Journal of Voice

Vol. 1 l, No. 3, pp. 332-337

© 1997 Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia

Exercise Physiology Principles Applied to Vocal Performance:

The Improvement of Postural Alignment

*Carole M. Schneider, *Carolyn A. Dennehy, and "j'Keith G. Saxon

*Departments of Kinesiology and Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado; and ?Saxon
Medical, Inc., Liberty, Missouri, U.S.A.

Summary: Postural alignment is not an inherent trait. Proper alignment is acquired

through training postural muscle groups. This training is based on scientific principles
associated with improving the physiological parameters of muscle mechanics. The
purpose of this report is to describe and demonstrate the application of exercise
physiology training principles to the improvement of postural alignment, which may
enhance vocal performance. Specific exercise principles are explained and key con-
cepts highlighted. Selected exercises for training postural muscles are presented to
assist in establishing techniques that result in the expected adaptations. The application
of training principles to postural muscles has been shown to improve postural align-
ment by strengthening synergistic muscles and establishing a balance between the
agonistic and antagonistic activity of these muscles. Since posture has been well
established as an important component of vocal performance, the application of these
principles to vocal training seems to warrant the attention of vocal trainers and
performers. Key Words: Exercise--Postural--Vocah

EXERCISE AND POSTURE THE PHYSIOLOGY OF POSTURE

According to Basmajian (1), posture is considered to
Appropriately developed fundamentals are essential to
be the upright, well-balanced stance of the human subject
the quality of performance, regardless of the type of ac-
in a " n o r m a l " position. Posture involves the mechanics
tivity. Vocal performance is no exception to this tenet.
of maintaining balance when forces are acting on the
Singing, not only involves the training, use, and adapta-
total body in various directions. Since the body is a seg-
tion of the vocal mechanism, but also necessitates the use
mented structure held upright by articulated bones, skel-
of proper postural alignment. Although the assumption is
etal muscles, and ligaments, any perturbing force (i.e.,.
that posture is an inherent skill for humans, the reality is
gravity or muscular shortening) that causes one segment
that proper posture must be acquired through appropriate
to change position will result in other segments moving
muscular training based on scientific principles. Utilizing
out of alignment to compensate. If these forces are con-
general strategies that do not include a scientific foun-
sistently applied, the compensations can result in an al-
dation may be a futile attempt at improving the physi-
tered posture. Clinical evidence supports the fact that
ological function and ability of the postural muscles.
misaligned posture can result in excessive tension in
Through proper strength training, the postural muscles
muscle groups, joint strain, ligamentous instability, car-
will adapt physiologically. These physiological adapta-
tilage damage, mechanical stresses of the myofacial re-
tions are muscle hypertrophy, biochemical alterations,
gion, and can be a contributing factor to arthritic changes
and muscle fiber compositional changes.
(2).
The ideal, normal, erect posture is one where a line of
Accepted 8/5/g6.
gravity can be drawn at a midpoint in the body through
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Carole M.
Schneider, PhD, University of Northern Colorado, Department of Ki- the following points: a) the mastoid process, b) a point
nesiology, 223L Butler-Hancock, Greeley, CO 80639, U.S.A. just anterior to the shoulder joint, c) a point just slightly

332
 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY AND VOCAL PERFORMANCE
Stable Unstable Compensatory Final
Phase Phase Phase Correction
Phase
H G . 1. Generalized responses to perturbation.
posterior to the hip joint, d) a point just anterior to the
center of the knee joint, and e) a point just anterior to the
ankle joint. Note that this line passes anterior to the spi-
nal column. It is the balance of muscle activity that main-
tains or realigns the body to this position and produces
stability.
Neuromechanical responses of the neck, trunk, and leg
muscles are coordinated to stabilize the upper body. All
forces acting on the body must equal zero to be balanced
or in equilibrium. Therefore, after any movement, the
body will return to a balanced state only when equilib-
rium is reached (Fig. 1). When standing in an upright
position, it is normal for our bodies to sway backward
and forward. It is likewise normal for us not to let this
movement continue far enough out of control to cause us
to fall. The muscular activity that prevents us from losing
balance is controlled by postural activity that receives
information from the movement itself and from visual,
somatosensory, and vestibular information received at
sensory receptors. These receptors detect any fluctua-
tions and summon muscular activity that will counter-
balance the sway (3,4).
Any movement, however slight, requires activation of
the neuromuscular systems to counter the dynamic forces
causing movement. This response can be as simple as the
activation of an opposing muscle or as complex as the
activation of a large group of regional muscles. Postural
maintenance or changes do not require conscious control
of the skeletal muscles; however, the development of
motor skills and the strengthening and conditioning of
muscles that are necessary to attain and maintain correct
posture requires attention. Those who especially rely on
postural efficacy to enhance performance or to minimize
pain should do so through carefully designed strength
conditioning programs. Therefore, the purpose of this
report is to demonstrate ways to improve postural align-
ment that may enhance vocal performance. It is impor-
tant to recognize which of the skeletal muscle groups are
involved in response to perturbation and to understand
333
the specific training components necessary to strengthen
these muscles. The training components we wish to ad-
dress in this report are: overloaa~ progressive resistance,
specificity, frequency, intensity, and duration (5). Se-
lected strengthening activities are also included, and their
effects are addressed.
In a normal individual, standing postural alignment
(Fig. 2) is characterized by the following regional de-
scriptions: a) trunk and head support--the shoulders
should be rotated posteriorly to a straight position that
should cause the thorax to raise, and the chin should be
held parallel to the floor; b) pelvic support--the pelvis
should be tilted to position the pubis directly beneath the
xyphoid process of the sternum and the caudal region
should roll forward (anteriorly); c) base of support--the
weight is placed primarily on the balls of the feet, the
heels are fiat on the floor, the feet are apart approxi-
mately shoulder width and slightly askew, and the knees
are flexed slightly.
Postural alignment involves the activation and control
of specific muscles. Carlsoo (6) suggested that certain
muscle groups are the prime postural muscles (Fig. 3).
The main prime postural muscles are the neck muscles,
trunk muscles, hamstrings, and soleus.
PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
By applying the principles of training to these main
postural muscles, postural alignment will be enhanced
and balance between synergistic muscles will be im-
proved. It is important to remember that the training
effects you desire are directly dependent upon the type,
length, and level of exercises you use. It is with this in
mind that we focus on the following training principles
and desired components of strength training.
Overload principle
To increase the strength of a muscle, it is necessary to
place a demand on the muscle that is greater than that
• shoulders rotated posteriorly to a suaight position
• chin parallel to floor
• pelvic region tilted forward
• weight on balls o f feet
• feet shoulder width apart and slightly askew
• knccs flexed slightly
FIG. 2. Characterization of postural alignment.
Journal of Voice, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1997
 334 C. M. SCHNEIDER ET AL.
• Neck Muscles - stemocleidomastoid, trapezius, splenius,
rectus anticus major and minor, longus colli, scalenus
muscles, rectus lateralis
• Trunk Muscles - trapezius, latissimus dorsi, levator anguli
scapulae, rhomboid muscles, erector spinae, pectoralis
major and minor, serratus magnus, deltoids, teres major
and minor, psoas, iliacus, tensor fasciae femoris, gracilis,
sartorius, and gluteus muscles
• Hamstrings - sartorius, gracilis, semitendinosus, biceps, and
semimembranosus
• Lower Leg Muscles - gastrocnemius, soleus, flexors, and
extensors
FIG. 3. Prime postural muscles.
which it normally encounters. Muscle strength increases
are the result of physiological adaptations to stress
placed on the muscle tissue. The stress applied must
represent an overload for adaptations to occur. The over-
load principle suggests that a threshold exists that must
be exceeded so that an adaptive response to the exercises
occurs. The threshold is generally thought of as a per-
centage of the maximum load capacity of a muscle
group. The accepted threshold for strengthening exer-
cises is approximately 40% of maximum (7). Therefore,
an exercise protocol should be designed to produce a
force against the desired muscle group in excess of 40%
of maximum (Fig. 4). As a result of the overload stress,
the muscle fibers involved increase in diameter, or hy-
pertrophy. Hypertrophy occurs because of an increase in
number and size of the myofibrils within the muscle
fibers, an increase in the amount of myosin contractile
protein, an increase in capillary density per muscle fiber,
and an increase in connective tissue. Additionally, bio-
chemically, the muscle fibers increase in concentrations
of creatine, adenosine triphosphate, glycogen, and gly-
colytic enzyme activity. Compositionally, the fast-twitch
10~ ~o (maximum) A range
4~ t% // ~areget ~ ~ training
-/tOO l o w for adaptations ~threshold
- \
0% (res0
FIG. 4. Training threshold.
Journal of Voice, Vol. I1, No. 3, 1997
muscle fibers selectively hypertrophy and, as a result,
there is a decrease in the density of mitochondria because
of the increase in myofibril size. The accumulative effect
of these changes is an increase in muscular strength. The
appropriately balanced increase in muscle strength of the
prime postural muscles would develop and enhance pos-
ture. If the resistance is not increased as the training
progresses, the level of strength will be maintained but
will not increase. To increase postural muscle strength,
training should include overload exercises that stress the
neck, trunk, and upper and lower leg muscles.
Progressive resistance principle
To assure that the overload principle is being effec-
tively incorporated into training, a progressive program
should be followed. Progressive resistance implies a
gradual increase in the resistance that is being placed on
the muscles. Progressive loads stimulate the muscle to
further adaptations in strength. Exercises involving pro-
gressive resistance would be performed in a series of sets
(i.e., three sets). Each set would consist of a specific
number of repetitions (i.e., 7-10) and would involve in-
creasing the load for each set. The loads are based on
determining the maximum load for one repetition (1
RM). The increase in load is usually done by trial and
error. Loads for each set are then determined from the 1
RM. For example, Set 1 might be done at 50% of I RM,
Set 2 at 60% of 1 RM, and Set 3 at 70% of 1 RM (Fig.
5). As strength adaptations occur, the load for progres-
sive resistance training must be reassessed.
Specificity principle
The adaptation of the muscle to training is dependent
on a number of factors; specifically, the speed at which
the exercise is done, the angle of the joints and the range
of motion involved in completing the exercise, the par-
ticular muscle group or groups involved in the move-
Determine
IRM
SET 3 = 70% 1 RM
SET 2 = 60% 1RM
SET 1 = 50% 1RM
THRESHOLD
AscendingProgressiveResistance
FIG. 5. Progressive resistance principle.
 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY AND VOCAL PERFORMANCE
ment, and the degree to which neural factors influence
the exercise. To meet the specificity-of-training prin-
ciple, the exercise patterns and speeds of movement
within the resistance program should closely resemble
the activity for which you are training. For example, if
postural adaptations are desired, the type of exercise
training employed should involve work similar to pos-
tural demands. Since postural activity involves muscles
of the neck, trunk, and legs, training must be designed to
affect each of these areas. By training the specific muscle
groups, hypertrophy and compositional, biochemical,
and neural adaptations will occur in the appropriate
muscles. The extent to which these adaptations occur is
based on the existing level of conditioning or training.
Those who have limited experience with the exercise
regimen will demonstrate a rapid increase in strength
initially, as opposed to those more familiar and accus-
tomed to the activity. This difference is due to the neural
adaptations that take place in the working muscles of the
less-trained individuals.
Frequency
To maximize the effectiveness of any training pro-
gram, exercises must be performed on a regular basis.
The number of days per week that a person should ex-
ercise is dependent on the types, levels, and modes of
exercise, as well as individual differences in general
health and physical fitness. Strengthening exercises
should be performed at least two or three times a week.
Muscles adapt more effectively if the overload exercises
are done on alternate days, with days of rest for muscle
recovery in between.
Intensity
The intensity is a predetermined percentage of the one
repetition maximum (1 RM). The intensity of the exer-
cise can be increased by increasing the percentage of the
1 RM for a given exercise set. Intensity is highly corre-
lated with the progressive resistance principle. In other
words, increased intensity means increased work.
Duration
An individual must commit a certain amount of time
to training. Effective training programs consist of a
warm-up phase, an exercise phase, and a cool-down
phase. Initial warm-up is designed to increase peripheral
blood flow to working muscles, to gradually elevate
heart rate, and to increase the cardiorespiratory demand.
It also serves to raise the core body temperature and to
prepare the body for more strenuous activity. Warm-up
activities should include low-intensity activity plus
static-stretching exercises and dynamic range-of-motion
335
exercises, which together improve flexibility and perfor-
mance. Warm-up exercises should be performed at a low
energy level and should take about 5 to 10 minutes to
complete. The duration-of-training phase will vary with
the type and purpose of the program. The exercises are
prescriptive in that they are designed to provide the
maximal fitness benefit for desired results. Therefore, for
optimal gains in strength to occur, the exercise protocol
should consist of at least three sets of progressive resis-
tance exercises per muscle group. Generally, the training
phase should last between 15 and 45 minutes. The cool-
down phase is necessary to assist the body in returning to
its resting state. The warm-up and training phases cause
many metabolic and physical demands. Stopping after
the training phase does not give the body sufficient time
to recover from these demands. Therefore, performing
low-intensity activity plus light stretching and range-of-
motion exercises like those of the warm-up phase pro-
vide the body an opportunity to recover gradually and to
return to its normal resting state.
These training principles can be applied through vari-
ous modes of exercise. The equipment and facilities
available often determine the modality. Strength training
can be accomplished on weight machines, free weights,
resistance bands, and with a calisthenics type of exercise.
It is not necessary to have extensive equipment available
to produce the desired effects. Figure 6 provides ex-
amples of exercises that, when performed appropriately,
can positively influence musculoskeletal adaptations that
can improve postural alignment. Before beginning any
type of exercise program, it is important that your phy-
sician be consulted. Preexisting conditions may require
alterations in programs designed for normal, healthy in-
dividuals. The exercises in Fig. 6 are examples of some
activities that can be used to enhance the strength of
specific postural muscles.
SUMMARY
This report explains the theory behind the training
principles in exercise physiology and applied these prin-
ciples to strengthening the muscles involved in posturai
alignment. There is considerable evidence that demon-
strates the importance of proper posture for vocal per-
formers. It is considered an essential ingredient in vocal
training (8). Postural alignment is not an inherent trait.
Therefore, the muscles involved with the development of
correct postural alignment must be trained.
Although this report emphasized the application of
training principles in exercise physiology to enhance
Journal of Voice, Vol. 11, No. 3, 1997
 NECK REGION

• Neck Flexion
Position the palms of your hands on your forehead. Keep the chin tucked downward
while flexing the neck muscles. Use your hands to resist forward flexion.

• Ne,4:kExtension
Clasps hands behind the head. Use your hands to resist the head moving backwards as
you attempt to move it posteriorly. Be sure to avoid any neck rotation.

• N ~ k Rotation
Position the palm of your fight hand on your right cheek. Your f'mgers should be
pointing posteriorly and your elbow should be pointed anteriorly. While turning your
head to the right, use your hand to resist the movement. Hold the position for several
seconds, relax, and then turn your head to the left as far as possible. Use this procedure
for the left side as well.

T R U N K AND
UPPER LEG REGION

• Bent Arm Lift

Position yourself face down on the floor (prone position) resting your forehead on a flat,
soft surface. Move your elbows until they are level with your shoulders and extend
your forearms forward. Your hands should extend just beyond your head. Raise your
arms from the floor vertically by contracting the adductors between the shoulder blades.
Keep the angle between the shoulder and elbow at 90°. To enhance your lift height,
press into the floor first and then try lifting your arms.

" fame, h L b a z . l . ~
Assume a prone position on the floor, resting your forehead on a soft, flat surface.
Extend your arms from your shoulders beyond your head. Raise both arms as high as
possible, but do not lift your head. You may try pressing downward with your arms
prior to lifting them to increase the height of your ann raise.

• Lateral Trunk Exercise FIG. 6. Exercises for correct pos-

Standing with your feet about shoulder width apart, stretch your left arm over your head tural adaptation.
as far as you are able. Move your fight arm across your body at your abdominal area
reaching as far to the left as possible. Your body should be bent laterally from the waist
up. Hold the stretched position and do not bounce downward. Repeat this on the
opposite side.

*Pelvic Tilts
Assume a supine (on your hack) position on the floor with your knees bent. Contract
the abdominal muscles as you try to lower the curve of your lower hack to the floor.
Simultaneously contract the buttocks and upper leg muscles. Hold the position and then
relax. During the exercise breathe normally and avoid holding your breath.
*Trunk Curl
Assume a supine position on the floor with your knees bent. R O L L your head, neck,
and shoulders forward as far as possible without allowing the lower region of your hack
to lift. Hold the position and then relax.

*Knee to Chest Exercise

Assume a supine position on the floor. Wrap your arms around the hack of your knees
and pull them toward your chest. Curl the pelvis and upper body off of the floor. Hold
the position and then relax.

-&mLI,e,s.~.~,r,~
Sit on the floor and place the soles of your feet flat against a wall. Bend the left knee and
slide the left foot-as close to the buttocks as possible. Reach behind your back with both
hands and clasp them firmly. Bend forward at the hips, but keep your lower back as
straight as possible. Allow the bent knee to move outward to allow the trunk to move
forward. Do not bounce as you lean forward.

LOWER LEG REGION

*Toe Raises
Standing upright with your feet flat on the floor, lift the toes on your fight foot upward.
Hold the position and then relax. Repeat with the other foot.

336
 EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY AND VOCAL PERFORMANCE
postural muscle integrity, it has given only one example
of how exercise physiology can be applied to vocal train-
ing.
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Philadelphia: F.A. Davis, 1983.
3. Dietz V. Human neuronal control of automatic functional move-
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ment: Interaction between central programs and afferent input.
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4. Enoka RM. Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology, 2nd ed. Cham-
paign, 1L: Human Kinetics Books, 1994.
5. Heyward BH. Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Pre-
scription, 2nd ed. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Books, 1991
6. Carlsoo S. The static muscle load in different work positions: an
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ratories, 6th ed. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown, 1988.
8. Henderson LB. How to Train Singers. New York: Parker Publish-
ing, 1979.
Journal ofVoice, VoL 11, No. 3, 1997