Discrete and Hybrid Systems: 3.1: Laplace Transform of Ideal Sampler

ECE4540/5540: Digital Control Systems 3–1
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DISCRETE AND HYBRID SYSTEMS
3.1: Laplace transform of ideal sampler
■ Digital control systems are a mixture of discrete-time and

continuous-time components.
■ The interactions between these two parts require that we understand
both from a continuous-time point of view.
■ We begin by looking at the sampling and reconstruction (A2D, D2A)
operations from a continuous-time point of view.
■ Consider a simple unity-gain feedback digital control system with
proportional controller having unity gain.
A2D D2A
x(t) x(kT ) x(kT ) zoh
x̄(t)
r (t) Q 1 G(s) y(t)
■ Every T seconds, the

sampler records x(kT ). The Amplitude
x(t), input to sampler
controller multiplies this value
x̄(t), output of ZOH
by 1. The D2A outputs this
value for the entire sample
period. i.e., it “holds” the
value.
■ So,
x̄(t) = x(0) [1(t) − 1(t − T )] + x(T ) [1(t − T ) − 1(t − 2T )] +
Lecture notes prepared by Dr. Gregory L. Plett. Copyright © 2017, 2009, 2004, 2002, 2001, 1999, Gregory L. Plett
ECE4540/5540, DISCRETE AND HYBRID SYSTEMS 3–2
x(2T ) [1(t − 2T ) − 1(t − 3T )] + · · ·
! " ! −T s "
1 e−T s e e−2T s
X̄(s) = x(0) − + x(T ) − +
s s s s
! −2T s "
e e−3T s
x(2T ) − +···
s s
! "
1 − e−T s # $
= x(0) + x(T )e−T s + x(2T )e−2T s + · · ·
s
%∞ '!
−T s "
& 1 − e
= x(kT )e−kT s .
k=0
s
• First factor is function of input x(t) and sampling period T .
• Second factor is independent of x(t), so can be considered a
transfer function.
DEFINE : %∞ '
&
X ∗(s) = x(kT )e−kT s .
k=0
■ This is a representation of the A2D/sampling operation. X ∗(s) is not a
physical signal, but results from factoring X̄ (s) into two parts. Then:
X ∗ (s) zoh
X (s) X̄ (s)
T ( )
1 − e−T s
s
■ Note, the operation converting X (s) → X ∗(s) is not LTI. (why?) So, it
cannot be represented by a transfer function.
Ideal sampling
■ Take the inverse-Laplace transform of X ∗(s) to view sampling in the
time-domain.
* +
x ∗(t) = L −1
X ∗(s) = x(0)δ(t) + x(T )δ(t − T ) + x(2T )δ(t − 2T ) + · · ·
■ So, x ∗(t) is an impulse train, with impulse values weighted (multiplied)
by the value of x(t) at the sampling instants. That is,
x(t) and x ∗ (t)
∞
&
∗
x (t) = x(t) δ(t − kT )
,k=0 -. /
δT (t)
= x(t)δT (t).
∗
EXAMPLE : Find X (s) for x(t) = 1(t).
&∞
∗
X (s) = x(kT )e−kT s
k=0
= x(0) + x(T )e−T s + x(2T )e−2T s + · · ·
= 1 + e−T s + e−2T s + · · ·
■ Multiply both sides by (1 − e−T s )
(1 − e−T s )X ∗(s) = 1
1 0 −T s 0
∗
X (s) = −T s
0e 0 < 1.
1−e
■ Hmmm. Does this look familiar? Consider z-transform of 1[k] with
z = eT s .
z
1[k] ↔
z−1
Ts eT s 1
let z = e → T s = .
e − 1 1 − e−T s
EXAMPLE : Find X ∗(s) when x(t) = e−t 1(t).
∞
&
X ∗ (s) = x(kT )e−kT s
k=0
= x(0) + x(T )e−T s + x(2T )e−2T s + · · ·
= 1 + e−T e−T s + e−2T e−2T s + · · ·

# $ # $2
= 1 + e−(1+s)T + e−(1+s)T + · · ·
1 0 −(1+s)T 0
0e 0 < 1.
= −(1+s)T
1−e
■ Hmmm. Does this look familiar too?
# −T $k
Let y[k] = e
z
Y (z) = let z = e T s
z − (e−T )
eT s 1
= Ts = .
e − e−T 1 − e−(1+s)T
■ So, X ∗(s) = X (z)|z=eT s .
3.2: Properties of X ∗ (s) and data reconstruction
Property 1: X ∗(s) is periodic in s, with period jωs .

∞
&
X ∗ (s + jmωs ) = x(kT )e−kT (s+ j mωs )
k=0
∞
&
= x(kT )e−kT s e− j kmωs T .
k=0
2π
Now, ωs =
T
∞
&
= x(kT )e−kT s e− j 2π km .
k=0
From Euler, e− j 2π km = cos(2πkm)

, -. / + ,j sin(2πkm)
-. /=1
1, km∈Z 0, km∈Z
∞
&
So, X ∗ (s + jmωs ) = x(kT )e−kT s
k=0
∗
= X (s).
Property 2: If X (s) has a pole at s = s1, then X ∗(s) has poles at

s = s1 + jmωs , m ∈ Z.
■ A relationship between X (s) and X ∗(s) may be proven:
∞
1 & x(0)
X ∗ (s) = X (s + jmωs ) +
T m=−∞ 2
Then,
1
X ∗ (s) =
(X (s) + X (s + jωs ) + X (s + j2ωs ) + · · · )
T
[Zero locations of X ∗ (s) are periodic (from property 1) but are not
uniquely determined by the zeros of X (s)].
3ωs
j
2
Complementary Strip
ωs
j
2 Primary Strip
ωs
−j
2
Complementary Strip
3ωs
−j
2
■ What these two properties MEAN is that two different signals X 1(s)
and X 2(s) may have the SAME starred transform X 1∗ (s) = X 2∗(s).
Why?
■ One signal is said to alias as the other.
■ This is very easy to see in the time domain.
■ The (blue) solid line is the
analog signal cos(2π(5)t)
drawn over one second.
■ The (blue) squares show
sampling points for a rate of
f s = 14 Hz.
■ The (green) dots show sampling times for a rate of f s = 7 Hz.
■ The dashed (green) curve is a cos(2π(2)t) signal.
• Both the cos(2π(5)t) and cos(2π(2)t) curves pass through all the
dots so the signal may be assumed to be a 2 Hz sinusoid
(aliasing!).
• Only the cos(2π(5)t) curve passes through all the squares, so the
signal must be assumed to be a 5 Hz sinusoid (no aliasing).
■ The solution to the problem is easiest to see in the Fourier domain.
F[x(t)] = L[x(t)]|s= j ω. Since X ∗ (s) is periodic, X ∗( jω) is also periodic.
■ For X ( jω) having a spectral bandwidth W < 2 f s the sampled signal
spectrum is the following
X ( jω)
1
ω
Passband of the −W ∗ W
reconstruction filter X ( jω)
1
ω
−ωs −ωs /2 ωs /2 ωs
■ If the sampling rate f s < 2W , then spectral overlap called ALIASING
occurs.
X ( jω)
1
ω
−W W
Aliasing X ∗ ( jω)
1
ω
−2ωs −ωs ωs 2ωs
■ When aliasing is present, it is impossible to recover the original
analog signal from the sampled signal.
■ Nyquist/Shannon said that if a signal is sampled at a rate ω N there
will be no aliasing if ω N ≥ 2 times the highest frequency in the signal.
KEY POINT: Our digital control system will need to sample at least twice
as fast as the closed-loop bandwidth. Four to six times faster is safer.
Data deconstruction
■ If the signal x(t) has been sampled at or above the Nyquist rate ω N , it
is mathematically possible to recover x(t) from x(kT ). Surprise?
Magic?
■ Process X ∗( jω) by passing it through an ideal low-pass filter with
bandwidth ω N /2.
Passband of the
reconstruction filter X ∗ ( jω)
1
ω
−ω N −ω N /2 ω N /2 ωN
■ The filter must have gain T to recover the magnitude lost by sampling.
sin(πt/T )
h(t) = = sinc(t/T ).
πt/T
PROBLEM: h(t) is non-causal.
■ Solution: “Approximate” h(t) very crudely with a causal filter—the
hold circuit.
■ The impulse response of the hold
= + delay.
circuit is:
t t
T −T /2 T /2
■ So, H ( jω) is
( ) T
sin(ωT /2) − j ωT /2
H ( jω) = T e
ωT /2
( )
ω
= T sinc e− j π ω/ωs . ωs
ωs 0 2ωs 3ωs
EXAMPLE : Let x(t) = 2 sin(ω1t) with ω1 < ωs /2.
X ( jω)
1
3ωs −ωs ωs 0 ωs ωs 3ωs

− −
2 2 X ∗ ( jω) 2 2
1/T

− −
2 2 Y ( jω) 2 2
1

− −
2 2 2 2
■ Notice that the ZOH does not completely filter out the aliased
frequencies due to sampling. Since most plants are low-pass
devices, this is often okay.
■ The high-frequency components look like stair-steps in time-domain.
Note: Familiar T /2 delay of fundamental frequency.
3.3: Open-loop discrete-time systems
■ We have seen some properties of the sampling operation and of the

hold operation.
■ Sampling:
X (s) X ∗ (s)
T
■ Hold: ( )
zoh 1 − e−T s
X ∗ (s) X ∗ (s)
s
■ The z-transform will enable us to put these elements into a system

and analyze them a little more easily.
■ We first look at open-loop systems, and then at closed-loop systems.
Open-loop discrete-time systems
■ We have already seen the relationship between X ∗ (s) and X (z).

■ Easy to prove:
Z[x[k]] = X (z) = x[0] + x[1]z −1 + x[2]z −2 + · · ·
X ∗ (s) = x(0) + x(T )e−sT + x(2T )e−s2T + · · ·

∗
0
so, X (z) = X (s)0esT =z
and X ∗ (s) = X (z)|z=esT .
■ So, the z-transform is a special case of the Laplace transform for

discrete-time systems.
■ Sometimes it is easier to find the starred transform X ∗ (s) from the
z-transform X (z)!
EXAMPLE : Let
1
X (s) = .
(s + 1)(s + 2)
■ From the z-transform table in Topic 2.7 of your notes:
z(e−T − e−2T )
X (z) =
(z − e−T )(z − e−2T )
X ∗ (s) = X (z)|z=esT
esT (e−T − e−2T )
= sT .
(e − e−T )(esT − e−2T )
NOTE :
■ X ∗(s) has ∞ poles and zeros in the s-plane because of its periodic
nature.
■ X (z) has a single zero at z = 0, and two poles at z = e−T and
z = e−2T .
■ Pole-zero analysis is going to be easier in the z-domain.
The discrete-impulse/unit-pulse transfer function
■ For continuous-time LTI systems, the impulse response described the

output of the system when the input was the impulse/delta function.
■ The transfer function is the Laplace transform of the impulse
response.
■ The same can be done for discrete-time systems, but the input is now
a discrete-impulse, often called a unit pulse or simply a pulse.
versus
t k
0 0
■ We are interested in systems that look like:
X ∗ (s) 1 − e−T s Y (s)
X (s) G p (s) Y ∗ (s)
T s T
PLANT
, HOLD -. /
( G(s)
−sT )
1−e
■ Define G(s) = G p (s) to “hide” the mess introduced by the
s
hold operation.
X ∗(s) Y (s)
X (s) G(s) Y ∗ (s)
T T
■ So, Y (s) = G(s)X ∗(s).

■ Y ∗(s) would occur if we sampled Y (s). Y ∗(s) = [G(s)X ∗(s)]∗.
∞
∗ 1 & y(0)
Y (s) = Y (s + jkωs ) +
T k=−∞ 2
∞
1 & y(0)
= G(s + jkωs )X ∗(s + jkωs ) + .
T k=−∞ 2
■ But, since X ∗ (s) is a sampled signal, it is periodic in s + jkωs :
X ∗ (s) = X ∗(s + jkωs ).
■ So,
∞
1 & y(0)
Y ∗(s) = G(s + jkωs )X ∗(s) +
T k=−∞ 2
% ∞
'
1 & y(0)
= X ∗ (s) G(s + jkωs ) +
T k=−∞ 2
y(0)
= X ∗ (s)G ∗(s) +
2
y(0)
or, Y (z) = X (z)G(z) + .
2
■
] is the pulse transfer function between the sampled input and the
G(z)
sys
output at the sampling instants.
• Recall that transfer functions assume initial conditions to be zero.
■ It tells us NO information about the output between the sampling

instants.
• If we choose a fast sampling rate, then interpolation can be a good

approximation.
• Simulation is a general tool to help determine inter-sample
behavior accurately.
EXAMPLE : At sample points, left plot looks better than right plot, but
in-between sample points, left plot looks worse than right plot.
Bad Step Response Good Step Response
60 60
Output Temperature ◦ C
Output Temperature ◦ C
58 58
56 56
54 54
52 52
50 50
48 48
46 46
44 44
42 42
40 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s) Time (s)
3.4: Finding G(z) from G p (s)
■ Recall that
( )
1 − e−sT
• G(s) = G p (s),
s
∗
• G (s) is a sampled Laplace transform of G(s), and
∗
0
• G(z) = G (s)0 sT . z=e
■ To find G(z) we must then

!( −sT ) "
1 − e
1. Find g(t) = L−1 G p (s) .
s
2. Find g[k] = g(kT ).
* +
3. Find G(z) = Z g(kT ) .
!( ) "
1 − e−sT
■ Notation: G(z) = Z G p (s) .
s
A shortcut for systems having no time delays:
■ We calculate
!( ) "
1 − e−sT
G(z) = Z G p (s)
s
! "
# $ G p (s)
= Z 1 − e−sT
s
!( )" ! "
G p (s) G p (s)
=Z − Z e−sT .
s s
■ But: e−sT is the cts-time transfer function of a delay of T seconds.
■ In disc-time, z −1 is the transfer function of a unit delay, (T seconds).
! " ! "
G p (s) z − 1 G p (s)
G(z) = (1 − z −1)Z = Z .
s z s
■ This last term may often be looked up in a table.
1
■ In MATLAB: Let G (s) = .
p
s+1
numc=1;
denc=[1 1];
sysc=tf(numc,denc);
sysd=c2d(sysc,T);% = sampling period.
[numd,dend,T]=tfdata(sysd);
A shortcut for systems having time delays: (The modified z-transform)

■ We often need to analyze systems with pure time delays:
num(s)
1. Plant is of the form G p (s) = e−sτ ;
den(s)
2. Digital controller introduces delay in computation;
D(z) e−sτ HOLD G p (s)
T
3. And/or we want to know plant output between normal sampling times

(the ripple).
e−sT /2 Y2 (s)
D(z) HOLD G p (s) Y (s)

T
■ Consider (without controller D(z) for now):

G(s)
. /, -
∗
X (s)
X (s) HOLD G p (s) e−sτ Y (s)
T
Y (s) = e−sτ G(s)X ∗(s)
Y ∗(s) = [e−sτ G(s)]∗ X ∗(s)

* −sτ +
Y (z) = Z e G(s) X (z)
■ Let τ = kT + %T, k ∈ Z, 0 < % < 1
−k
* −s%T +
Y (z) = z Z e G(s) X (z)
, -. /
%
=G(z,m) where m=1−%
= z −k G(z, (1 − %))X (z).
• You can use modified-z-transform table from Topic 2.7,
• Or you can work it out by hand,
• Or. . . you can use MATLAB
sys=tf(num,den);
set(sys,'ioDelay',tau); % tau is total delay, in seconds
sysd=c2d(sys,T);
EXAMPLE OF PULSE TRANSFER FUNCTION :

X ∗ (s) 1 − e−T s Y (s)
X (s) G p (s) Y ∗ (s)
T s T
1 1
■ Let G p (s) = and X (s) = (a unit step).
s+1 s
■ So, ( )( )
1 − e−sT 1
Y (s) = X ∗ (s) = G(s)X ∗(s).
s s+1
■ Also note that
!()( )"
1 − e−sT 1 1 − e−T
G(z) = Z =
s s+1 z − e−T
z
and X (z) = Z [1(t)] = .
z−1
■ So,
( )( )
1 − e−T z 1
Y (z) =
z − e−T z−1
z z
= −
z − 1 z − e−T
# $ 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
y[k] = 1 − e−kT 1[k].
NOTE : A shortcut for this particular example would have been to notice
that the sample-and-hold does nothing to the unit-step input!
■ This example is also a good one to illustrate dc gain:
yss = lim (z − 1)Y (z)
z→1
(1 − e−T )z
= lim
z→1 (z − e −T )
1 − e−T
= = 1.
1 − e−T
■ Equivalently, we can find in general
dc gain = lim (z − 1)Y (z)

z→1
= lim (z − 1)G(z)1(z)
z→1
= lim G(z)z = G(1).

z→1
So, G(1) is the dc gain (a.k.a., the final value to a unit-step input).
■ DC gain = lim G(z) = lim G p (s).
z→1 s→0
CONCLUSION: For the following open loop system, we have
Y (z) = G(z)X (z).
X ∗ (s) 1 − e−T s Y (s)
X (s) G p (s) Y ∗ (s)
T s T
PLANT
, HOLD -. /
G(s)
3.5: Systems with digital filters
■ Our digital controllers will not simply sample and hold their input
value. They will perform some mathematical operations on the
sampled input. “FILTER”
■ So, we expand our system of interest:
x[k] u[k] 1 − e−T s ū(t) y(t)
X (s) D(z) G p (s) Y ∗ (s)
T s T
FILTER HOLD PLANT
■ Suppose our digital filter has transfer function D(z).
■ Then,
U (z) = D(z)X (z), or, via z = esT
U ∗(s) = D ∗(s)X ∗(s).
ū(t) occurs at the output of the hold circuit, so

( )
1 − e−sT
Ū (s) = U ∗(s), and
s
Y (s) = G p (s)Ū (s)
( )
1 − e−sT
= G p (s) U ∗(s).
s
■ Since
U ∗(s) = D ∗(s)X ∗(s),

( −sT )
1−e ∗
Y (s) = G p (s) D-. (s)/ X ∗ (s)
s ,
=D(z)|z=esT
( ( ))∗
∗ 1 − e−sT
Y (s) = G p (s) D ∗(s)X ∗(s)
s
! ( )"
1 − e−sT
Y (z) = Z G p (s) D(z)X (z)
s
Y (z) = G(z)D(z)X (z).
EXAMPLE : Let the digital controller implement
u[k] = 2x[k] − x[k − 1]
and the plant is:

1
G p (s) = .
s+1
■ Find D(z):
U (z) = 2X (z) − z −1 X (z)

# $
= 2 − z −1 X (z)
U (z) 2z − 1
D(z) = = 2 − z −1 = .
X (z) z
■ Find G(z): 12
1 − esT 1 1 − e−T
G(z) = Z = .
s s +1 z − e−T
■ So, ( )( )
1 − e−T 2z − 1
Y (z) = X (z).
z − e−T z
EXAMPLE : Let x(t) = 1(t), and find Y (z).
z
X (z) =
z−1
( )( )( ) # $
1 − e−T 2z − 1 z (2z − 1) 1 − e−T
Y (z) = T
= #
−T
$.
z−e z z−1 (z − 1) z − e
■ We can determine y [k] by partial-fraction expansion and inversion of
Y (z):
Y (z) (2z − 1)(1 − e−T ) 1 − e T 1 eT − 2
= = + + .
z z(z − 1)(z − e−T ) z z − 1 z − e−T
z T z(e T − 2)
Y (z) = (1 − e ) + +
z−1 z − e−T
⇕ ⇕ ⇕
(1 − e T )δ[k] 1[k] (e T − 2)e−kT 1[k]
y[k] = (1 − e T )δ[k] + 1[k] + (e T − 2)e−kT 1[k].
NOTE : At k = 0,
y[0] = (1 − e T ) + 1 + (e T − 2) = 0.
■ This could also be observed by noting that Y (z) has higher-order
denominator than numerator.
➠ The delay in the HOLD means that the output is not instantaneous.
Block diagrams and sampled data

■ Control systems exist in great variety.
• Almost always more complicated than the open-loop system we
saw here.
• To be able to analyze closed-loop and more involved systems, we
need to be able to analyze general block diagrams with samplers
in them.
EXAMPLE :
X ∗ (s) A(s) A∗ (s) Y (s)
X (s) HOLD G p1 (s) HOLD G p2 (s) Y ∗ (s)
T T T
, -. / , -. /
G 1 (s) G 2 (s)
Y (s) = G 2(s) A∗(s)
A(s) = G 1(s)X ∗(s)

∗
* ∗
+∗ 3
Y (s) = G 2(s) A (s)
∗
* ∗
+∗ can this simplify? (pg. 3–12)
A (s) = G 1(s)X (s)
Y ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s) A∗(s)
A∗(s) = G ∗1 (s)X ∗(s)
or, Y ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s)G ∗1 (s)X ∗(s)
Y (z) = G 2(z)G 1(z)X (z).

■ Things are not always this straightforward.
3.6: Some more challenging examples
EXAMPLE : Consider the hybrid system drawn below.

X ∗ (s) A(s) Y (s)
X (s) HOLD G p1 (s) G 2 (s) Y ∗ (s)
T T
, -. /
G 1 (s)
Y (s) = G 2(s) A(s) = G 2(s)G 1(s)X ∗(s)
Y ∗(s) = [G ∗
-. 1(s)/ X (s)]
, 2(s)G
∗
G(s)
= [G(s)X ∗(s)]∗
= G ∗(s)X ∗(s)
Y (z) = G(z)X (z) or, Y (z) = (G 2 G 1)(z)X (z).

■ But, is G ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s)G ∗1(s)?
■ That is, does G(z) = G 2(z)G 1(z)?
■ Let:
G 2(s) = 1/s G 1(s) = 1/s G(s) = 1/s 2

∗
esT ∗
esT ∗
T esT
G 2 (s) = sT G 1 (s) = sT G (s) = sT
e −1 e −1 (e − 1)2
e2sT T esT
G ∗1 (s)G ∗2(s) = sT ̸= sT .
(e − 1)2 (e − 1)2
KEY CONCLUSION : [G 1(s)G 2(s)]∗ ̸= G ∗1 (s)G ∗2(s) in general.
REASON : Sampling is time-varying, so system is not LTI. In fact, in some
cases we may not even be able to find transfer functions. . .
EXAMPLE : Consider the hybrid system drawn below.

A(s) A∗ (s) Y (s)
X (s) G 1 (s) HOLD G p2 (s) Y ∗ (s)
T T
, -. /
G 2 (s)
Y (s) = G 2(s) A∗(s)
A(s) = G 1(s)X (s)
A∗(s) = [G 1(s)X (s)]∗ ̸= G ∗1 (s)X ∗(s)
Y (s) = G 2(s)[G 1(s)X (s)]∗
Y ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s)[G 1(s)X (s)]∗
Y (z) = G 2(z)[G 1 X ](z).
NOTE : We cannot separate [G 1 X ](z) to create a transfer function

Y (z)/ X (z) (!)
■ (a(t) is a function of all previous values of x(t), not just the values of
x[kT ], at the sampling instants.)
Closing the loop—Feedback
■ Ultimately, we are more interested in closed-loop than in open-loop

systems.
EXAMPLE :
G(s)
. /, -
∗
E(s) E (s)
R(s) HOLD G p (s) Y (s)
T
H (s)
E(s) = R(s) − H (s)Y (s)
Y (s) = G(s)E ∗(s)
⇒ E(s) = R(s) − H (s)[G(s)E ∗(s)] = R(s) − [H (s)G(s)]E ∗(s)
E ∗(s) = R ∗(s) − [H (s)G(s)]∗ E ∗ (s)

R ∗(s)
= # $∗
1 + G H (s)
% '
∗
G (s)
Y ∗(s) = # $∗ R ∗(s)
1 + G H (s)
! "
G(z)
Y (z) = R(z).
1 + G H (z)
■ Similarly,
G(s)
. /, -
R(s) D(z) HOLD G p (s) Y (s)
T
H (s)
Y (z) D(z)G(z)
= .
R(z) 1 + D(z)G H(z)
The problem of disturbance
W (s)
A(s) A∗ (s)
T
Y (s) = G p (s)W (s) + G(s) A∗(s)
A(s) = R(s) − Y (s) = R(s) − G p (s)W (s) − G(s) A∗(s)

# $∗
A∗(s) = R ∗(s) − G p W (s) − G ∗(s) A∗(s)
# $∗
∗ G W (s)
R (s) p
= −
1 + G ∗(s) 1 + G ∗(s)
! " # $∗
1 + G ∗(s) G(s)R ∗(s) G p W (s)G(s)
Y (s) = G p (s)W (s) + −
1 + G ∗(s) 1 + G ∗(s) 1 + G ∗(s)
! ∗ " ! "
G (s) 1 # $∗
Y ∗(s) = R ∗
(s) + G p W (s)
1 + G ∗(s) 1 + G ∗(s)
! " ! "
G(z) 1
Y (z) = R(z) + (G p W )(z).
1 + G(z) 1 + G(z)
G(z)
■ The transfer function from R(s) to Y (s) is . . . no surprise.
1 + G(z)
■ No transfer function exists between W (z) and Y (z) (!)
■ Solution (?)
W (s) G p (s)
W1 (s)
A(s) A∗ (s)
T
! " ! "
G(z) 1
Y (z) = R(z) + W1(z).
1 + G(z) 1 + G(z)
Where to from here?
■ We now understand the hybrid nature of digital control systems and
are able to analyze such hybrid systems.
■ We’re almost ready for controller design—but first, we look at stability
analysis for discrete-time systems.

Discrete and Hybrid Systems: 3.1: Laplace Transform of Ideal Sampler

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Discrete and Hybrid Systems: 3.1: Laplace Transform of Ideal Sampler

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ECE4540/5540: Digital Control Systems 3–1

3.1: Laplace transform of ideal sampler

■ Digital control systems are a mixture of discrete-time and

■ Every T seconds, the

x̄(t) = x(0) [1(t) − 1(t − T )] + x(T ) [1(t − T ) − 1(t − 2T )] +

= x(0) + x(T )e−T s + x(2T )e−2T s + · · ·

= x(0) + x(T )e−T s + x(2T )e−2T s + · · ·

= 1 + e−T e−T s + e−2T e−2T s + · · ·

Property 1: X ∗(s) is periodic in s, with period jωs .

From Euler, e− j 2π km = cos(2πkm)

Property 2: If X (s) has a pole at s = s1, then X ∗(s) has poles at

3ωs −ωs ωs 0 ωs ωs 3ωs

3ωs −ωs ωs 0 ωs ωs 3ωs

3ωs −ωs ωs 0 ωs ωs 3ωs

■ We have seen some properties of the sampling operation and of the

■ The z-transform will enable us to put these elements into a system

Open-loop discrete-time systems

■ We have already seen the relationship between X ∗ (s) and X (z).

Z[x[k]] = X (z) = x[0] + x[1]z −1 + x[2]z −2 + · · ·

X ∗ (s) = x(0) + x(T )e−sT + x(2T )e−s2T + · · ·

and X ∗ (s) = X (z)|z=esT .

■ So, the z-transform is a special case of the Laplace transform for

The discrete-impulse/unit-pulse transfer function

■ For continuous-time LTI systems, the impulse response described the

■ So, Y (s) = G(s)X ∗(s).

• Recall that transfer functions assume initial conditions to be zero.

■ It tells us NO information about the output between the sampling

• If we choose a fast sampling rate, then interpolation can be a good

Time (s) Time (s)

■ To find G(z) we must then

A shortcut for systems having time delays: (The modified z-transform)

3. And/or we want to know plant output between normal sampling times

D(z) HOLD G p (s) Y (s)

■ Consider (without controller D(z) for now):

Y (s) = e−sτ G(s)X ∗(s)

Y ∗(s) = [e−sτ G(s)]∗ X ∗(s)

= z −k G(z, (1 − %))X (z).

• You can use modified-z-transform table from Topic 2.7,

• Or you can work it out by hand,

• Or. . . you can use MATLAB

EXAMPLE OF PULSE TRANSFER FUNCTION :

dc gain = lim (z − 1)Y (z)

= lim G(z)z = G(1).

U (z) = D(z)X (z), or, via z = esT

U ∗(s) = D ∗(s)X ∗(s).

ū(t) occurs at the output of the hold circuit, so

U ∗(s) = D ∗(s)X ∗(s),

EXAMPLE : Let the digital controller implement

u[k] = 2x[k] − x[k − 1]

and the plant is:

U (z) = 2X (z) − z −1 X (z)

Block diagrams and sampled data

Y (s) = G 2(s) A∗(s)

A(s) = G 1(s)X ∗(s)

Y ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s) A∗(s)

A∗(s) = G ∗1 (s)X ∗(s)

or, Y ∗(s) = G ∗2 (s)G ∗1 (s)X ∗(s)

Y (z) = G 2(z)G 1(z)X (z).

EXAMPLE : Consider the hybrid system drawn below.

Y (s) = G 2(s) A(s) = G 2(s)G 1(s)X ∗(s)

Y (z) = G(z)X (z) or, Y (z) = (G 2 G 1)(z)X (z).

G 2(s) = 1/s G 1(s) = 1/s G(s) = 1/s 2

EXAMPLE : Consider the hybrid system drawn below.