Pilot’s Handbook of

Aeronautical Knowledge

2016

U.S. Department of Transportation

FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Flight Standards Service
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge
2016
FAA-H-8083-25B

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, Washington 98059-3153

© 2016 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

This electronic publication is comprised of the same content as the Federal Aviation Administration’s
official release of this same title. ASA does not claim copyright on any material published herein that
was taken from United States government sources. All rights reserved. No part of this electronic file
may be reproduced, transmitted, shared, distributed or resold without written permission from the
publisher.

ASA-8083-25B-PD
ISBN 978-1-61954-476-5
Preface

The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides basic knowledge that is essential for pilots. This handbook
introduces pilots to the broad spectrum of knowledge that will be needed as they progress in their pilot training. Except for
the Code of Federal Regulations pertinent to civil aviation, most of the knowledge areas applicable to pilot certification are
presented. This handbook is useful to beginning pilots, as well as those pursuing more advanced pilot certificates.

Occasionally the word “must” or similar language is used where the desired action is deemed critical. The use of such language
is not intended to add to, interpret, or relieve a duty imposed by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR).

It is essential for persons using this handbook to become familiar with and apply the pertinent parts of 14 CFR and the
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). The AIM is available online at www.faa.gov. The current Flight Standards
Service airman training and testing material and learning statements for all airman certificates and ratings can be obtained
from www.faa.gov.

This handbook supersedes FAA-H-8083-25A, Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, dated 2008.

This handbook is available for download, in PDF format, from www.faa.gov.

This handbook is published by the United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman
Testing Standards Branch, AFS-630, P.O. Box 25082, Oklahoma City, OK 73125.

Comments regarding this publication should be sent, in email form, to the following address:

AFS630comments@faa.gov

John S. Duncan
Director, Flight Standards Service

iii
Acknowledgments
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge was produced by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) with the
assistance of Safety Research Corporation of America. The FAA wishes to acknowledge the following contributors:

Mrs. Nancy A. Wright for providing imagery of a de Haviland DH-4 inaugural air mail flight (Chapter 1)
The Raab Collection, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for images of the first pilot license (Chapter 1)
Sandy Kenyon and Rod Magner (magicair.com) for photo of 1929 TravelAir 4000 (Chapter 1)
Dr. Pat Veillette for information used on decision-making (Chapter 2)
Adventure Seaplanes for photos of a ski and float training plane (Chapter 3)
Jack Davis, Stearman Restorers Asociation, for photo of a 1941 PT-17 Army Air Corps trainer (Chapter 3)
Michael J. Hoke, Abaris Training Resources, Inc., for images and information about composite aircraft (Chapter 3)
Colin Cutler, Boldmethod, for images and content on the topic of ground effect (Chapter 5)
Mark R. Korin, Alpha Systems, for images of AOA disaplys (Chapter 5)
M. van Leeuwen (www.zap16.com) for image of Piaggio P-180 (Chapter 6)
Greg Richter, Blue Mountain Avionics, for autopilot information and imagery (Chapter 6)
Mountain High E&S Company for various images provided regarding oxygen systems (Chapter 7)
Jeff Callahan, Aerox, for image of MSK-AS Silicone Mask without Microphone (Chapter 7)
Nonin Medical, Inc. for image of Onyx pulse oximeter (Chapter 7)
Pilotfriend.com for photo of a TKS Weeping Wing (Chapter 7)
Chelton Flight Systems for image of FlightLogic (Chapter 8)
Avidyne Corporation for image of the Entegra (Chapter 8)
Teledyne Controls for image of an air data computer (Chapter 8)
Watson Industries, Inc. (www.watson-gyro.com) for image of Attitude and Heading Reference system (Chapter 8)
Engineering Arresting Systems Corporation (www.esco.zodiacaerospace.com) for EMAS imagery and EMASMAX
technical digrams (Chapter 14)
Caasey Rose and Jose Roggeveen (burningholesinthesky.wordpress.com) for flight checklist image (Chapter 14)
Tim Murnahan for images of EMAS at Yeager Airport, Charleston, West Virginia, and EMAS arrested
aircraft (Chapter 14)
Cessna Aircraft Company, Columbia Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation, Eclipse Aviation Corporation, Garmin Ltd.,
The Boeing Company for images provided and used throughout the Handbook.

Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety Foundation,
the General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA), and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for
their technical support and input.

Disclaimer: Information in Chapter 14 pertaining to Runway Incursion Avoidance was created using FAA orders, documents,
and Advisory Circulars that were current at the date of publication. Users should not assume that all references are current
and should check often for reference updates.

v
Table of Contents
Preface....................................................................iii
Acknowledgments...................................................v
Table of Contents..................................................vii
Chapter 1
Introduction To Flying..........................................1-1
Introduction.....................................................................1-1
History of Flight..............................................................1-2
History of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) .1-3
Transcontinental Air Mail Route.................................1-4
Federal Certification of Pilots and Mechanics............1-4
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958...............................1-6
Department of Transportation (DOT).........................1-6
ATC Automation.........................................................1-6
The Professional Air Traffic Controllers
Organization (PATCO) Strike.....................................1-6
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978........................1-7
The Role of the FAA.......................................................1-7
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).....................1-7
Primary Locations of the FAA....................................1-8
Field Offices............................................................1-8
Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI) .................................1-9
FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam).................................1-9
Obtaining Assistance from the FAA...........................1-9
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)................1-9
Handbooks.............................................................1-10
Advisory Circulars (ACs)......................................1-10
Flight Publications.................................................1-11
Pilot and Aeronautical Information ..........................1-12
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) .............................1-12
Safety Program Airmen Notification System
(SPANS)................................................................1-14
Aircraft Classifications and Ultralight Vehicles...........1-14
Pilot Certifications........................................................1-16
Privileges:..............................................................1-16
Limitations:............................................................1-17
Recreational Pilot......................................................1-17
Privileges:..............................................................1-17
Limitations:............................................................1-17
Private Pilot...............................................................1-17
Commercial Pilot.......................................................1-18
Airline Transport Pilot..............................................1-18
Selecting a Flight School .............................................1-18
How To Find a Reputable Flight Program................1-19
How To Choose a Certificated Flight
Instructor (CFI).........................................................1-19
The Student Pilot .........................................................1-20
Basic Requirements...................................................1-20
Medical Certification Requirements......................1-20
Becoming a Pilot...........................................................1-21
Knowledge and Skill Tests...........................................1-21
Knowledge Tests.......................................................1-21
When To Take the Knowledge Test......................1-22
Practical Test.............................................................1-22
When To Take the Practical Test...........................1-23
Who Administers the FAA Practical Tests?..........1-23
Role of the Certificated Flight Instructor..................1-23
Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner ....................1-24
Chapter Summary ........................................................1-24
Chapter 2
Aeronautical Decision-Making............................2-1
Introduction.....................................................................2-1
History of ADM..............................................................2-2
Risk Management...........................................................2-3
Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Single-
Pilot Resource Management...........................................2-4
Hazard and Risk..............................................................2-4
Hazardous Attitudes and Antidotes.............................2-5
Risk..............................................................................2-6
Assessing Risk.........................................................2-6
Mitigating Risk........................................................2-8
The PAVE Checklist ..................................................2-8
P = Pilot in Command (PIC) ...................................2-8
A = Aircraft ............................................................2-8
V = EnVironment....................................................2-9
E = External Pressures.............................................2-9
Human Factors..............................................................2-10
vii
Human Behavior...........................................................2-11
The Decision-Making Process......................................2-12
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) ............2-13
The 5 Ps Check .........................................................2-13
The Plan ................................................................2-14
The Plane ..............................................................2-14
The Pilot ................................................................2-14
The Passengers ......................................................2-14
The Programming .................................................2-15
Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model....................2-15
PAVE Checklist: Identify Hazards and
Personal Minimums...............................................2-15
CARE Checklist: Review Hazards and
Evaluate Risks.......................................................2-16
TEAM Checklist: Choose and Implement
Risk Controls.........................................................2-16
The DECIDE Model..............................................2-18
Detect (the Problem)..............................................2-20
Estimate (the Need To React)................................2-20
Choose (a Course of Action).................................2-20
Identify (Solutions)................................................2-20
Do (the Necessary Actions)...................................2-20
Evaluate (the Effect of the Action) .......................2-20
Decision-Making in a Dynamic Environment .............2-21
Automatic Decision-Making ....................................2-21
Operational Pitfalls................................................2-21
Stress Management...................................................2-21
Use of Resources.......................................................2-21
Internal Resources.................................................2-23
External Resources................................................2-23
Situational Awareness...................................................2-24
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness......2-24
Workload Management.........................................2-24
Managing Risks.....................................................2-25
Automation...................................................................2-25
Results of the Study...................................................2-27
Equipment Use..........................................................2-27
Autopilot Systems..................................................2-27
Familiarity..............................................................2-27
Respect for Onboard Systems................................2-29
Getting Beyond Rote Workmanship......................2-29
Understand the Platform .......................................2-29
Managing Aircraft Automation ................................2-29
Information Management......................................2-30
Enhanced Situational Awareness..............................2-30
Automation Management..........................................2-31
Risk Management......................................................2-31
Chapter Summary ........................................................2-32
viii
Chapter 3
Aircraft Construction...........................................3-1
Introduction.....................................................................3-1
Aircraft Design, Certification, and Airworthiness..........3-2
A Note About Light Sport Aircraft.............................3-2
Lift and Basic Aerodynamics..........................................3-2
Major Components..........................................................3-3
Fuselage.......................................................................3-3
Wings..........................................................................3-3
Empennage..................................................................3-6
Landing Gear...............................................................3-7
The Powerplant...........................................................3-7
Subcomponents...............................................................3-8
Types of Aircraft Construction.......................................3-8
Truss Structure............................................................3-8
Semimonocoque..........................................................3-9
Composite Construction..............................................3-9
History.....................................................................3-9
Advantages of Composites....................................3-10
Disadvantages of Composites................................3-10
Fluid Spills on Composites....................................3-11
Lightning Strike Protection....................................3-11
The Future of Composites.....................................3-12
Instrumentation: Moving into the Future .....................3-12
Control Instruments ..................................................3-13
Navigation Instruments ............................................3-13
Global Positioning System (GPS).................................3-13
Chapter Summary.........................................................3-13
Chapter 4
Principles of Flight...............................................4-1
Introduction.....................................................................4-1
Structure of the Atmosphere...........................................4-1
Air is a Fluid ...............................................................4-2
Viscosity..................................................................4-2
Friction.....................................................................4-2
Pressure....................................................................4-3
Atmospheric Pressure..................................................4-3
Pressure Altitude.........................................................4-4
Density Altitude..........................................................4-4
Effect of Pressure on Density..................................4-4
Effect of Temperature on Density...........................4-4
Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density..............4-5
Theories in the Production of Lift...................................4-5
Newton’s Basic Laws of Motion.................................4-5
Bernoulli’s Principle of Differential Pressure.............4-6
Airfoil Design.................................................................4-6
Low Pressure Above...................................................4-7
High Pressure Below...................................................4-8
 Pressure Distribution...................................................4-8
Airfoil Behavior..........................................................4-8
A Third Dimension.........................................................4-9
Chapter Summary...........................................................4-9
Chapter 5
Aerodynamics of Flight........................................5-1
Forces Acting on the Aircraft.........................................5-1
Thrust..........................................................................5-2
Lift...............................................................................5-3
Lift/Drag Ratio.........................................................5-5
Drag.............................................................................5-6
Parasite Drag............................................................5-6
Induced Drag...........................................................5-7
Weight.........................................................................5-8
Wingtip Vortices.............................................................5-8
Formation of Vortices.................................................5-8
Avoiding Wake Turbulence........................................5-9
Ground Effect................................................................5-11
Axes of an Aircraft........................................................5-12
Moment and Moment Arm...........................................5-13
Aircraft Design Characteristics ....................................5-14
Stability.....................................................................5-14
Static Stability........................................................5-14
Dynamic Stability..................................................5-14
Longitudinal Stability (Pitching)...........................5-15
Lateral Stability (Rolling)......................................5-17
Directional Stability (Yawing)..............................5-19
Free Directional Oscillations (Dutch Roll)...............5-20
Spiral Instability........................................................5-20
Effect of Wing Planform ..............................................5-20
Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers....................5-22
Forces in Turns..........................................................5-22
Forces in Climbs........................................................5-23
Forces in Descents.....................................................5-24
Stalls .............................................................................5-25
Angle of Attack Indicators............................................5-26
Basic Propeller Principles.............................................5-28
Torque and P-Factor..................................................5-30
Torque Reaction........................................................5-31
Corkscrew Effect.......................................................5-31
Gyroscopic Action.....................................................5-31
Asymmetric Loading (P-Factor)...............................5-32
Load Factors..................................................................5-33
Load Factors in Aircraft Design................................5-33
Load Factors in Steep Turns......................................5-34
Load Factors and Stalling Speeds.............................5-34
Load Factors and Flight Maneuvers..........................5-36
Vg Diagram...............................................................5-37
Rate of Turn..............................................................5-38
Radius of Turn...........................................................5-39
Weight and Balance......................................................5-40
Effect of Weight on Flight Performance...................5-42
Effect of Weight on Aircraft Structure......................5-42
Effect of Weight on Stability and Controllability.....5-42
Effect of Load Distribution.......................................5-43
High Speed Flight.........................................................5-44
Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow............................5-44
Speed Ranges............................................................5-44
Mach Number Versus Airspeed................................5-45
Boundary Layer.........................................................5-46
Laminar Boundary Layer Flow.............................5-46
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow...........................5-46
Boundary Layer Separation...................................5-46
Shock Waves.............................................................5-46
Sweepback.................................................................5-48
Mach Buffet Boundaries...........................................5-49
High Speed Flight Controls.......................................5-49
Chapter Summary.........................................................5-51
Chapter 6
Flight Controls......................................................6-1
Introduction.....................................................................6-1
Flight Control Systems ..................................................6-2
Flight Controls.............................................................6-2
Primary Flight Controls...............................................6-2
Elevator....................................................................6-5
T-Tail.......................................................................6-6
Stabilator..................................................................6-7
Canard......................................................................6-7
Rudder......................................................................6-8
V-Tail.......................................................................6-8
Secondary Flight Controls...........................................6-8
Flaps.........................................................................6-8
Leading Edge Devices.............................................6-9
Spoilers..................................................................6-10
Trim Tabs...............................................................6-10
Balance Tabs..........................................................6-11
Servo Tabs.............................................................6-11
Antiservo Tabs.......................................................6-11
Ground Adjustable Tabs........................................6-11
Adjustable Stabilizer..............................................6-12
Autopilot.......................................................................6-12
Chapter Summary.........................................................6-12
Chapter 7
Aircraft Systems...................................................7-1
Introduction.....................................................................7-1
Powerplant......................................................................7-1
Reciprocating Engines.................................................7-2
Propeller......................................................................7-4
ix
 Fixed-Pitch Propeller...............................................7-5
Adjustable-Pitch Propeller.......................................7-6
Propeller Overspeed in Piston Engine Aircraft.......7-7
Induction Systems.......................................................7-7
Carburetor Systems.....................................................7-8
Mixture Control.......................................................7-9
Carburetor Icing.......................................................7-9
Carburetor Heat.....................................................7-10
Carburetor Air Temperature Gauge.......................7-11
Outside Air Temperature Gauge...............................7-11
Fuel Injection Systems..............................................7-11
Superchargers and Turbosuperchargers........................7-12
Superchargers............................................................7-12
Turbosuperchargers...................................................7-13
System Operation...................................................7-14
High Altitude Performance....................................7-14
Ignition System.............................................................7-15
Oil Systems...................................................................7-16
Engine Cooling Systems...............................................7-17
Exhaust Systems...........................................................7-18
Starting System.............................................................7-18
Combustion...................................................................7-18
Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC).........7-20
Turbine Engines............................................................7-20
Types of Turbine Engines.........................................7-20
Turbojet..................................................................7-20
Turboprop..............................................................7-21
Turbofan................................................................7-21
Turboshaft..............................................................7-21
Turbine Engine Instruments......................................7-22
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) ................................7-22
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) .........................7-22
Torquemeter...........................................................7-22
N1 Indicator............................................................7-23
N2 Indicator............................................................7-23
Turbine Engine Operational Considerations.............7-23
Engine Temperature Limitations...........................7-23
Thrust Variations...................................................7-23
Foreign Object Damage (FOD).............................7-23
Turbine Engine Hot/Hung Start.............................7-23
Compressor Stalls..................................................7-23
Flameout................................................................7-24
Performance Comparison..........................................7-24
Airframe Systems .........................................................7-25
Fuel Systems.................................................................7-25
Gravity-Feed System ................................................7-25
Fuel-Pump System....................................................7-25
Fuel Primer................................................................7-25
Fuel Tanks.................................................................7-25
x
Fuel Gauges...............................................................7-26
Fuel Selectors............................................................7-26
Fuel Strainers, Sumps, and Drains............................7-27
Fuel Grades...............................................................7-27
Fuel Contamination...................................................7-27
Fuel System Icing......................................................7-28
Prevention Procedures...........................................7-28
Refueling Procedures....................................................7-29
Heating System.............................................................7-29
Fuel Fired Heaters.....................................................7-29
Exhaust Heating Systems..........................................7-29
Combustion Heater Systems.....................................7-29
Bleed Air Heating Systems.......................................7-30
Electrical System..........................................................7-30
Hydraulic Systems........................................................7-31
Landing Gear.............................................................7-33
Tricycle Landing Gear...........................................7-33
Tailwheel Landing Gear........................................7-33
Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear.....................7-34
Brakes........................................................................7-34
Pressurized Aircraft......................................................7-34
Oxygen Systems...........................................................7-37
Oxygen Masks...........................................................7-38
Cannula......................................................................7-38
Pressure-Demand Oxygen Systems..........................7-38
Continuous-Flow Oxygen System............................7-38
Electrical Pulse-Demand Oxygen System.................7-38
Pulse Oximeters.........................................................7-39
Servicing of Oxygen Systems...................................7-39
Anti-Ice and Deice Systems..........................................7-40
Airfoil Anti-Ice and Deice ........................................7-40
Windscreen Anti-Ice.................................................7-41
Propeller Anti-Ice......................................................7-41
Other Anti-Ice and Deice Systems............................7-41
Chapter Summary.........................................................7-41
Chapter 8
Flight Instruments................................................8-1
Introduction.....................................................................8-1
Pitot-Static Flight Instruments........................................8-1
Impact Pressure Chamber and Lines...........................8-2
Static Pressure Chamber and Lines.............................8-2
Altimeter......................................................................8-3
Principle of Operation..............................................8-3
Effect of Nonstandard Pressure and Temperature...8-4
Setting the Altimeter................................................8-5
Altimeter Operation.................................................8-6
Types of Altitude.....................................................8-6
Instrument Check.....................................................8-7
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)....................................8-7
 Principle of Operation..............................................8-7
Instrument Check.....................................................8-8
Airspeed Indicator (ASI).............................................8-8
Airspeed Indicator Markings...................................8-9
Other Airspeed Limitations.....................................8-9
Instrument Check...................................................8-10
Blockage of the Pitot-Static System..........................8-10
Blocked Pitot System.............................................8-10
Blocked Static System...........................................8-11
Electronic Flight Display (EFD)...................................8-12
Airspeed Tape...........................................................8-12
Attitude Indicator......................................................8-13
Altimeter....................................................................8-13
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI)..................................8-13
Heading Indicator......................................................8-13
Turn Indicator............................................................8-13
Tachometer................................................................8-13
Slip/Skid Indicator.....................................................8-13
Turn Rate Indicator...................................................8-13
Air Data Computer (ADC)........................................8-14
Trend Vectors............................................................8-14
Gyroscopic Flight Instruments......................................8-15
Gyroscopic Principles...............................................8-15
Rigidity in Space....................................................8-15
Precession..............................................................8-15
Sources of Power.......................................................8-16
Turn Indicators..........................................................8-16
Turn-and-Slip Indicator.........................................8-16
Turn Coordinator...................................................8-17
Inclinometer..............................................................8-18
Yaw String.............................................................8-18
Instrument Check...................................................8-18
Attitude Indicator......................................................8-18
Heading Indicator......................................................8-19
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS)....8-20
The Flux Gate Compass System...............................8-20
Remote Indicating Compass......................................8-21
Instrument Check...................................................8-22
Angle of Attack Indicators............................................8-22
Compass Systems.........................................................8-23
Magnetic Compass....................................................8-23
Magnetic Compass Induced Errors........................8-24
The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass......................8-27
Lags or Leads.........................................................8-27
Eddy Current Damping..........................................8-27
Outside Air Temperature (OAT) Gauge.......................8-28
Chapter Summary.........................................................8-28
Chapter 9
Flight Manuals and Other Documents................9-1
Introduction.....................................................................9-1
Preliminary Pages........................................................9-2
General (Section 1)......................................................9-2
Limitations (Section 2)................................................9-2
Airspeed...................................................................9-2
Powerplant...............................................................9-3
Weight and Loading Distribution............................9-3
Flight Limits............................................................9-4
Placards....................................................................9-4
Emergency Procedures (Section 3).............................9-4
Normal Procedures (Section 4)...................................9-4
Performance (Section 5)..............................................9-4
Weight and Balance/Equipment List (Section 6)........9-4
Systems Description (Section 7).................................9-4
Handling, Service, and Maintenance (Section 8)........9-5
Supplements (Section 9)..............................................9-5
Safety Tips (Section 10)..............................................9-6
Aircraft Documents.........................................................9-6
Certificate of Aircraft Registration.............................9-6
Airworthiness Certificate............................................9-7
Aircraft Maintenance...................................................9-8
Aircraft Inspections.........................................................9-8
Annual Inspection.......................................................9-8
100-Hour Inspection....................................................9-8
Other Inspection Programs..........................................9-9
Altimeter System Inspection ...................................9-9
Transponder Inspection...........................................9-9
Emergency Locator Transmitter..............................9-9
Preflight Inspections................................................9-9
Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL) and Operations
With Inoperative Equipment ..........................................9-9
Preventive Maintenance................................................9-10
Maintenance Entries..............................................9-10
Examples of Preventive Maintenance...................9-10
Repairs and Alterations.............................................9-12
Special Flight Permits...............................................9-12
Airworthiness Directives (ADs)...................................9-12
Aircraft Owner/Operator Responsibilities....................9-13
Chapter Summary.........................................................9-13
Chapter 10
Weight and Balance...........................................10-1
Introduction...................................................................10-1
Weight Control..............................................................10-1
Effects of Weight......................................................10-2
Weight Changes........................................................10-2
xi
Balance, Stability, and Center of Gravity.....................10-2
Effects of Adverse Balance.......................................10-3
Stability..................................................................10-3
Control...................................................................10-3
Management of Weight and Balance Control...........10-4
Terms and Definitions...............................................10-4
Principles of Weight and Balance Computations......10-5
Weight and Balance Restrictions..............................10-6
Determining Loaded Weight and CG...........................10-7
Computational Method..............................................10-7
Graph Method...........................................................10-7
Table Method............................................................10-9
Computations With a Negative Arm.......................10-10
Computations With Zero Fuel Weight....................10-10
Shifting, Adding, and Removing Weight................10-10
Weight Shifting....................................................10-10
Weight Addition or Removal...............................10-11
Chapter Summary.......................................................10-11
Chapter 11
Aircraft Performance..........................................11-1
Introduction...................................................................11-1
Importance of Performance Data..................................11-1
Structure of the Atmosphere.........................................11-2
Atmospheric Pressure...................................................11-2
Pressure Altitude...........................................................11-3
Density Altitude............................................................11-3
Effects of Pressure on Density..................................11-4
Effects of Temperature on Density...........................11-5
Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density..............11-5
Performance..................................................................11-5
Straight-and-Level Flight..........................................11-5
Climb Performance...................................................11-6
Angle of Climb (AOC)..........................................11-7
Rate of Climb (ROC).............................................11-7
Climb Performance Factors...................................11-8
Range Performance...................................................11-9
Region of Reversed Command...............................11-11
Takeoff and Landing Performance..........................11-12
Runway Surface and Gradient.................................11-12
Water on the Runway and Dynamic
Hydroplaning...........................................................11-13
Takeoff Performance...............................................11-14
Landing Performance..............................................11-16
Performance Speeds....................................................11-18
Performance Charts.....................................................11-19
Interpolation............................................................11-20
Density Altitude Charts...........................................11-20
Takeoff Charts.........................................................11-20
Climb and Cruise Charts.........................................11-21
Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart..........11-25
xii
Landing Charts........................................................11-26
Stall Speed Performance Charts..............................11-27
Transport Category Aircraft Performance..................11-28
Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance Requirements............11-28
Chapter Summary.......................................................11-28
Chapter 12
Weather Theory..................................................12-1
Introduction...................................................................12-1
Atmosphere...................................................................12-2
Composition of the Atmosphere...............................12-2
Atmospheric Circulation...........................................12-3
Atmospheric Pressure................................................12-3
Coriolis Force................................................................12-3
Measurement of Atmosphere Pressure.........................12-4
Altitude and Atmospheric Pressure..............................12-5
Altitude and Flight........................................................12-6
Altitude and the Human Body......................................12-6
Wind and Currents........................................................12-7
Wind Patterns............................................................12-7
Convective Currents..................................................12-7
Effect of Obstructions on Wind................................12-8
Low-Level Wind Shear...........................................12-11
Wind and Pressure Representation on Surface
Weather Maps.........................................................12-12
Atmospheric Stability.................................................12-12
Inversion..................................................................12-13
Moisture and Temperature......................................12-13
Relative Humidity...................................................12-13
Temperature/Dew Point Relationship.....................12-13
Methods by Which Air Reaches the Saturation
Point........................................................................12-14
Dew and Frost.........................................................12-15
Fog...........................................................................12-15
Clouds......................................................................12-15
Ceiling.....................................................................12-17
Visibility..................................................................12-17
Precipitation............................................................12-17
Air Masses..................................................................12-17
Fronts..........................................................................12-18
Warm Front.............................................................12-18
Flight Toward an Approaching Warm Front.......12-19
Cold Front...............................................................12-20
Fast-Moving Cold Front......................................12-20
Flight Toward an Approaching Cold Front.........12-20
Comparison of Cold and Warm Fronts...................12-20
Wind Shifts..............................................................12-21
Stationary Front.......................................................12-21
Occluded Front........................................................12-21
Thunderstorms.........................................................12-22
Hazards ...............................................................12-23
 Squall Line ..........................................................12-23
Tornadoes ...........................................................12-23
Turbulence ..........................................................12-24
Icing ....................................................................12-24
Hail .....................................................................12-25
Ceiling and Visibility ..........................................12-25
Effect on Altimeters ............................................12-25
Lightning..............................................................12-25
Engine Water Ingestion ......................................12-25
Chapter Summary.......................................................12-25
Chapter 13
Aviation Weather Services................................13-1
Introduction...................................................................13-1
Observations.................................................................13-2
Surface Aviation Weather Observations...................13-2
Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC).........13-2
Upper Air Observations............................................13-2
Radar Observations...................................................13-3
Satellite......................................................................13-4
Service Outlets..............................................................13-4
Flight Service Station (FSS)......................................13-4
Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS)......13-4
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory
Service (HIWAS)......................................................13-4
Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB)
(Alaska Only) ...........................................................13-4
Weather Briefings.........................................................13-5
Standard Briefing......................................................13-5
Abbreviated Briefing.................................................13-5
Outlook Briefing.......................................................13-5
Aviation Weather Reports.............................................13-5
Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)...........13-6
Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs)...............................13-8
Aviation Forecasts.....................................................13-9
Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF)......................13-9
Area Forecasts (FA)................................................13-10
Inflight Weather Advisories....................................13-11
AIRMET..............................................................13-11
SIGMET..............................................................13-12
Convective Significant Meteorological
Information (WST)..............................................13-12
Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FB)..........13-13
Weather Charts............................................................13-13
Surface Analysis Chart............................................13-13
Weather Depiction Chart.........................................13-15
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts...................13-15
ATC Radar Weather Displays ...................................13-16
Weather Avoidance Assistance...............................13-18
Electronic Flight Displays (EFD) /Multi-Function
Display (MFD) Weather ............................................13-18
Weather Products Age and Expiration....................13-18
What Can Pilots Do?...........................................13-19
NEXRAD Abnormalities.....................................13-21
NEXRAD Limitations.........................................13-21
AIRMET/SIGMET Display....................................13-21
Graphical METARs.................................................13-21
Data Link Weather..................................................13-21
Data Link Weather Products...................................13-23
Flight Information Service- Broadcast (FIS-B)...13-23
Pilot Responsibility.....................................................13-24
Chapter Summary.......................................................13-24
Chapter 14
Airport Operations..............................................14-1
Introduction...................................................................14-1
Airport Categories.........................................................14-1
Types of Airports......................................................14-2
Towered Airport....................................................14-2
Nontowered Airport...............................................14-2
Sources for Airport Data...............................................14-3
Aeronautical Charts...................................................14-3
Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory)..................................................................14-3
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)...................................14-4
Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)....14-5
Airport Markings and Signs..........................................14-5
Runway Markings and Signs.....................................14-5
Relocated Runway Threshold................................14-5
Displaced Threshold..............................................14-5
Runway Safety Area .............................................14-6
Runway Safety Area Boundary Sign.....................14-6
Runway Holding Position Sign.............................14-6
Runway Holding Position Marking.......................14-8
Runway Distance Remaining Signs.......................14-8
Runway Designation Marking...............................14-8
Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)........14-10
Taxiway Markings and Signs..................................14-11
Enhanced Taxiway Centerline Markings.............14-12
Destination Signs.................................................14-12
Holding Position Signs and Markings for an
Instrument Landing System (ILS) Critical Area...14-12
Holding Position Markings for Taxiway/Taxiway
Intersections.........................................................14-14
Marking and Lighting of Permanently Closed
Runways and Taxiways.......................................14-14
Temporarily Closed Runways and Taxiways......14-15
Other Markings.......................................................14-15
Airport Signs...........................................................14-15
Airport Lighting..........................................................14-16
Airport Beacon........................................................14-16
xiii
 Approach Light Systems.........................................14-16
Visual Glideslope Indicators...................................14-16
Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI)............14-16
Other Glidepath Systems.....................................14-16
Runway Lighting.....................................................14-17
Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL).................14-17
Runway Edge Lights............................................14-17
In-Runway Lighting.............................................14-18
Control of Airport Lighting.....................................14-18
Taxiway Lights........................................................14-19
Omnidirectional ..................................................14-19
Clearance Bar Lights...........................................14-19
Runway Guard Lights..........................................14-19
Stop Bar Lights....................................................14-19
Obstruction Lights...................................................14-19
New Lighting Technologies....................................14-19
Wind Direction Indicators...........................................14-20
Traffic Patterns ...........................................................14-20
Example: Key to Traffic Pattern Operations—
Single Runway........................................................14-21
Example: Key to Traffic Pattern Operations—
Parallel Runways.....................................................14-21
Radio Communications...............................................14-22
Radio License..........................................................14-22
Radio Equipment.....................................................14-22
Using Proper Radio Procedures .............................14-22
Lost Communication Procedures............................14-23
Air Traffic Control (ATC) Services............................14-24
Primary Radar.........................................................14-24
ATC Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS).................14-24
Transponder.............................................................14-25
Automatic Dependent Surveillance–
Broadcast (ADS-B).................................................14-26
Radar Traffic Advisories.........................................14-26
Wake Turbulence........................................................14-26
Vortex Generation...................................................14-26
Terminal Area .....................................................14-27
En Route..............................................................14-27
Vortex Behavior......................................................14-27
Vortex Avoidance Procedures.................................14-28
Collision Avoidance....................................................14-28
Clearing Procedures................................................14-28
Pilot Deviations (PDs).............................................14-30
Runway Incursion Avoidance.................................14-30
Causal Factors of Runway Incursions.....................14-31
Runway Confusion..................................................14-31
Causal Factors of Runway Confusion.................14-31
ATC Instructions.....................................................14-32
ATC Instructions—“Hold Short” .......................14-32
xiv
ATC Instructions—Explicit Runway Crossing..... 14-33
ATC Instructions—“Line Up and Wait”
(LUAW)...............................................................14-33
ATC Instructions—“Runway Shortened”...........14-34
Pre-Landing, Landing, and After-Landing..............14-34
Engineered Materials Arresting Systems (EMAS).....14-35
Incidents..................................................................14-35
EMAS Installations and Information......................14-35
Pilot Considerations................................................14-36
Chapter Summary.......................................................14-37
Chapter 15
Airspace..............................................................15-1
Introduction...................................................................15-1
Controlled Airspace......................................................15-2
Class A Airspace.......................................................15-2
Class B Airspace.......................................................15-2
Class C Airspace.......................................................15-2
Class D Airspace.......................................................15-2
Class E Airspace........................................................15-2
Uncontrolled Airspace..................................................15-3
Class G Airspace.......................................................15-3
Special Use Airspace....................................................15-3
Prohibited Areas........................................................15-3
Restricted Areas........................................................15-3
Warning Areas...........................................................15-4
Military Operation Areas (MOAs)............................15-4
Alert Areas................................................................15-4
Controlled Firing Areas (CFAs)................................15-4
Other Airspace Areas....................................................15-4
Local Airport Advisory (LAA).................................15-6
Military Training Routes (MTRs).............................15-6
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR).......................15-6
Published VFR Routes..............................................15-6
Terminal Radar Service Areas (TRSAs)...................15-7
National Security Areas (NSAs)...............................15-7
Air Traffic Control and the National Airspace System...15-7
Coordinating the Use of Airspace.............................15-7
Operating in the Various Types of Airspace.............15-7
Basic VFR Weather Minimums.............................15-7
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment
Requirements.........................................................15-8
Ultralight Vehicles...............................................15-11
Unmanned Free Balloons....................................15-11
Unmanned Aircraft Systems................................15-11
Parachute Jumps..................................................15-11
Chapter Summary.......................................................15-11
Chapter 16
Navigation...........................................................16-1
Introduction...................................................................16-1
Aeronautical Charts......................................................16-2
Sectional Charts.........................................................16-2
VFR Terminal Area Charts.......................................16-2
World Aeronautical Charts........................................16-2
Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels)........16-3
Time Zones................................................................16-3
Measurement of Direction.........................................16-5
Variation....................................................................16-6
Magnetic Variation................................................16-7
Magnetic Deviation...............................................16-7
Deviation...................................................................16-8
Effect of Wind...............................................................16-8
Basic Calculations.......................................................16-11
Converting Minutes to Equivalent Hours................16-11
Time T = D/GS....................................................16-11
Distance D = GS X T...........................................16-11
GS GS = D/T.......................................................16-11
Converting Knots to Miles Per Hour.......................16-11
Fuel Consumption...................................................16-11
Flight Computers.....................................................16-12
Plotter......................................................................16-12
Pilotage.......................................................................16-12
Dead Reckoning..........................................................16-13
Wind Triangle or Vector Analysis..........................16-13
Step 1...................................................................16-14
Step 2...................................................................16-15
Step 3...................................................................16-15
Step 4...................................................................16-15
Flight Planning............................................................16-17
Assembling Necessary Material..............................16-17
Weather Check........................................................16-17
Use of Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly
Airport/Facility Directory)......................................16-17
Airplane Flight Manual or Pilot’s Operating
Handbook (AFM/POH)...........................................16-17
Charting the Course....................................................16-18
Steps in Charting the Course...................................16-18
Filing a VFR Flight Plan.............................................16-21
Ground-Based Navigation..........................................16-22
Very High Frequency (VHF) Omnidirectional
Range (VOR)...........................................................16-22
Using the VOR....................................................16-23
Course Deviation Indicator (CDI)...........................16-23
Horizontal Situation Indicator.................................16-24
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI).............................16-24
Tracking With VOR................................................16-25
Tips on Using the VOR...........................................16-26
Time and Distance Check From a Station Using
a RMI.......................................................................16-26
Time and Distance Check From a Station Using
a CDI.......................................................................16-27
Course Intercept .....................................................16-27
Rate of Intercept..................................................16-27
Angle of Intercept ...............................................16-27
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)..................16-27
VOR/DME RNAV..................................................16-28
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF).........................16-29
Global Positioning System......................................16-30
Selective Availability...........................................16-31
VFR Use of GPS .................................................16-32
RAIM Capability.................................................16-32
Tips for Using GPS for VFR Operations................16-33
VFR Waypoints ......................................................16-33
Lost Procedures...........................................................16-34
Flight Diversion..........................................................16-34
Chapter Summary.......................................................16-35
Chapter 17
Aeromedical Factors..........................................17-1
Introduction...................................................................17-1
Obtaining a Medical Certificate....................................17-2
Health and Physiological Factors Affecting Pilot
Performance..................................................................17-3
Hypoxia.....................................................................17-3
Hypoxic Hypoxia...................................................17-3
Hypemic Hypoxia..................................................17-3
Stagnant Hypoxia...................................................17-3
Histotoxic Hypoxia................................................17-4
Symptoms of Hypoxia...............................................17-4
Treatment of Hypoxia............................................17-4
Hyperventilation........................................................17-4
Middle Ear and Sinus Problems................................17-5
Spatial Disorientation and Illusions..........................17-6
Vestibular Illusions................................................17-7
Visual Illusions......................................................17-8
Postural Considerations.............................................17-8
Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation...................17-8
Climbing While Accelerating................................17-9
Climbing While Turning........................................17-9
Diving While Turning............................................17-9
Tilting to Right or Left..........................................17-9
Reversal of Motion................................................17-9
Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane........17-9
Coping with Spatial Disorientation...........................17-9
Optical Illusions......................................................17-10
Runway Width Illusion........................................17-10
xv
 Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion....................17-10 Appendix A
Featureless Terrain Illusion.................................17-10 Performance Data for Cessna Model 172R
Water Refraction..................................................17-10 and Challenger 605............................................. A-1
Haze.....................................................................17-10
Appendix B
Fog.......................................................................17-10
Acronyms, Abbreviations, and NOTAM
Ground Lighting Illusions....................................17-10
Contractions........................................................ B-1
How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to
Optical Illusions......................................................17-10 Appendix C
Motion Sickness......................................................17-12 Airport Signs and Markings................................ C-1
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning.........................17-12
Stress.......................................................................17-12 Glossary...............................................................G-1
Fatigue.....................................................................17-13
Exposure to Chemicals............................................17-13 Index.......................................................................I-1
Hydraulic Fluid....................................................17-13
Engine Oil............................................................17-14
Fuel......................................................................17-14
Dehydration and Heatstroke....................................17-14
Alcohol....................................................................17-15
Drugs.......................................................................17-16
Altitude-Induced Decompression Sickness (DCS)... 17-18
DCS After Scuba Diving.....................................17-18
Vision in Flight...........................................................17-19
Vision Types...........................................................17-20
Photopic Vision...................................................17-20
Mesopic Vision....................................................17-21
Scotopic Vision....................................................17-21
Central Blind Spot...................................................17-21
Empty-Field Myopia...............................................17-22
Night Vision............................................................17-22
Night Blind Spot..................................................17-22
Dark Adaptation...................................................17-23
Scanning Techniques ..........................................17-23
Night Vision Protection.......................................17-23
Self-Imposed Stress ............................................17-25
Distance Estimation and Depth Perception ........17-25
Binocular Cues.....................................................17-26
Night Vision Illusions.............................................17-26
Autokinesis..........................................................17-26
False Horizon.......................................................17-26
Reversible Perspective Illusion............................17-26
Size-Distance Illusion..........................................17-27
Fascination (Fixation)..........................................17-27
Flicker Vertigo.....................................................17-27
Night Landing Illusions...........................................17-27
Enhanced Night Vision Systems.............................17-27
Synthetic Vision System......................................17-28
Enhanced Flight Vision System...........................17-28
Chapter Summary.......................................................17-29

xvi
Chapter 1

Introduction
To Flying
Introduction
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides
basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to fly, as well
as pilots seeking advanced pilot certification. For detailed
information on a variety of specialized flight topics, see
specific Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks
and Advisory Circulars (ACs).

This chapter offers a brief history of flight, introduces the

history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations
and standards, government references and publications,
eligibility for pilot certificates, available routes to flight
instruction, the role of the Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI)
and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in flight training,
Practical Test Standards (PTS), and new, industry-developed
Airman Certification Standards (ACS) framework that will
eventually replace the PTS.

1-1
History of Flight billowing heap of cloth capable of no more than a one-way,
downwind journey.
From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of
birds, and longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do
Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of
so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift
the problems of human flight. The ability to control speed and
them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles
direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay
of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew
in a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not
about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing
introduced to the West until the 13th century—the kite. The
system, and devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber
kites used by the Chinese for aerial observation, to test winds
and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to
for sailing, as a signaling device, and as a toy, held many of
fly. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in
the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air.
attempts to fly like birds.
One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked
The identity of the first “bird-men” who fitted themselves
the secrets of winged flight was Sir George Cayley. Born
with wings and leapt off of cliffs in an effort to fly are lost in
in England 10 years before the Mongolfier balloon flight,
time, but each failure gave those who wished to fly questions
Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-
that needed to be answered. Where had the wing flappers
air vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The
gone wrong? Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered
“Father of Aerial Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic
solutions, but no one could add wings to the human body
principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is
and soar like a bird. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci
founded; built what is recognized as the first successful flying
filled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed
model; and tested the first full-size man-carrying airplane.
flying machines, but most of his ideas were flawed because
he clung to the idea of birdlike wings. [Figure 1-1] By
1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke
concluded that the human body does not possess the strength
to power artificial wings. He believed human flight would
require some form of artificial propulsion.

The quest for human flight led some practitioners in another

direction. In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted
by Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes.
Ten days later, Professor Jacques Charles flew the first gas
balloon. A madness for balloon flight captivated the public’s
imagination and for a time flying enthusiasts turned their
expertise to the promise of lighter-than-air flight. But for
all its majesty in the air, the balloon was little more than a

Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator
Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter wings. (1773–1857).

1-2
For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists,
flying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building
a powered flying machine. Men, such as William Samuel
Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled
by a steam engine housed inside the fuselage, and Otto
Lilienthal, who proved human flight in aircraft heavier than
air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered flight.
A dream turned into reality by Wilbur and Orville Wright at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.
The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had
experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade
wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. One
of their great achievements in flight was proving the value of
the scientific, rather than a build-it-and-see approach. Their
biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering
with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon
of December 17th, the Wright brothers had flown a total of
98 seconds on four flights. The age of flight had arrived.
History of the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA)
During the early years of manned flight, aviation was a
free for all because no government body was in place to
establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards.
Individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft
with no government oversight. Most of the early flights were
conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the
playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were
small, many people doubted their commercial value. One
group of individuals believed otherwise and they became
the genesis for modern airline travel.
P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg,
approached Tom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company
in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a flight route from St.
Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.
Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested
using his “Safety First” airboat and the two men signed an
agreement for what would become the first scheduled airline
in the United States. The first aircraft was delivered to St.
Petersburg and made the first test flight on December 31,
1913. [Figure 1-4]
A public auction decided who would win the honor of
becoming the first paying airline customer. The former
mayor of St. Petersburg, A. C. Pheil, made the winning bid
of $400.00, which secured his place in history as the first
paying airline passenger.
On January 1, 1914, the first scheduled airline flight was
conducted. The flight length was 21 miles and lasted 23
minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes.
The line, which was subsidized by Florida businessmen,
continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00
per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the
opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded
more protection from spray during takeoff and landing.
The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and
Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a profitable
commercial airline.
The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout
the winter months with flights finally being suspended when
the winter tourist industry began to dry up. The airline
operated for only 4 months, but 1,205 passengers were
carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial
passenger airline travel was viable.
The advent of World War I offered the airplane a chance
to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a
reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being
Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.
1-3
mass produced to serve as fighters, bombers, trainers, as well 1 6 11
New York Iowa City Rock Springs
as reconnaissance platforms. 2
Bellefonte
7
Omaha
12
Salt Lake City
3 8 13
Cleveland North Platte Elko
Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use
4 9 14
Bryan Cheyenne Reno
5 10 15
Chicago Rawlins San Francisco
airplanes. Airmail service was a popular idea, but the
war prevented the Postal Service from having access to
airplanes. The War Department and Postal Service reached an 13
12
11 10 6
5 4
3 2
1

14 9 7

agreement in 1918. The Army would use the mail service to

8
15

train its pilots in flying cross-country. The first airmail flight

was conducted on May 15, 1918, between New York and
Washington, DC. The flight was not considered spectacular;
the pilot became lost and landed at the wrong airfield. In
August of 1918, the United States Postal Service took control
of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail
pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees.
Transcontinental Air Mail Route
Airmail routes continued to expand until the Transcontinental
Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned
from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612
miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way. [Figure 1-6]
On May 20, 1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act,
which served as the cornerstone for aviation within the
United States. This legislation was supported by leaders in
the aviation industry who felt that the airplane could not
reach its full potential without assistance from the Federal
Government in improving safety.
The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce
with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic
rules, licensing pilots, certificating aircraft, establishing
airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation.
The Department of Commerce created a new Aeronautics
Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for the
aviation industry. In addition, the Aeronautics Branch took over
the construction and operation of the nation’s system of lighted
airways. The Postal Service, as part of the Transcontinental
Air Mail Route system, had initiated this system. The
Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York
to San Francisco.
Department of Commerce made significant advances in
aviation communications, including the introduction of radio
beacons as an effective means of navigation.
Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles apart, the
standard beacon tower was 51 feet high, and was topped
with a powerful rotating light. Below the rotating light, two
course lights pointed forward and back along the airway. The
course lights flashed a code to identify the beacon’s number.
The tower usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow
70 feet long. A generator shed, where required, stood at the
“feather” end of the arrow. [Figure 1-7]
Federal Certification of Pilots and Mechanics
The Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce
began pilot certification with the first license issued on April
6, 1927. The recipient was the Chief of the Aeronautics
Branch, William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville
Wright, who was no longer an active flier, had declined the
honor.) MacCracken’s license was the first issued to a pilot
by a civilian agency of the Federal Government. Some 3
months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the first Federal
aircraft mechanic license.

Equally important for safety was the establishment of a

system of certification for aircraft. On March 29, 1927,
the Aeronautics Branch issued the first airworthiness
type certificate to the Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place
open biplane.

In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation

and to display the enhanced status within the department,
the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air
Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau
Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San
of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines
Francisco inaugural route in 1921.

1-4
 -D KC

Figure 1-9. The third head of the Aeronautics Branch, Eugene

L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and
Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph
was taken in 1933. During Vidal’s tenure, the Aeronautics Branch
was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The
new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization
within the Department of Commerce.

and encouraged them to form the first three Air Traffic

Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.
Figure 1-8. Standard airway beacon installation.
Control (ATC) facilities along the established air routes.
Then in 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the
responsibilities of operating the centers and continued to
advance the ATC facilities. ATC has come a long way from
the early controllers using maps, chalkboards, and performing
mental math calculations in order to separate aircraft along
flight routes.

The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938

In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil
aviation responsibilities to a newly created, independent
body, named the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This
Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish
new routes for the airlines to service.

President Franklin Roosevelt split the CAA into two

Figure 1-8. The first pilot license was issued to William P.
MacCracken, Jr.
agencies—the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA)
and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Both agencies
were still part of the Department of Commerce but the CAB
functioned independently of the Secretary of Commerce.
The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certification of
airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development
of new airways. The CAB was charged with rule making to
enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic
regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the
CAA the responsibility of administering the Federal Aid

1-5
Airport Program. This program was designed to promote
the establishment of civil airports throughout the country.
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958
By mid-century, air traffic had increased and jet aircraft had
been introduced into the civil aviation arena. A series of
mid-air collisions underlined the need for more regulation
of the aviation industry. Aircraft were not only increasing in
numbers, but were now streaking across the skies at much
higher speeds. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 established
a new independent body that assumed the roles of the CAA
and transferred the rule making authority of the CAB to the
newly created Federal Aviation Agency (FAA). In addition,
the FAA was given complete control of the common civil-
military system of air navigation and ATC. The man who
was given the honor of being the first Administrator of the
FAA was former Air Force General Elwood Richard “Pete”
Quesada. He served as the administrator from 1959–1961.
[Figure 1-10]
Department of Transportation (DOT)
On October 15, 1966, Congress established the Department
of Transportation (DOT), which was given oversight of the
transportation industry within the United States. The result
was a combination of both air and surface transportation. Its
mission was and is to serve the United States by ensuring a
fast, safe, efficient, accessible, and convenient transportation
system meeting vital national interests and enhancing the
quality of life of the American people, then, now, and into
Figure 1-10. First Administrator of the FAA was General Elwood
Richard “Pete” Quesada, 1959–1961.
1-6
the future. The DOT began operation on April 1, 1967. At
this same time, the Federal Aviation Agency was renamed
to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).
The role of the CAB was assumed by the newly created
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), which was
charged with the investigation of all transportation accidents
within the United States.
As aviation continued to grow, the FAA took on additional
duties and responsibilities. With the highjacking epidemic
of the 1960s, the FAA was responsible for increasing the
security duties of aviation both on the ground and in the air.
After September 11, 2001, the duties were transferred to
a newly created body called the Department of Homeland
Security (DHS).
With numerous aircraft flying in and out of larger cities, the
FAA began to concentrate on the environmental aspect of
aviation by establishing and regulating the noise standards
of aircraft. Additionally, in the 1960s and 1970s, the FAA
began to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon
flying. In 1970, more duties were assumed by the FAA in the
addition of a new federal airport aid program and increased
responsibility for airport safety.
ATC Automation
By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated
ATC system based on a marriage of radar and computer
technology. By automating certain routine tasks, the system
allowed controllers to concentrate more efficiently on the
vital task of providing aircraft separation. Data appearing
directly on the controllers’ scopes provided the identity,
altitude, and groundspeed of aircraft carrying radar beacons.
Despite its effectiveness, this system required enhancement
to keep pace with the increased air traffic of the late 1970s.
The increase was due in part to the competitive environment
created by the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978. This law
phased out CAB’s economic regulation of the airlines, and
CAB ceased to exist at the end of 1984.
To meet the challenge of traffic growth, the FAA unveiled
the National Airspace System (NAS) Plan in January
1982. The new plan called for more advanced systems
for en route and terminal ATC, modernized flight service
stations, and improvements in ground-to-air surveillance
and communication.
The Professional Air Traffic Controllers
Organization (PATCO) Strike
While preparing the NAS Plan, the FAA faced a strike
by key members of its workforce. An earlier period of
discord between management and the Professional Air
Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) culminated in a
1970 “sickout” by 3,000 controllers. Although controllers
subsequently gained additional wage and retirement
benefits, another period of tension led to an illegal strike in
August 1981. The government dismissed over 11,000 strike
participants and decertified PATCO. By the spring of 1984,
the FAA ended the last of the special restrictions imposed to
keep the airspace system operating safely during the strike.
The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978
Until 1978, the CAB regulated many areas of commercial
aviation such as fares, routes, and schedules. The Airline
Deregulation Act of 1978, however, removed many of
these controls, thus changing the face of civil aviation in the
United States. After deregulation, unfettered free competition
ushered in a new era in passenger air travel.
The CAB had three main functions: to award routes to
airlines, to limit the entry of air carriers into new markets,
and to regulate fares for passengers. Much of the established
practices of commercial passenger travel within the United
States went back to the policies of Walter Folger Brown, the
United States Postmaster General during the administration
of President Herbert Hoover. Brown had changed the mail
payments system to encourage the manufacture of passenger
aircraft instead of mail-carrying aircraft. His influence
was crucial in awarding contracts and helped create four
major domestic airlines: United, American, Eastern, and
Transcontinental and Western Air (TWA). Similarly,
Brown had also helped give Pan American a monopoly on
international routes.
The push to deregulate, or at least to reform the existing laws
governing passenger carriers, was accelerated by President
Jimmy Carter, who appointed economist and former
professor Alfred Kahn, a vocal supporter of deregulation, to
head the CAB. A second force to deregulate emerged from
abroad. In 1977, Freddie Laker, a British entrepreneur who
owned Laker Airways, created the Skytrain service, which
offered extraordinarily cheap fares for transatlantic flights.
Laker’s offerings coincided with a boom in low-cost domestic
flights as the CAB eased some limitations on charter flights
(i.e., flights offered by companies that do not actually own
planes but leased them from the major airlines). The big air
carriers responded by proposing their own lower fares. For
example, American Airlines, the country’s second largest
airline, obtained CAB approval for “SuperSaver” tickets.
All of these events proved to be favorable for large-scale
deregulation. In November 1977, Congress formally
deregulated air cargo. In late 1978, Congress passed the
Airline Deregulation Act of 1978, legislation that had been
principally authored by Senators Edward Kennedy and
Howard Cannon. [Figure 1-11] There was stiff opposition to
the bill—from the major airlines who feared free competition,
from labor unions who feared non-union employees, and
from safety advocates who feared that safety would be
sacrificed. Public support was, however, strong enough to
pass the act. The act appeased the major airlines by offering
generous subsidies and pleased workers by offering high
unemployment benefits if they lost their jobs as a result. The
most important effect of the act, whose laws were slowly
phased in, was on the passenger market. For the first time
in 40 years, airlines could enter the market or (from 1981)
expand their routes as they saw fit. Airlines (from 1982)
also had full freedom to set their fares. In 1984, the CAB
was finally abolished since its primary duty of regulating the
airline industry was no longer necessary.
The Role of the FAA
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
The FAA is empowered by regulations to promote aviation
safety and establish safety standards for civil aviation. The
FAA achieves these objectives under the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR), which is the codification of the general
and permanent rules published by the executive departments
and agencies of the United States Government. The
regulations are divided into 50 different codes, called Titles,
that represent broad areas subject to Federal regulation.
FAA regulations are listed under Title 14, “Aeronautics and
Space,” which encompasses all aspects of civil aviation from
how to earn a pilot’s certificate to maintenance of an aircraft.
Title 14 CFR Chapter 1, Federal Aviation Administration,
is broken down into subchapters A through N as illustrated
in Figure 1-12.
For the pilot, certain parts of 14 CFR are more relevant
than others. During flight training, it is helpful for the pilot
to become familiar with the parts and subparts that relate
Figure 1-11. President Jimmy Carter signs the Airline Deregulation
Act in late 1978.
1-7
 Code of Federal Regulations
Title Volume Chapter Subchapters
Title 14 1 I A Definitions and Abbreviations
Aeronautics B Procedural Rules
and Space C Aircraft
2 D Airmen
E Airspace
F Air Traffic and General Rules
3 G Air Carriers and Operators for Compensation or Hire: Certification and
Operations
H Schools and Other Certified Agencies
I Airports
J Navigational Facilities
K Administrative Regulations
L–M Reserved
N War Risk Insurance
4 II A Economic Regulations
B Procedural Regulations
C Reserved
D Special Regulations
E Organization
F Policy Statements
III A General
B Procedure
C Licensing
5 V
VI A Office of Management and Budget
B Air Transportation Stabilization Board

Figure 1-12. Overview of 14 CFR, available online free from the FAA and for purchase through commercial sources.

to flight training and pilot certification. For instance, 14
CFR part 61 pertains to the certification of pilots, flight
instructors, and ground instructors. It also defines the
eligibility, aeronautical knowledge, and flight proficiency,
as well as training and testing requirements for each type of
pilot certificate issued. 14 CFR part 91 provides guidance in
the areas of general flight rules, visual flight rules (VFR), and
instrument flight rules (IFR), while 14 CFR part 43 covers
aircraft maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding,
and alterations.
Primary Locations of the FAA
The FAA headquarters are in Washington, DC, and there are
nine regional offices strategically located across the United
States. The agency’s two largest field facilities are the Mike
Monroney Aeronautical Center (MMAC) in Oklahoma
City, Oklahoma, and the William J. Hughes Technical
Center (WJHTC) in Atlantic City, New Jersey. Home to
FAA training and logistics services, the MMAC provides
a number of aviation safety-related and business support
services. The WJHTC is the premier aviation research and
development and test and evaluation facility in the country.
The center’s programs include testing and evaluation in ATC,
communication, navigation, airports, aircraft safety, and
security. Furthermore, the WJHTC is active in long-range
development of innovative aviation systems and concepts,
development of new ATC equipment and software, and
modification of existing systems and procedures.
Field Offices
Flight Standards Service
Within the FAA, the Flight Standards Service promotes safe
air transportation by setting the standards for certification
and oversight of airmen, air operators, air agencies, and
designees. It also promotes safety of flight of civil aircraft
and air commerce by:
• Accomplishing certification, inspection, surveillance,
investigation, and enforcement.
• Setting regulations and standards.
• Managing the system for registration of civil aircraft
and all airmen records.
The focus of interaction between Flight Standards Service
and the aviation community/general public is the Flight
Standards District Office (FSDO).

1-8
Flight Standards District Office (FSDO)
The FAA has approximately 80 FSDOs. [Figure 1-13] These
offices provide information and services for the aviation
community. FSDO phone numbers are listed in the telephone
directory under Government Offices, DOT, FAA. Another
convenient method of finding a local office is to use the
FSDO locator available at: www.faa.gov/about/office_org/
field_offices/fsdo.
In addition to accident investigation and the enforcement of
aviation regulations, the FSDO is also responsible for the
certification and surveillance of air carriers, air operators,
flight schools/training centers, and airmen including pilots
and flight instructors. Each FSDO is staffed by Aviation
Safety Inspectors (ASIs) who play a key role in making the
nation’s aviation system safe.
Aviation Safety Inspector (ASI)
The ASIs administer and enforce safety regulations and
standards for the production, operation, maintenance, and/
or modification of aircraft used in civil aviation. They also
specialize in conducting inspections of various aspects of the
aviation system, such as aircraft and parts manufacturing,
aircraft operation, aircraft airworthiness, and cabin safety.
ASIs must complete a training program at the FAA Academy
in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, which includes airman
evaluation and pilot testing techniques and procedures. ASIs
also receive extensive on-the-job training and recurrent
training on a regular basis. The FAA has approximately
3,700 inspectors located in its FSDO offices. All questions
concerning pilot certification (and/or requests for other
aviation information or services) should be directed to the
local FSDO.
FAA Safety Team (FAASTeam)
The FAA is dedicated to improving the safety of United
States civilian aviation by conveying safety principles and
practices through training, outreach, and education. The FAA
Figure 1-13. Atlanta Flight Standards District Office (FSDO).
Safety Team (FAASTeam) exemplifies this commitment.
The FAASTeam has replaced the Aviation Safety Program
(ASP), whose education of airmen on all types of safety
subjects successfully reduced accidents. Its success led to
its demise because the easy-to-fix accident causes have been
addressed. To take aviation safety one step further, Flight
Standards Service created the FAASTeam, which is devoted
to reducing aircraft accidents by using a coordinated effort
to focus resources on elusive accident causes.
Each of the FAA’s nine regions has a Regional FAASTeam
Office dedicated to this new safety program and managed by
the Regional FAASTeam Manager (RFM). The FAASTeam
is “teaming” up with individuals and the aviation industry
to create a unified effort against accidents and tip the safety
culture in the right direction. To learn more about this effort
to improve aviation safety, to take a course at their online
learning center, or to join the FAASTeam, visit their website
at www.faasafety.gov.
Obtaining Assistance from the FAA
Information can be obtained from the FAA by phone,
Internet/e-mail, or mail. To talk to the FAA toll-free 24
hours a day, call 1-866-TELL-FAA (1-866-835-5322). To
visit the FAA’s website, go to www.faa.gov. Individuals can
also e-mail an FAA representative at a local FSDO office by
accessing the staff e-mail address available via the “Contact
FAA” link at the bottom of the FAA home page. Letters can
be sent to:
Federal Aviation Administration
800 Independence Ave, SW
Washington, DC 20591
FAA Reference Material
The FAA provides a variety of important reference material
for the student, as well as the advanced civil aviation pilot.
In addition to the regulations provided online by the FAA,
several other publications are available to the user. Almost
all reference material is available online at www.faa.gov in
downloadable format. Commercial aviation publishers also
provide published and online reference material to further
aid the aviation pilot.
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
The Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM) is the official
guide to basic flight information and ATC procedures for the
aviation community flying in the NAS of the United States.
[Figure 1-14] An international version, containing parallel
information as well as specific information on international
airports, is also available. The AIM also contains information
of interest to pilots, such as health and medical facts, flight
1-9

Figure 1-14. Aeronautical Information Manual.
safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the
system, and information on safety, accidents, and reporting
of hazards. This manual is offered for sale on a subscription
basis or is available online at: http://bookstore.gpo.gov.
Order forms are provided at the beginning of the manual or
online and should be sent to the Superintendent of Documents,
United States Government Printing Office (GPO). The AIM
is complemented by other operational publications that are
available via separate subscriptions or online.
Handbooks
Handbooks are developed to provide specific information
about a particular topic that enhances training or understanding.
The FAA publishes a variety of handbooks that generally fall
into three categories: aircraft, aviation, and examiners and
inspectors. [Figure 1-15] These handbooks can be purchased
from the Superintendent of Documents or downloaded at www.
faa.gov/regulations_policies. Aviation handbooks are also
published by various commercial aviation companies. Aircraft
flight manuals commonly called Pilot Operating Handbooks
(POH) are documents developed by the airplane manufacturer,
approved by the FAA, and are specific to a particular make
and model aircraft by serial number. This subject is covered
in greater detail in Chapter 8, “Flight Manuals and Other
Documents,” of this handbook. [Figure 1-16]
Advisory Circulars (ACs)
An AC is an informational document that the FAA wants to
distribute to the aviation community. This can be in the form
1-10
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
The Aeronautical Information Manual is designed to provide
the aviation community with basic flight information and
ATC procedures for use in the NAS of the United States. It
also contains the fundamentals required in order to fly in the
United States NAS, including items of interest to pilots
concerning health/medical facts, factors affecting flight
safety, etc.
Aircraft Flying Handbooks (by category)
The Aircraft Flying Handbooks are designed as technical
manuals to introduce basic pilot skills and knowledge that
are essential for piloting aircraft. They provide information
on transition to other aircraft and the operation of various
aircraft systems.
Aviation Instructor’s Handbook
The Aviation Instructor’s Handbook provides the foundation
for beginning instructors to understand and apply the
fundamentals of instructing. This handbook also provides
aviation instructors with up-to-date information on learning
and teaching, and how to relate this information to the task
of conveying aeronautical knowledge and skills to students.
Experienced aviation instructors also find the new and
updated information useful for improving their effectiveness
in training activities.
Instrument Flying Handbook
The Instrument Flying Handbook is designed for use by
instrument flight instructors and pilots preparing for
instrument rating tests. Instructors find this handbook a
valuable training aid as it includes basic reference material
for knowledge testing and instrument flight training.
Instrument Procedures Handbook
The Instrument Procedures Handbook is designed as a
technical reference for professional pilots who operate
under IFR in the NAS and expands on information contained
in the Instrument Flying Handbook.
Figure 1-15. A sample of handbooks available to the public. Most
can be downloaded free of charge from the FAA website.
of a text book used in a classroom or a one page document.
Some ACs are free while others cost money. They are to
be used for information only and are not regulations. The
FAA website www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_
circulars/ provides a database that is a searchable repository
of all aviation safety ACs. All ACs, current and historical,
are provided and can be viewed as a portable document
format (PDF) copy.
ACs provide a single, uniform, agency-wide system that the
FAA uses to deliver advisory material to FAA customers,
industry, the aviation community, and the public. An AC
may be needed to:
• Provide an acceptable, clearly understood method for
complying with a regulation
Figure 1-16. Pilot Operating Handbooks from manufacturers.

• Standardize implementation of a regulation or Flight Publications

harmonize implementation for the international The FAA, in concert with other government agencies,
aviation community orchestrates the publication and changes to publications
• Resolve a general misunderstanding of a regulation that are key to safe flight. Figure 1-18 illustrates some
publications a pilot may use.
• Respond to a request from some government entity,
such as General Accounting Office, NTSB, or the
Office of the Inspector General
• Help the industry and FAA effectively implement a
regulation
• Explain requirements and limits of an FAA grant
program
• Expand on standards needed to promote aviation
safety, including the safe operation of airports

There are three parts to an AC number, as in 25-42C. The

first part of the number identifies the subject matter area
of the AC and corresponds to the appropriate 14 CFR part.
For example, an AC on “Certification: Pilots and Flight and
Ground Instructors” is numbered as AC 61-65E. Since ACs
are numbered sequentially within each subject area, the
second part of the number beginning with the dash identifies
this sequence. The third part of the number is a letter assigned
by the originating office and shows the revision sequence if
an AC is revised. The first version of an AC does not have
a revision letter. In Figure 1-17, this is the fifth revision, as
designated by the “E.” Figure 1-17. Example of an Advisory Circular in its fifth revision.

1-11
 NEVADA 245
ALAMO LANDING FLD
(L92) 2W UTC 8( 7DT) N37 °21.75 W115°11.67 LAS VEGAS
3719 NOTAM FILE RNO
RWY 14–32:5000X120 (DIRT)
RWY 14:Brush. RWY 32:Berm.
RWY 15–33:2500X70 (DIRT)
RWY 15:Berm. RWY 33:Berm.
AIRPORT REMARKS:Unattended. Uncontrolled vehicle access. No line of sight between rwy ends. Rwys 15–33 and Rwy
14–32 livestock in vicinity of rwys.
COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF122.9

AUSTIN (TMT) 4 SW UTC 8( 7DT) N39 °28.08 W117°11.72 LAS VEGAS

5735 B NOTAM FILE RNO H–3C, L–9B
RWY 18–36:H6000X75 (ASPH) S–30 MIRL
RWY 18:REIL. PAPI(P2L)—GA 3.0 ° TCH 40 . RWY 36:REIL. PAPI(P2L)—GA 3.0 ° TCH 40 . Fence.
AIRPORT REMARKS:Unattended. Military acft opr in vicinity of arpt. ACTIVATE MIRL Rwy 18–36, PAPI Rwys 18 and 36,
REIL Rwy 18 and 36—CTAF.
WEATHER DATA SOURCES:AWOS–3PT 132.925 (775) 964–1144.
COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF122.9
NOTAM FILE RNO.
RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION:
115.1 MVA Chan 98 N38 °33.92 W118°01.97
MINA (H) VORTAC 019° 66.7 NM to fld. 7860/17E.
HIWAS.

BATTLE MOUNTAIN
(BAM) 3 SE UTC 8( 7DT) N40 °35.94 W116°52.46 SALT LAKE CITY
4536 B S4 FUEL 100LL, JET A NOTAM FILE RNO H–3C, L–9B, 11B
RWY 12–30:H7302X150 (ASPH) S–30, D–104, 2S–132 MIRL IAP
RWY 03–21:H7299X150 (ASPH) S–30, D–125, 2S–159 MIRL
RWY 03:VASI(V2R)—GA 3.0 ° TCH 26 .
RWY 21:PAPI(P4L)—GA 3.0 ° TCH 45 .
Attended Oct–May 1500–0100Z ‡, Jun–Sep
AIRPORT REMARKS:
1500–0200Z‡. After hrs call 775–635–2245. ACTIVATE MIRL Rwy
03–21 and Rwy 12–30, and perimeter lgts H1—CTAF.
AWOS–3 119.45 (775) 635–8419.
WEATHER DATA SOURCES:
122.8
COMMUNICATIONS: CTAF/UNICOM
MT LEWIS RCO122.65 (RENO RADIO)
132.25
SALT LAKE CENTER APP/DEP CON
NOTAM FILE RNO.
RADIO AIDS TO NAVIGATION:
(H) VORTACW112.2 BAM Chan 59 N40 °34.15
W116°55.34 033° 2.8 NM to fld. 4536/18E.
VORTAC unusable:
050°–060° byd 30 NM blo 12,000
115°–165° byd 15 NM blo 12,000
255°–290° byd 15 NM blo 12,000
DME unusable 246 °–255° byd 34 NM blo 14,000
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
H60X60 (CONC)
HELIPAD H1:
H60X60 (CONC)
HELIPAD H2:
Rwy H1 perimeter lights. ACTIVATE MIRL Rwy 03–21 and Rwy 12–30, and perimeter lgts
HELIPORT REMARKS:
H1—CTAF.

Figure 1-18. From left to right, a sectional VFR chart, IFR chart, and chart supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) with
a sample of a page from the supplement.

Pilot and Aeronautical Information • Notification of an operationally significant change in

Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
Notices to Airmen, or NOTAMs, are time-critical aeronautical
information either temporary in nature or not sufficiently
known in advance to permit publication on aeronautical
charts or in other operational publications. The information
receives immediate dissemination via the National Notice to
Airmen (NOTAM) System. NOTAMs contain current notices
to airmen that are considered essential to the safety of flight,
as well as supplemental data affecting other operational
publications. There are many different reasons that NOTAMs
are issued. Following are some of those reasons:
• Hazards, such as air shows, parachute jumps, kite
flying, and rocket launches
• Flights by important people such as heads of state
• Closed runways
• Inoperable radio navigational aids
• Military exercises with resulting airspace restrictions
• Inoperable lights on tall obstructions
• Temporary erection of obstacles near airfields
• Passage of flocks of birds through airspace (a NOTAM
in this category is known as a BIRDTAM)
• Notifications of runway/taxiway/apron status with
respect to snow, ice, and standing water (a SNOWTAM)
volcanic ash or other dust contamination (an ASHTAM)
• Software code risk announcements with associated
patches to reduce specific vulnerabilities
NOTAM information is generally classified into four
categories: NOTAM (D) or NOTAMs that receive distant
dissemination, distant and Flight Data Center (FDC)
NOTAMs, Pointer NOTAMs, and Military NOTAMs
pertaining to military airports or NAVAIDs that are part of the
NAS. NOTAMs are available through Flight Service Station
(FSS), Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS),
private vendors, and many online websites.
NOTAM (D) Information
NOTAM (D) information is disseminated for all navigational
facilities that are part of the NAS, and all public use airports,
seaplane bases, and heliports listed in the Chart Supplement
U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory). NOTAM (D)
information now includes such data as taxiway closures,
personnel and equipment near or crossing runways, and
airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach
criteria, such as visual approach slope indicator (VASI).
All D NOTAMs are required to have one of the following
keywords as the first part of the text: RWY, TWY, RAMP,
APRON, AD, OBST, NAV, COM, SVC, AIRSPACE, (U),
or (O). [Figure 1-19]

1-12
FDC NOTAMs • Flight restrictions in the proximity of the President
FDC NOTAMs are issued by the National Flight Data and other parties
Center and contain information that is regulatory in nature • 14 CFR part 139 certificated airport condition changes
pertaining to flight including, but not limited to, changes
• Snow conditions affecting glide slope operation
to charts, procedures, and airspace usage. FDC NOTAMs
refer to information that is regulatory in nature and includes • Air defense emergencies
the following: • Emergency flight rules
• Interim IFR flight procedures: • Substitute airway routes
1. Airway structure changes • Special data
2. Instrument approach procedure changes (excludes • U.S. Government charting corrections
Departure Procedures (DPs) and Standard
Terminal Arrivals (STARs) • Laser activity

3. Airspace changes in general

NOTAM Composition
4. Special instrument approach procedure changes NOTAMs contain the elements below from left to right in
• Temporary flight restrictions (discussed in Chapter 15): the following order:
1. Disaster areas • An exclamation point (!)
2. Special events generating a high degree of interest • Accountability Location (the identifier of the
accountability location)
3. Hijacking

Keyword Example Meaning

RWY RWY 3/21 CLSD Runways 3 and 21 are closed to aircraft.
TWY TWY F LGTS OTS Taxiway F lights are out of service.
RAMP RAMP TERMINAL EAST SIDE The ramp in front of the east side of the terminal has ongoing
CONSTRUCTION construction.
APRON APRON SW TWY C NEAR The apron near the southwest taxiway C in front of the hangars
HANGARS CLSD is closed.
AD AD ABN OTS Aerodromes: The airport beacon is out of service.
OBST OBST TOWER 283 (245 AGL) 2.2 Obstruction: The lights are out of service on a tower that is 283 feet
S LGTS OTS (ASR 1065881) TIL above mean sea level (MSL) or 245 feet above ground level (AGL)
0707272300 2.2 statute miles south of the field. The FCC antenna structure
registration (ASR) number is 1065881. The lights will be returned to
service 2300 UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) on July 27, 2007.
NAV NAV VOR OTS Navigation: The VOR located on this airport is out of service.
COM COM ATIS OTS Communications: The Automatic Terminal information Service
(ATIS) is out of service.
SVC SVC TWR 1215-0330 Service: The control tower has new operating hours, 1215-0330
MON -FRI/1430-2300 SAT/1600-0100 UTC Monday Thru Friday. 1430-2300 UTC on Saturday and
SUN TIL 0707300100 1600-0100 UTC on Sunday until 0100 on July 30, 2007.
SVC FUEL UNAVBL TIL 0707291600 Service: All fuel for this airport is unavailable until July 29, 2007,
at 1600 UTC.
SVC CUSTOMS UNAVBL TIL 0708150800 Service: United States Customs service for this airport will not be
available until August 15, 2007, at 0800 UTC.
AIRSPACE AIRSPACE AIRSHOW ACFT Airspace. There is an airshow being held at this airport with aircraft
5000/BLW 5 NMR AIRPORT flying 5,000 feet and below within a 5 nautical mile radius.
AVOIDANCE ADZD WEF Avoidance is advised from 2000 UTC on July 15, 2007, until 2200
0707152000-0707152200 on July 15, 2007.
U ORT 6K8 (U) RWY ABANDONED VEHICLE Unverified aeronautical information.
O LOZ LOZ (O) CONTROLLED BURN OF Other aeronautical information received from any authorized source
HOUSE 8 NE APCH END RWY 23 WEF that may be beneficial to aircraft operations and does not meet
0710211300-0710211700 defined NOTAM criteria.

Figure 1-19. NOTAM (D) Information.

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 • Affected Location (the identifier of the affected facility
or location)
• KEYWORD (one of the following: RWY, TWY,
RAMP, APRON, AD, COM, NAV, SVC, OBST,
AIRSPACE, (U) and (O))
• Surface Identification (optional—this shall be the
runway identification for runway related NOTAMs,
the taxiway identification for taxiway-related
NOTAMs, or the ramp/apron identification for ramp/
apron-related NOTAMs)
• Condition (the condition being reported)  • Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM)
• Time (identifies the effective time(s) of the NOTAM
condition)
Altitude and height are in feet mean sea level (MSL) up to
17,999; e.g., 275, 1225 (feet and MSL is not written), and in
flight levels (FL) for 18,000 and above; e.g., FL180, FL550.
When MSL is not known, above ground level (AGL) will be
written (304 AGL).
When time is expressed in a NOTAM, the day begins at 0000
and ends at 2359. Times used in the NOTAM system are
universal time coordinated (UTC) and shall be stated in 10
digits (year, month, day, hour, and minute). The following
are two examples of how the time would be presented:
!DCA LDN NAV VOR OTS WEF
0708051600-0708052359
!DCA LDN NAV VOR OTS WEF
0709050000-0709050400
NOTAM Dissemination and Availability
The system for disseminating aeronautical information is
made up of two subsystems: the Airmen's Information System
(AIS) and the NOTAM System. The AIS consists of charts and
publications and is disseminated by the following methods:
Aeronautical charts depicting permanent baseline data:
• IFR Charts—Enroute High Altitude Conterminous U.S.,
Enroute Low Altitude Conterminous U.S., Alaska
Charts, and Pacific Charts
• U.S. Terminal Procedures—Departure Procedures
(DPs), Standard Terminal Arrivals (STARs) and
Standard Instrument Approach Procedures (SIAPs)
• VFR Charts—Sectional Aeronautical Charts, Terminal
Area Charts (TAC), and World Aeronautical Charts
(WAC)
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Flight information publications outlining baseline data:
• Notices to Airmen (NTAP)—Published by System
Operations Services, System Operations and Safety,
Publications, every 28 days)
• Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory)
• Pacific Chart Supplement
• Alaska Supplement
• Alaska Terminal
NOTAMs are available in printed form through subscription
from the Superintendent of Documents, from an FSS, or
online at PilotWeb (www.pilotweb.nas.faa.gov), which
provides access to current NOTAM information. Local
airport NOTAMs can be obtained online from various
websites. Some examples are www.fltplan.com and www.
aopa.org/whatsnew/notams.html. Most sites require a free
registration and acceptance of terms but offer pilots updated
NOTAMs and TFRs.
Safety Program Airmen Notification System (SPANS)
In 2004, the FAA launched the Safety Program Airmen
Notification System (SPANS), an online event notification
system that provides timely and easy-to-assess seminar
and event information notification for airmen. The SPANS
system is taking the place of the current paper-based mail
system. This provides better service to airmen while reducing
costs for the FAA. Anyone can search the SPANS system
and register for events. To read more about SPANS, visit
www.faasafety.gov/spans.
Aircraft Classifications and Ultralight
Vehicles
The FAA uses various ways to classify or group machines
operated or flown in the air. The most general grouping uses
the term aircraft. This term is in 14 CFR 1.1 and means a
device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air.
Ultralight vehicle is another general term the FAA uses.
This term is defined in 14 CFR 103. As the term implies,
powered ultralight vehicles must weigh less than 254 pounds
empty weight and unpowered ultralight vehicles must
weigh less than 155 pounds. Rules for ultralight vehicles
are significantly different from rules for aircraft; ultralight
vehicle certification, registration, and operation rules are also
contained in 14 CFR 103.
The FAA differentiates aircraft by their characteristics and
physical properties. Key groupings defined in 14 CFR 1.1
include:
• Airplane—an engine-driven fixed-wing aircraft
heavier than air, that is supported in flight by the
dynamic reaction of the air against its wings.
• Glider—a heavier-than-air aircraft, that is supported
in flight by the dynamic reaction of the air against its
lifting surfaces and whose free flight does not depend
principally on an engine.
• Lighter-than-air aircraft—an aircraft that can rise and
remain suspended by using contained gas weighing
less than the air that is displaced by the gas.
- Airship—an engine-driven lighter-than-air
aircraft that can be steered.
- Balloon—a lighter-than-air aircraft that is not
engine driven, and that sustains flight through the
use of either gas buoyancy or an airborne heater.
• Powered-lift—a heavier-than-air aircraft capable of
vertical takeoff, vertical landing, and low speed flight
that depends principally on engine-driven lift devices
or engine thrust for lift during these flight regimes and
on nonrotating airfoil(s) for lift during horizontal flight.
• Powered parachute—a powered aircraft comprised of
a flexible or semi-rigid wing connected to a fuselage
so that the wing is not in position for flight until
the aircraft is in motion. The fuselage of a powered
parachute contains the aircraft engine, a seat for each
occupant and Is attached to the aircraft's landing gear.
• Rocket—an aircraft propelled by ejected expanding
gases generated in the engine from self-contained
propellants and not dependent on the intake of outside
substances. It includes any part which becomes
separated during the operation.
• Rotorcraft—a heavier-than-air aircraft that depends
principally for its support in flight on the lift generated
by one or more rotors.
- Gyroplane—a rotorcraft whose rotors are not
engine-driven, except for Initial starting, but
are made to rotate by action of the air when
the rotorcraft Is moving; and whose means of
propulsion, consisting usually of conventional
propellers, is Independent of the rotor system.
- Helicopter—a rotorcraft that, for its horizontal
motion, depends principally on its engine-driven
rotors.
• Weight-shift-control—a powered aircraft with a framed
pivoting wing and a fuselage controllable only in pitch
and roll by the pilot's ability to change the aircraft’s
center of gravity with respect to the wing. Flight control
of the aircraft depends on the wing's ability to flexibly
deform rather than the use of control surfaces.
Size and weight are other methods used in 14 CFR 1.1 to
group aircraft:
• Large aircraft—an aircraft of more than 12,500
pounds, maximum certificated takeoff weight.
• Light-sport aircraft (LSA)—an aircraft, other than
a helicopter or powered-lift that, since its original
certification, has continued to meet the definition in
14 CFR 1.1. (LSA can include airplanes, airships,
balloons, gliders, gyro planes, powered parachutes,
and weight-shift-control.)
• Small Aircraft—aircraft of 12,500 pounds or less,
maximum certificated takeoff weight.
We also use broad classifications of aircraft with respect to
the certification of airmen or with respect to the certification
of the aircraft themselves. See the next section, Pilot
Certifications, and Chapter 3, for further discussion of
certification. These definitions are in 14 CFR 1.1:
• Category
1. As used with respect to the certification, ratings,
privileges, and limitations of airmen, means a
broad classification of aircraft. Examples include:
airplane; rotorcraft; glider; and lighter-than-air;
and
2. As used with respect to the certification of
aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft based upon
intended use or operating limitations. Examples
include: transport, normal, utility, acrobatic,
limited, restricted, and provisional.
• Class
1. As used with respect to the certification, ratings,
privileges, and limitations of airmen, means a
classification of aircraft within a category having
similar operating characteristics. Examples
Include: single engine; multiengine; land; water;
gyroplane, helicopter, airship, and free balloon;
and
2. As used with respect to the certification of
aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft having
similar characteristics of propulsion, flight, or
landing. Examples include: airplane, rotorcraft,
gilder, balloon, landplane, and seaplane.
• Type
1. As used with respect to the certification, ratings,
privileges, and limitations of airmen, means
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