
d. Transformation
Answer
a. Biotechnology is a branch of science that involves manipulating biological systems to
generate useful products or to improve environmental, medical or agricultural processes.
b. Plasmid is a small circular DNA molecule that is usually found in bacteria and that can
replicate independently of the chromosomes.
c. Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology.
d. Transformation is the genetic alteration of an organism resulting from the direct uptake and
incorporation of exogenous genetic material from surrounding.
2. List two types of medical products that can be produced using DNA technology.
Answer
1. Insulin
2. Antithrombin III
3. Relate bioethics to the continued development of genetic engineering techniques.
Answer
Many scientists and nonscientists are involved in identifying and addressing any ethical, legal, and
social issues that may arise as genetic engineering techniques continue to be developed. They
want to make sure that none of the tools turn out to be dangerous or have unwanted results.
4. Describe two major goals of the human genome project.

Answer
1. To identify all of the genes in human DNA.
2. To obtain the sequences of three billion DNA base pairs that create the human DNA.
5. Distinguish between proteomics and genomics.
Answer
Genomics is the study of an organism’s genome.
Proteomics is the large-scale study and cataloging of the structure and function of proteins in
human body.
6. Outline the different applications of biotechnology

Answer
1. Medical applications
2. Industrial applications
3. Environmental applications
4. Agricultural applications
5. Forensic applications
7. List some techniques of genetic engineering

Answer
1. Restriction enzymes
2. Gel electrophoresis
3. Recombinant DNA technology
4. Gene cloning
5. DNA sequencing
6. Polymerase chain reaction
7. DNA fingerprinting
8. Delineate the transgenic organisms and their significance

Answer
Transgenic organisms are organisms which contain foreign DNA that has been introduced using
biotechnology.
Transgenic organisms are used for research, medical, agricultural and industrial purposes.
9. Explain the procedure for the following

a. PCR
b. Gel electrophoresis
c. Gene therapy
Answer
a. PCR is based on three simple steps:
1. Denaturing double stranded DNA to separate strands
2. Annealing of primers to their complementary sequence in the template DNA.
3. Synthesizing or extending the primers on both strands by adding new nucleotides.
b. The procedure of gel electrophoresis is as follows:
1. Cut DNA fragments with restriction enzymes
2. Prepare a gel made of either an agarose or polyacrylamide
3. Pour the DNA fragments into wells in a porous gel
4. Apply electric current to the gel.
5. DNA fragments will migrate to the positively charged anode.
6. The gel sieve to separate DNA molecules based on size
7. Add a fluorescent dye to DNA fragments to visualize
c. The procedure of gene therapy is as follows:
1. Cells are removed from the patient
2. In the lab, a virus is altered so that it cannot reproduce
3. A gene is inserted into the virus
4. The altered virus is mixed with cells from the patient
5. The cells from the patient become genetically altered.
6. The altered cells are injected into patient’s body
7. The genetically altered cells produce the desired protein
10. Describe human genome project and its main goals.

Answer
The Human Genome Project was an international research project aimed at determining the
sequence of the human genome, and of identifying and mapping all of the genes of the human
genome.
The main goals of Human Genome Project are:
1. Determining the complete and accurate sequence of three billion nucleotides that make the
whole human DNA.
2. Identifying all the genes in human DNA.
3. Developing new DNA technology for analyzing genome information.
4. Storing the DNA information in suitable databases.
5. Addressing the ethical, legal and social issues that may arise from the project.
11. Discuss the drastic environmental impacts of oil spills and how the microbes like bacteria
can help mitigate the problem.
Answer
Oil spills are extremely damaging to the environment. It is made of chemicals filled with
countless harmful toxins. Because oil floats on top of the water, the organisms that are most
affected are those found on the water surface. The oil coats the surface of the water which leads
to the organisms unable to respire, fly or swim. Some microbes like bacteria, however, may be a
better solution for cleaning up oil. These bacteria populate the area where the oil spill occurs and
degrade the oil as an energy source.
12. Give an account of significance of transgenic organisms in food industry.

Answer
Transgenic organisms allow increasing crop production, reducing costs for food, enhancing
nutrient composition and food quality and creating new foods with desired traits such as
delayed ripening and resistance to spoilage, disease and drought.
13. Describe the uses of DNA fingerprinting.
Answer
The uses of fingerprinting include
1. Identification of suspects and victims in criminal cases
2. Determination of paternity and maternity of a child.
3. Identification of soldiers killed in war.
14. What is the gene cloning?

Answer
Gene cloning is the making of an exact copy of a gene of interest (DNA segment) by using
genetic engineering techniques.
15. Elaborately discuss recombinant DNA technology and its usefulness.

Answer
Recombinant DNA technology is the technology that involves the joining together of DNA
molecules from different organisms and inserting it into a host organism to produce new genetic
combinations that are of value to science, medicine, agriculture and industry. Recombinant DNA
technology is used to study individual genes and genetically engineered organisms, and in the
treatment f certain diseases.
CHAPTER SEVEN: BIODIVERSITY AND ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS
LESSON SUMMARY
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is defined as the variability among living organisms-animals, plants, their habitats and their
genes.
The three types of biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity is the variety of genes or inheritable characteristics that are present in a population.
Species diversity
Species diversity is the number of different species and the relative abundance of each species in a
biological community.
Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems that are present in the biosphere.
Reasons to preserve biodiversity
There are several reasons to preserve biodiversity:
a. For future generation
b. For economic reason
c. For aesthetic reason
d. For scientific reason
e. For food reason
f. For medical reason
Factors that threaten Biodiversity
1. Overexploitation
2. Habitat loss
3. Pollution
4. Acid precipitation
5. Eutrophication
Background extinction
Background extinction is the gradual process of species becoming extinct.
Natural resources
Natural resources are all materials and organisms found in the biosphere, including minerals, fossil fuels,
nuclear fuels, plants, animals, soil, clean water, clean air, and solar energy.
Overexploitation
Overexploitation is the excessive use of species that have economic value that is increasing the current
rate of extinction.
Biological magnification
Biological magnification is the increasing concentration of toxic substances in organisms as trophic levels
increase in a food chain or food web.
Conservation biology
Conservation biology is the management of nature and of earth’s biodiversity with the aim of protecting
species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic
interactions.
Sustainable use
Sustainable use is using resources at a rate in which they can be replaced or recycled while preserving the
long-term environmental health of the biosphere.
Protected areas in Somalia (national parks in Somalia)
1. Daallo Mountain
2. Hobyo grasslands and shrublands
3. Kismayo National Park (KNP) also known as as Habaar Walid.
4. Lag Badana National Park (Bushbush National Park)
Pollution
Pollution is the release of substances or forms of energy into the environment by human activities in such
quantities whose effects are either harmful or unpleasant to humans or other living organisms.
Three main categories of pollution
1. Air pollution 2. Water pollution 3. Soil pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is any change in the properties and composition of the air.
The main causes of Air pollution
1) Sulphur based chemicals 5) Lead (Pb)
2) Oxides of Nitrogen 6) Aerosols
3) Smoke and Fumes 7) Noise
4) Dust
Water pollution
The pollution of water involves addition of substances or energy forms into water bodies in quantities that
are harmful to the living organisms dependent on that water.
The main causes of water pollution
1. Domestic effluents
2. Industrial effluents
3. Heat
4. Oil spillage
5. Agro-chemicals
6. Lead
7. Mercury
8. Soil erosion
Soil pollution
Soil pollution is the discharge of chemicals into the soil, which accumulate to levels that cause harm to
soil organisms. (Form Four Book)
The main causes of soil pollution
(a) Oxides of sulphur
(b) Aerosols
(c) Petroleum products
(d) Inorganic fertilisers
(e) Solid Wastes
CHAPTER QUESTIONS
Q1: Choose the correct answer for each of the following:
1. In which location would you expect to find greater species diversity?
a. Galgadud region
b. Nugal region
c. Benadir region
d. Lower Jubba region
2. Which represents an indirect economic value of biodiversity?

a. Food
b. Clothing
c. Flood protection
d. Medicines
3. Which term best describes this collection of locations: a forest, a freshwater lake, an estuary,
and a prairie?
a. Ecosystem diversity
b. Extinction
c. Genetic diversity
d. Species diversity
4. Which term best describes what the two rabbits in the photo below demonstrate?
a. Ecosystem diversity c. species richness.

b. Genetic diversity. d. species diversity
5. Which is not a way in which species lose their habitat?

a. Background extinction
b. Destruction
c. Disruption
d. Pollution
6. What is the term for the natural ability of Earth’s atmosphere to trap energy from the sun?
a. Global warming
b. Ozone depletion
c. Greenhouse effect
d. Biological magnification
7. What does Earth’s ozone layer shield its inhabitants from?

a. Solar heating
b. Meteor impacts
c. Ozone depletion
d. Ultraviolet radiation
8. Which of the following groups of organisms contains the largest estimated number of
species? a. Birds
b. Plants
c. Insects
d. Mammals
9. What term describes a measure of number of species in an area?
a. Species richness
b. Species evenness
c. Bioindicator species
d. Biological magnification
10. What is the term commonly used to describe the trend in the graph below?
a. Water pollution
b. Global warming
c. Ozone depletion
d. Biodiversity crisis
11. Conservation hotspots are best described as

a. Areas with large numbers of endemic species, in many of which are disappearing rapidly.
b. Areas where people are particularly active supporters of biological diversity.
c. Islands that are experiencing high rates of extinction.
d. Areas where native species are being replaced with introducing species.
12. Which one causes biological magnification?

a. Pesticides c. Carbon dioxide
b. Wastewater d. Greenhouse gases
Direct Questions
Q2: Answer the following questions:
1. Compare species diversity and genetic diversity.
Answer
Species diversity is the number of different species and the relative abundance of each species in
a biological community.
Genetic diversity is the variety of genes or inheritable characteristics that are present in a
population.
2. List several reasons to value biodiversity.

Answer
1. For future generation
2. For economic reason
3. For aesthetic reason
4. For scientific reason
5. For food reason
6. For medical reason
3. How does the greenhouse effect occur?

Answer
The greenhouse effect occurs when sunlight strikes the Earth. Some of the light is reflected and
some of it is absorbed. The absorbed light warms the surface of the Earth. The heated surface
then radiates infrared light into the atmosphere where it is absorbed by the greenhouse gases
4. Identify the primary causes of modern species extinctions.
Answer
1. Overharvesting
2. Spread of diseases
3. Pollution
4. Habitat destruction
5. Hunting
6. Introducing invasive species to the wild.
5. Describe how pesticides, such as DDT, undergo the process biological magnification.
Answer
When pesticides, such as DDT, are sprayed on crops to control pests, the pesticides are taken up
by small producers like algae and passed on to the primary consumers. The concentration of
pesticides moves up the food chain, from one trophic level to another. The higher an organism is
on the food chain, the greater the concentration of pesticides, such as DDT in their body.
6. Choose a species that might be affected by global warming, and predict how that species
might be affected.
Answer
The polar bear is a famous example of an animal that is greatly impacted by global warming.
Due to global warming, the global temperatures have been increasing, which has caused major
melting of polar ice caps where the polar bears reside. In some areas, this melting has become so
extensive that the polar bears have no land to live on and die as they cannot live in the arctic
waters.
7. Contrast conservation biology with restoration biology.
Answer
Conservation biology is the management of nature and of earth’s biodiversity with the aim of
protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the
erosion of biotic interactions. Restoration biology is the applying of ecological principles to
return ecosystems that have been disturbed by human activities to a condition as similar as
possible to their natural state.
8. Explain why reserves protect biodiversity.
Answer
Reserves protect biodiversity to ensure that they won’t extinct because biodiversity ensures
human survival. Humans depend on plants and animals to provide food, clothing, energy,
medicine, and shelter.
9. Explain causes and effects of acid rain.
Answer
Causes of acid rain
When fossil fuels are burned, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the
atmosphere. These compounds react with water, oxygen and other substances in the air to form
sulfuric acid and nitric acid. These acids eventually fall to the surface of the earth in rain.
Effects of acid rain
Acid rain alters the soil pH therefore affecting the plants and animals that cannot tolerate acid
soil. Acid rain may promote the growth of plants that tolerate acidic conditions. Acid rain also
causes leaching of minerals leading to loss of soil fertility.
10. Give an account of the factors that threaten biodiversity.
Answer
1. Overexploitation
2. Acid precipitation
3. Habitat loss
4. Eutrophication
5. Pollution
THE END

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LESSON SUMMARY AND ANSWERS OF CHAPTER QUESTIONS FROM F4 BIOLOGY BOOK.

Lesson Summary & Answers Of

Teacher, Ibrahim Ali Abdirahman (B.Sc. MPH)

Use the diagram below to answer question 3

3. What is occurring in the diagram above?

Use the diagram below to answer question 4

8. With which sense are free nerve endings associated?

Use the diagram below to answer question 9

12. A fight-or-flight response in the body is controlled by the

13. The _______________ cannot be controlled by conscious thought.

14. White matter is, and gray matter is

9. Define the roles of four portions of the brain

15. Compare how rods and cones respond to light.

20. Outline the diseases of the nervous system.

3. Which pairs of hormones have opposite effects?

a. Blood glucose level increase

8. An organ is classified as part of the endocrine system if it

10. Which of the following is true about lipophilic hormones?

3. How do feedback mechanisms help maintain homeostasis?

4. How do negative feedback mechanisms differ from positive feedback mechanisms?

5. Compare the effects of glucagon and insulin on blood glucose levels.

6. Name four functions of hormones.

7. How do endocrine glands differ from exocrine glands?

11. Why pituitary gland is called the master gland?

1. Exoskeletons and endoskeleton differ in that

2. How can osteocytes remain alive within bone?

a. It contains no living cells

6. Which set of terms is mismatched?

7. Which is not part of the axial skeleton?

8. Which is part of the appendicular skeleton?

10. Which type of bone is classified as irregular?

13. Which requires ATP?

14. Which is the characteristic of fast-twitch muscle fibers?

15. What muscles shown below are classified as voluntary muscles?

a. The muscle type shown in A c. the muscle type shown in C

20. Which of the following is most important in determining skin coloration?

21. Which of the following is NOT a function of the skin?

23. When are blackheads formed?

24. How does the skin regulate body temperature?

25. Which are not found in the dermis?

2. Describe the shapes of bones and bone formation.

3. Draw a labeled diagram of the structure of a long bone. Answer

5. Outline the functions of skeletal system. Answer

7. For healthy bones, sun exposure is advised, justify that.

9. What is the significance of synovial fluids?

11. Define ossification?

13. Describe microscopic structure of striated muscle fibers.

19. Explain briefly the structure and function of the skin.

2. Where is RNA found?

3. What is the basic unit of DNA called?

4. Which of the following nucleic acids is involved in translation?

5. Within each organism, which nucleotides are found in similar percentage?

6. Which of the following is NOT a component of DNA?

9. If one strand of DNA is 5’ ATCGTTAAGCGAGTCA 3’, then the complementary strand

12. An anticodon would be found on which of the following types of RNA?

13. During translation, the codon in mRNA is actually “read” by

14. The splicing process

2. State the base-paring rules in DNA.

3. A template strand of DNA has the following sequence:

5. Compare types of RNA according structure and function.

6. Describe the role of helicase and DNA polymerase during replication.

7. State why DNA replication is a semi-conservative process.

8. Summarize the flow of genetic information

2. Which can result from the deletion of a single nucleotide?