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Emulation of Analog Controllers: 2.1: Control Design Via Time-Domain Emulation
Emulation of Analog Controllers: 2.1: Control Design Via Time-Domain Emulation
■ Digital:
w(t)
A2D D2A
e(t) e[k] u[k] zoh
u(t)
r (t) Q D(z) G(s) y(t)
v(t)
“Digitization”
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–3
■ If T is small,
x((k + 1)T ) − x(kT ) x[k + 1] − x[k]
ẋ(kT ) ≈ i.e., ẋ[k] ≈ .
T T
■ To use this approximation, we set T = t
k+1 − tk = sampling interval.
Define constants:
α1 = 1 − bT .
α2 = k0 (aT − 1).
u[k] = x + k0 e[k].
x = α1 u[k] + α2 e[k].
R = read. W = write.
C = compute. I = idle.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–5
(Note,
] BW of analog system is ≈ 1 Hz or so).
1
➠ Use formula from before to digitize D(s).
■ 20 Hz: u[k + 1] = 0.5u[k] + 70e[k + 1] − 63e[k].
■ 40 Hz: u[k + 1] = 0.75u[k] + 70e[k + 1] − 66.5e[k].
Sampled at 20Hz Sampled at 40Hz
1.5 1.5
analog analog
digital digital
Plant output
Plant output
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–6
2.2: The importance of the D2A “hold” operation
u u(kT )
u(t)
avg. u(t)
0
10
−1
10 −1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Phase (Deg)
−100
−120
−140
−160
−180 −1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
■ The PM has changed from ≈ 50◦ to ≈ 30◦.
PM
■ ζ ≈ . . . ζ changed from 0.5 to 0.3 . . . much less damping.
100
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–7
1.5
Nominal
■ M p from about 20% to about
Plant output
1
30% . . .
■ Faster sampling. . . smaller T . . . 0.5
Time (sec)
I(s)
As T → 0, delay dynamics → ∞.
4 4 R(s)
−
T T
1
■ Impact of delay: Suppose D(s)G(s) = .
s+a
I(s) I(s)
With
delay
−a R(s) ➠ 4 −a 4 R(s)
−
T T
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–8
■ Does the delayed locus make sense?
1 − sT /4 (sT /4 − 1)
=− .
1 + sT /4 (sT /4 + 1)
■ Gain is negative! We need to draw a 0◦ root locus, not the 180◦ locus
we are more familiar with.
■ Conclusion: Delay destabilizes the system.
10 × BW ➠ T = 0.3 ms.
■ From above,
$ %
u[k] = u[k − 1] + 5 3.7667e[k] − 6.333e[k − 1] + 2.6667e[k − 2] .
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–9
1.4
continuous
■ Performance not great, so tried 1.2 digital: T=0.3msec
Speed (rads/sec)
digital: T=0.1msec
again with T = 0.1 ms. Much 1
better. 0.8
0.6
■ Note, however, that the error is 0.4
Time (msec)
THE z-TRANSFORM!
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–10
2.3: Definition of the z-transform
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–11
= x[0] = 1.
−4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
x[k] = δ[k − kd ]
∞
!
X (z) = x[k]z −k
k=0
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–12
=z if |z| > 1.
z
so 1(z) = , ROC = {|z| > 1}.
z−1
EXAMPLE : Let x[k] = a k 1[k] where a is a complex number.
∞
!
X (z) = a k z −k
k=0
= 1 + az −1 + a 2 z −2 + · · · −4−2 0 2 4 6 8
■ Multiply both sides of this equation by (z − a).
(z − a)X (z) = (z + a + a 2 z −1 + · · · ) − (a + a 2 z −1 + a 3 z −2 + · · · )
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–13
2.4: Delay properties of the z-transform
Linearity:
■ The standard linearity rule:
• If x[k] ↔ X (z) and v[k] ↔ V (z),
• Then ax[k] + bv[k] ↔ a X (z) + bV (z). (prove for yourself)
EXAMPLE : Let y[k] = 1[k] + a k 1[k].
■ Then,
z z 2z 2 − (1 + a)z
Y (z) = + = .
z−1 z−a (z − 1)(z − a)
Right shift in time (delay); Theorem 1:
■ Suppose x[k] ↔ X (z), and q is a positive integer.
y[k] = x[k − q]1[k − q]
∞
!
Y (z) = x[k − q]1[k − q]z −k let k̄ = k − q
k=0
∞
!
= x[k̄]1[k̄]z −(k̄+q)
k̄=−q
∞
!
−q
=z x[k̄]z −k̄
k̄=0
= z −q X (z).
■ So, a delay of q samples multiplies the z-transform by z −q .
EXAMPLE : +
1, k = 0, 1, . . . N − 1;
p[k] =
0, otherwise.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–14
■ Note that p[k] = 1[k] − 1[k − N ].
■ By linearity and by the right-shift theorem,
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–15
∞
!
= x[−1] + x[k̄]z −(k̄+1)
k̄=0
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–17
2.5: Time multiplication and the z-transform
Multiplication by k and k 2.
■ Thus,
d
kx[k] ⇐⇒ −z X (z).
dz
■ Also
2
d 2 2 d
k x[k] ⇐⇒ z X (z) + z 2 X (z).
dz dz
k z
EXAMPLE : Recall that a 1[k] ↔ .
z−a
" # $ %
d z −z 1 −a
= + =
dz z − a (z − a)2 z − a (z − a)2
az
so, ka k 1[k] ↔
(z − a)2
z
and, k1[k] ↔ . (ramp)
(z − 1)2
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–18
Multiplication by a k :
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–19
" #
1 z 2 − e j ω z + z 2 − e− j ω z
=
2 z 2 − (e j ω + e− j ω)z + 1
z 2 − cos[ω]z
cos[ωk]1[k] ⇐⇒ 2 .
z − (2 cos[ω])z + 1
■ Also,
z sin[ω]
sin[ωk]1[k] ⇐⇒ .
z 2 − (2 cos[ω])z + 1
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–20
2.6: Convolution, initial/final value and the z-transform
Convolution
■ Discrete-time convolution is analogous to continuous-time
convolution:
!k
(x ∗ v)[k] = x[i]v[k − i] k≥0
i =0
k
!
or, = v[i]x[k − i]. k ≥ 0.
i =0
= X (z)V (z).
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–21
Initial-value theorem
■ If x[k] ⇐⇒ X (z), x[0] = lim X (z).
z→∞
■ Proof:
∞
!
X (z) = x[k]z −k
k=0
= x[0].
■ Also,
x[1] = lim (z X (z) − zx[0])
z→∞
5 6
x[2] = lim z 2 X (z) − z 2 x[0] − zx[1]
z→∞
...
assuming the limit on the left exists! Conditions for existence: All
poles of X (z) must be inside unit circle | pi | < 1 ∀ i, except possibly a
single pole on the unit circle at z = 1. The residue of the pole at z = 1
is the final value and is found from above.
EXAMPLE :
3z 2 − 2z + 4
■ Suppose X (z) = .
z 3 − 2z 2 + 1.5z − 0.5
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–22
■ Factoring the denominator:
3z 2 − 2z + 4
X (z) =
(z − 1)(z 2 − z + 0.5)
=
3z 2 − 2z + 4 ==
x ss = 2
(z − z + 0.5) = z=1
5
= = 10.
0.5
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–23
2.7: The inverse z-transform
■ So, X (z) = z −1 − 3z −3 − 4z −4 · · · .
■ and x[0] = 0, x[1] = 1, x[2] = 0, x[3] = −3, x[4] = −4, . . .
if r1 and p1 complex.
EXAMPLE :
■ Suppose
z3 + 1
X (z) = 3
z − z2 − z − 2
z3 + 1
= 3 √ 43 √ 4
1 3
(z − 2) z + 2 + j 2 z + 2 − j 23
1
X (z) r0 r1 r̄1 r2
= + √ + √ + .
z z 1
z+2+ j 23 1
z+2− j 2 3 z − 2
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–25
■ Find the residues:
−1
r0 = X (0) =
2
⎡ ⎤
3
√
⎢ z +1 1⎥ 3 3
r1 = ⎣ 3 √ 4 ⎦ = +j
(z − 2) z + 12 − j 23 z √
7 21
z=− 12 − j 2
3
$ %
X (z) 9
r2 = (z − 2) = .
z z=2 14
■ So,
@ √ Ak @ √ Ak
1 1 3 1 3 9
x[k] = − δ[k]+r1 − −j 1[k]+r̄1 − + j 1[k]+ 2k 1[k].
2 2 2 2 2 14
■ Note: | p1| = 1, ̸ p1 = 4π/3. |r1| = 0.436, ̸ r1 = 10.89◦.
■ So,
" #
1 4π 9
x[k] = − δ[k] + 0.873 cos k + 10.89◦ 1[k] + (2)k 1[k].
2 3 14
Repeated poles:
■ There is a special rule for repeated poles, just as with
Laplace-transform partial-fraction expansion.
■ Suppose p1 is repeated “n” times.
X (z) r0 r1,1 r1,2 r1,n
= + + + · · · + + other poles
z z z − p1 (z − p1)2 (z − p1)n
■ Then, the residues are calculated as
$ %
X (z)
r1,n = (z − p1)n
z z= p1
$ " #%
1 d X (z)
r1,n−1 = (z − p1)n
1! dz z z= p1
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–26
$ " #%
1 d2 n X (z)
r1,n−2 = (z − p 1 )
2! dz 2 z z= p1
...
$ n−1 " #%
1 d n X (z)
r1,1 = (z − p 1 ) .
(n − 1)! dz n−1 z z= p1
■ MATLAB’s residue command automates partial-fraction expansion:
num=[ ] % coefficients of numerator.
den=[] % coefficients of denominator.
[r,p,k]=residue(num,[den 0]) % don't forget '1/z'!
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–27
EXAMPLE :
z
X (z) = .
(z − 1)2
$ $ % %
1 d2−1 z
x[k] = 2−1
(z − 1)2 2
z k−1 1[k]
(2 − 1)! dz (z − 1) z=1
$ = %
d k ==
= z 1[k]
dz =z=1
=
= kz k−1=z=1 1[k]
= k1[k].
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
Laplace transform Time function z-Transform Modified z-transform
E(s) e(t) E(z) E(z, m)
1 z 1
s 1(t) z−1 z−1
1 Tz mT T
s2
t1(t) (z−1)2 z−1 + (z−1)2
1 t2 T 2 z(z+1) T2 m2 2m+1 2
s3 2 1(t) 2(z−1)3 2 z−1 + (z−1)2
+ (z−1)3
(k−1)! ∂ k−1 z ∂ k−1
C D
e−amT
sk
t k−1 1(t) lima→0 (−1)k−1 ∂a k−1 z−e−aT
lima→0 (−1)k−1 ∂a k−1 z−e−aT
1 z
C D C D
e−amT
s+a e−at 1(t) z−e−aT z−e−aT
1 T ze−aT T e−amT [e−aT +m(z−e−aT )]
(s+a)2
te−at 1(t) (z−e−aT )2 (z−e−aT )2
(k−1)! k ∂k k ∂k e
(s+a)k
t k e−at 1(t) (−1) ∂ak z−ez−aT (−1) ∂ak z−e −aT
a 1
C D C −amT D
z(1−e−aT ) e−amT
s(s+a) 1 − e−at (z−1)(z−e−aT ) z−1z−e−aT
−
a 1−e−aT z[(aT −1+e−aT )z+(a−e−aT −aT e−aT )] T −1 e−amT
s 2 (s+a) a (z−1)2
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS
a(z−1)2 (z−e−aT )
t− + amT
a(z−1) + a(z−e−aT )
a2 z z aT e−aT z 1 1+amT aT e−aT
s(s+a)2
1 − (1 + at)e−at z−1 − z−e−aT − (z−e−aT )2 z−1 − z−e−aT
+ (z−e−aT )2
e−amT
b−a
C D
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
(z−e−aT )(z−e−bT )(z−1)
+ +
−aT )−a(1−e−bT )
A = b(1−e ab(b−a)
ae−aT (1−e−bT )−be−bT (1−e−aT )
B= ab(b−a)
2–28
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–29
2.8: Time responses versus pole locations
■ x[k] = 1[k].
z
■ X (z) = , |z| > 1.
z−1
−4−2 0 2 4 6 8
Exponential (geometric):
General cosinusoid:
a ≈ duration N
0.9 43
0.8 21
0.6 9
0.4 5
N =3 N =8
N = 10
N = 20
N =2
I(z)
R(z)
z = esT .
π
j
T
π
−j
T
s-plane z-plane
■ jω-axis maps to unit circle.
■ Constant damping ratio ζ maps to strange spiral.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–33
■ Higher-order systems:
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–34
2.9: Emulation in frequency domain
• Qualified “yes”.
EXAMPLE : Consider
U (s) a
= D(s) = ,
E(s) s+a
or
u̇(t) + au(t) = ae(t).
■ Rewrite as
& t
u(t) = (−au(τ ) + ae(τ )) dτ
0
& (k−1)T & kT
u(kT ) = (−au(τ ) + ae(τ )) dτ + (−au(τ ) + ae(τ )) dτ
0 (k−1)T
& kT
= u ((k − 1)T ) + (−au(τ ) + ae(τ )) dτ .
/ (k−1)T 01 2
area of −au(τ )+ae(τ ) over kT −T ≤τ ≤kT
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–35
f (t)
U (z) [z − 1 + aT ] = aT E(z)
U (z) a
= z−1 .
E(z) T
+ a
z−1
• “s” has been replaced by “ ”. Seen already as Euler’s rule.
T
Method 2: Use the backward-rectangular rule
■ Using the backward rectangular rule, we get a different result:
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–36
u(kT ) ≈ u ((k − 1)T ) + T [−au(kT ) + ae(kT )]
−au(kT ) + ae(kT )]
$ % $ %
aT aT aT
u(kT ) 1 + = u((k − 1)T ) 1 − + [e ((k − 1)T ) + e(kT )] .
2 2 2
■ Finding the transfer function:
$ % $ %
aT aT aT - .
U (z) 1 + = z −1U (z) 1 − + E(z) z −1 + 1
2 2 2
U (z) aT (z + 1) a
= = 2
- z−1 . .
E(z) (2 + aT )z + aT − 2 T z+1
+a
" #
2 z−1
• “s” has been replaced by “ ”.
T z+1
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–37
2.10: Stability and prewarping
= 1 + T jω.
2. Backward rectangular rule:
z−1
s= ➠ z(T s − 1) = −1
Tz
1 1
z= =
1 − Ts 1 − T jω
" # " #
1 1 1 1 1 1 + T jω
= + − = + .
2 1 − T jω 2 2 2 1 − T jω
• The term in the parenthesis has magnitude 1 for all ω.
3. Bilinear rule:
" #
2 z−1
s=
T z+1
zT s + T s = 2z − 2
z(T s − 2) = −2 − T s
2 + Ts 2 + T jω
z= = .
2 − Ts 2 − T jω
• Constant magnitude 1 for all ω.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–38
COMMENTS :
■ Rule (1) may possibly map a stable D(s) into an unstable D(z) (!!)
■ Rule (2) always maintains stability (can even map an unstable D(s)
into a stable D(z) (!) but does not do a good job of mapping
frequency response, especially at high frequencies.
■ Rule (3) maps stability information EXACTLY (important later in the
course). The jω-axis in the s-plane mapped directly to the unit circle
in the z-plane. ω from 0 . . . ∞ mapped to an angle 0 . . . π. Frequency
compression/warping.
■ Since the bilinear/Tustin rule is by far the most used, let us examine
the frequency warping some more.
■ Let frequency in the digital domain be ωz , and corresponding
frequency in the analog domain be ωs .
■ Convert H (s) to H (z).
= H (s)|s= j 2 tan3 ωz T 4
T 2
" # " #
2 ωz T 2 ω s T
■ So, ω =
s tan and ωz = tan−1 .
T 2 T 2
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–39
■ Near ωz = 0, ωs ≈ ωz , but wz T
frequencies do not match π
= H (s)|s= j α tan3 ωz T 4 .
2
ω1
■ So, ωs = α tan(ωz T /2). Let α = .
tan(ω1 T /2)
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–40
■ Then, at frequency ωz = ω1,
ω1
ωs = tan(ω1 T /2) = ω1.
tan(ω1 T /2)
■ A match! Drawback: Can match at only one frequency.
■ In MATLAB:
sysd=c2d(sys,T,'tustin'); % bilinear
sysd=c2d(sys,T,'prewarp',w1); % w/ freq. match.
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–41
2.11: Examples and hold-based methods
1
EXAMPLE : Convert H (s) = to digital.
3 2
s + 2s + 2s + 1
z−1
Method 1) s = .
T
1
H (z) = (z−1)3 2
T3
+ 2 (z−1)
T2
+ 2 (z−1)
T
+1
T3
= 3
(z − 3z 2 + 3z 1 − 1) + 2T (z 2 − 2z + 1) + 2T 2(z − 1) + T 3
T3
= 3 .
z + z 2(2T − 3) + z 1(3 − 4T + 2T 2) + (2T − 2T 2 + T 3 − 1)
z−1 1
Method 2) s = . Gives: H (z) = (z−1)3 2
.
Tz
(T z)3
+ 2 (z−1)
(T z)2 + 2 (z−1)
Tz
+1
■ The rest of the math is up to you...
2z−1 1
Method 3) s = . Gives: H (z) = 8 (z−1)3 (z−1)2
.
T z+1
T 3 (z+1)3
+ 2 T42 (z+1)2 + 2 T2 (z−1)
(z+1)
+1
■ Again, the rest of the math is up to you.
■ For a fast sampling rate, these compare as:
T = 0.1, ωs = 2π/0.1 = 20π , ωs = 63ω p
1.5
cts
1 bilinr
warp
backwd
0.5 fwd
0 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
0
−100
−200
−300 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–42
■ For a medium sampling rate, these compare as:
(system T = 1, ωs = 2π/1 = 2π , ωs = 6.3ω p
1 cts
bilinr
warp
0.5 backwd
fwd
0 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
0
−50
−100
−150
−200
−250 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
0 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
0
−50
−100
−150
−200
−250 ωp
0 0.5ω p 1.5ω p 2ω p 2.5ω p
Zero-pole matching
sysd=c2d(sys,T,'matched');
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–44
Hold equivalents
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–45
2.12: Design by emulation
v(t)
EXAMPLE :
1
G(s) = .
s(10s + 1)
■ Specifications for the design:
1. M p < 16%.
2. ts < 10 s to 1%.
3. ess for ramp input < 0.01, slope of ramp = 0.01.
4. Sampling time to give ≥ 10 samples in rise time.
■ Step 1: Design D(s).
“1” ➠ ζ ≥ 0.5.
“2” ➠ σ ≥ 0.46.
0.01
“3” ➠ K v = = 1.0.
0.01
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–46
10s + 1
D(s) = .
s+1
−2 −1.5 −1 −0.5
−1
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, EMULATION OF ANALOG CONTROLLERS 2–47
10s+1 1
(system dela Step s+1 10s 2+s
ycont
udisc
To Workspace1
9.15(z−0.9802) 1
ydisc
(z−0.8187) 10s 2+s
Sum1 D(z) Zero−Order Plant2 To Workspace2
Hold
Disc. Disc.
1 1
Cont. Cont.
Output
Output
0.5 0.5
0
u/10 0
u/10
−0.5 −0.5
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett