Energy 196 (2020) 117088

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

A hybrid energy storage system using compressed air and hydrogen as

the energy carrier
Łukasz Bartela
Department of Power Engineering and Turbomachinery, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, an innovative concept of an energy storage system that combines the idea of energy
Received 24 September 2019 storage, through the use of compressed air, and the idea of energy storage, through the use of hydrogen
Received in revised form (with its further conversion to synthetic natural gas), has been proposed. The thermal integration of two
3 January 2020
sub-systems allows for efficient storage of large amounts of energy based on the use of pressure tanks
Accepted 2 February 2020
with limited volumes. A thermodynamic assessment of the integrated hybrid system was carried out. For
Available online 5 February 2020
the assumed operation parameters, an energy storage efficiency value of 38.15% was obtained, which
means the technology is competitive with intensively developed pure hydrogen energy storage tech-
Keywords:
Energy storage
nologies. The results obtained for the hybrid system were compared to the results obtained for three
Compressed air energy storage reference systems, each of which uses hydrogen generators. The first is a typical Power-to-H2-to-Power
Electrolysis system, which integrates hydrogen generators with a fuel cell system. The other two additionally use a
Methanation compressed air energy storage installation. In the first case the compressed air energy storage system
Hybridization consists of a diabatic system. In the second case the compressed air energy storage system is adiabatic.
The article has discussed the disadvantages and advantages of all the analyzed systems.
© 2020 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction in interest in the mechanisms that protect the power system

In countries where energy production is based on coal, the in-
crease in the share of energy sources with unstable potential, for
example renewable sources, such as wind or solar energy, con-
tributes to adverse effects in the field of energy security [1e3]. This
is mainly caused by the problem of maintaining the infrastructure
of large conventional sources, which must adapt their load to the
current demand due to the existing legislation; this takes into ac-
count the current generation potential of renewable sources [4,5].
The necessity to reduce the power delivered to the system is a
result of the reduced demand for energy within national systems,
which may be a consequence of periodic increases in the potential
of renewable sources, which in EU countries have priority access to
the network.
In order to remain competitive with national economies on the
international arena, there is a need to generate energy, not only
more cheaply, but also make it continuously available. It is esti-
mated that the sum of the costs incurred by the American economy
due to the failure to supply electricity to the end user is one hun-
dred times the price of this energy [6]. In Poland, based on the
methodology presented in the literature [6,7], the cost for 2015 was
estimated at about 1750 V/MWh. Such statistics foster an increase
against black-outs [8,9]. One of the most reliable solutions is the
implementation of energy storage systems.
In an era of the increasing potential of unstable sources, among
energy storage technologies, there are many solutions allowing to
minimize the amount of energy that will not be delivered to the
final customers. . Among the most popular large-scale solutions, in
addition to the use of pumped storage power plants, there are
systems that use the process of compressing air in a period of en-
ergy surplus, storing it in reservoirs and allowing it to expand to
obtain energy in a period of increased demand for electricity
[10e12]. Energy storage technology through the use of compressed
air is classified as CAES (Compressed Air Energy Storage).
Other solutions that are gaining popularity are systems based on
processes that enable the use of the energy that is consumed in a
surplus period to generate hydrogen [13,14]. Hydrogen may
optionally be used for the generation of other high energy com-
pounds, such as methane, for example. Converting energy into such
fuels enables it to be stored more easily and used within a wider
spectrum of conversion technologies to turn it back into electricity,
for example within gas turbines where the combustion of hydrogen
is difficult [15,16]. The product obtained at the loading stage is
stored, and then, in a period of increased demand for energy, it is

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117088
0360-5442/© 2020 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
converted, ultimately to electricity. Systems that enable energy
storage using an indirect hydrogen production process are classi-
fied as Power-to-Gas-to-Power (P-t-G-t-P) technology [17].
The aim of the analyzes was technical assessment of a hybrid
energy storage system, which is an integration of the P-t-G-t-P
system and the CAES system, which according to the authors of the
concept [18] is to enable ecological storage of large amounts of
energy without the need of using of large-size compressed air tanks
(e.g. hard-to-access salt caverns) and the use of known and well-
proven machines and equipment, most preferably excluding com-
ponents such as thermal energy storage units and fuel cells. The
motivation for developing the concept of the hybrid system was to
look for a solution enabling adaptation of post-mine shafts as
compressed air tanks. Potential for the development of technology
is found in coal basins, for example in Poland in the Upper Silesian
Coal Basin, where currently about 150 shafts are used. The volumes
of individual shafts reach 60,000 m3. Undoubtedly in the next de-
cades due to the global decarbonisation trend the number of active
mines will be successively reduced. Decommissioning process of
coal mines and growth of potential of unstable RES will lead to an
increase of the potential and the need for building energy storage
systems with the features of a developed hybrid system.
2. Innovative energy storage system
In recent years, hybrid systems that assume the integration of
CAES systems with other energy systems have increasingly been
analyzed in the literature on this subject. Systems that integrate
CAES installations with compact gas turbines have become the
canon in this area of hybrid systems. Solutions of this type were
analyzed by Kim and Kim [19] for example. Wro
bel and Kalina [20]
developed a hybrid system that integrated CAES with a gas turbine.
Another example is the trigeneration system analyzed by Ara-
bkoohsar and Andresen, where the CAES installation was inte-
grated with an absorption refrigeration device [21]. Bartela et al.
[22] developed the concept of a CAES system, which was thermally
integrated with a large coal-fired unit. Wojcik and Wang [23]
analyzed a system that integrated an adiabatic CAES installation
with a combined cycle gas turbine power plant. In turn, Sadeghi
and Askari [24] analyzed a hybrid system that integrated a CAES
installation with photovoltaic panels and molten carbonate fuel
cells. The idea of the system that has been analyzed in this article is
part of the currently popular trend of the hybridization of energy
storage systems.
Fig. 1 presents the idea of Compressed Air and Hydrogen Energy
Storage (CAHES) system. As part of the proposed hybrid system, the
processes identified in the CAES subsystem and the P-t-SNG-t-P
subsystem can be distinguished, in which the hydrogen produced
with the participation of carbon dioxide undergoes a synthesis
reaction; the products of which are methane and water. The hybrid
system includes: hydrogen generator, water treatment installation,
air, hydrogen (optional) and oxygen (optional) compressors, as well
as air, hydrogen, oxygen and water tanks, methane synthesis
reactor, combustion chamber, exhaust expander module and air
expander module, CO2/H2O separator, heat exchangers integrating
the two subsystems, and CO2 compressors and pumps. In the
hybrid system’s operation cycle, three stages can be distinguished:
the charging stage, the storage stage and the discharging stage. In
the charging stage, the energy surplus produced and identified in
the power system is used for the production of hydrogen by a
generator using the electrolysis process and to drive air compres-
sors. The by-product of the electrolysis process is oxygen. The three
products listed for the first stage are stored in specially designed
tanks (depending on the scale of the subsystems planed, either
above-ground or underground). In the storage stage, electricity is
neither supplied nor discharged from the energy storage system,
and the products of the first stage are stored in tanks. In the dis-
charging stage, hydrogen, with the participation of carbon dioxide,
which is supplied from outside for the initiation of the stage, is used
by the synthesis reactor. The main product is methane, while the
by-product is water. The heat generated in the reactor is used to
heat the air part supplying the air expander, which is the first
element that integrates the two subsystems. The methane pro-
duced is directed to the combustion chamber, where it is com-
busted in an atmosphere of oxygen and carbon dioxide, whose role
is to stabilize the combustion process and guarantee the appro-
priate process temperatures. High temperature exhaust gases,
which are mainly a mixture of CO2 and H2O, are directed to the
expander, where they perform work and drive an electric power
generator. The exhaust gases are characterized by high temperature
after leaving the expander, which allows for the diaphragm heating
of the air directed to the air expander, which was previously stored
in the pressure tank. The heat exchanger, where the heat exchange
process is carried out, is the second element that integrates the two
subsystems. The exhaust gases are directed to the separator after
the heat transfer, where cooling of the steam and condensation
takes place on the way and as a result its separation from the gases
(mainly including CO2). The compressed air is then heated in two
heat exchangers: the first one allowing the recovery of heat from
the synthesis reaction and the second one located in the path of the
exhaust gas leaving the gas expander, which goes to the air
expander, where it performs the work. With properly selected
parameters of the air supplying the expander (low temperature and
high pressure), the air temperature after the expansion process can
be significantly lower than the atmospheric air temperature. Such a
temperature predisposes the air for use within the separator of
exhaust gases which are oxy-combustion products. The cooling of
these gases to a lower temperature enables the intensification of
the heat exchange and increased cooling of the exhaust gases, and
thus obtaining cleaner separation products.
The method of energy storage is consistent with the concept
proposed in the patent procedure [18].
3. Thermodynamic analysis of the CAHES system e case study
The aim of the planned analysis was to determine the thermo-
dynamic effectiveness indices for the system variant which was
consistent with the concept described in section 2. At the current
stage of the research, no economic analyses have been undertaken.
Such analyses are planned for the future and will require, for
example, determination of the amount of investment expenditure
related in a significant way to the scale of the machines and devices
used. In connection with the above, for the needs of the analyses,
the duration of the individual stages of the installation’s operation
was not determined, which would essentially determine the costs
required for the purchase of the individual system components. It
was assumed that the amount of electricity directed to the energy
storage system was 100 MWh. In addition, as part of the analysis,
the discussion on the durations of start-up periods, which above all
will be extremely important from the point of view of determining
the performance characteristics of the methanation unit [25], was
omitted. It seems that an installation of this type should not be an
installation intended for short-term energy storage, due to the
required long periods of start-ups and shut-downs. It has been
assumed that all the storage tanks were isobaric. This contributed
to the simplification of the calculation procedures of the individual
components that would otherwise require calculations at non-
nominal loads.
For the needs of the analysis, a model of the system was
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088 3

Fig. 1. Scheme of the CAHES system concept, HG e Hydrogen Generator, MU - Methanation Unit, HX - Heat Exchanger, H2eC e Hydrogen Compressor, O2eC e Oxygen Compressor,
CO2eC e Carbon Dioxide Compressor, SNG-C e Synthetic Natural Gas Compressor, Air-C e Air Compressor, Air-Ex e Air Expander, FG-Ex - Flue Gases Expander, CCH e Combustion
Chamber, SEP e Moisture Separator, H2-T e Hydrogen Tank, O2-T e Oxygen Tank, H2O-T e Water Tank, CAir-T e Compressed Air Tank, CO2-T e Carbon Dioxide Tank, WTI e Water
Treatment Installation, M
motor, G eGenerator.

developed. The model was created on the basis of such tools as
Aspen Plus software (support in the methanation reactor calcula-
tion) and the GateCycle software (calculations for the compression
and expansion processes, SNG combustion and the heat exchanger
calculations). The Soave-Redlich-Kwong real gas model has been
adapted in the system model. The model of the hydrogen and ox-
ygen production subsystem was a black box model. The developed
CAHES system model was used to determine the thermodynamic
parameters of the control areas of the individual subsystems and
the electrical performance of the generating machines, which
enabled the determination of the effects of the installation’s oper-
ation at the set total energy consumption of the electrolyser and air
compressor. In the following sections of this chapter, the charac-
teristics of the case that was studied (section 3.1), the definition of
thermodynamic indices (section 3.2) and the results of the analyses
(section 3.3) have been presented.
3.1. The analyzed case
Fig. 2 has presented the structure of the system that has been
analyzed to determine the basic indicators of its thermodynamic
effectiveness. Five basic subsystems can be distinguished in the
system:
- Hydrogen Production Sub-system (HPSs),
- Methanation Sub-system (MSs),
- Compressed Air Energy Storage Sub-system (CAESSs),
- SNG Oxy-Combustion Sub-system (SNGOCSs),
- Drying Sub-system (DSs).
This section has presented the characteristics of the individual
subsystems and the assumed parameters of their work that
accompanied the analyses.
4 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
Fig. 2. Scheme of the analyzed CAHES system, R e Reactor, SP e Spliter, MIX - Mixer.
3.1.1. Hydrogen production sub-system
The first subsystem (HPSs) consists of hydrogen generator, wa-
ter preparation installation, hydrogen and oxygen compressors as
well as hydrogen, oxygen and water storage tanks. The hydrogen
generator installation works in the period of reduced demand for
electricity in the system (e.g. in the period of the valleys in the
night) or increased production potential of renewable sources.
Hydrogen and oxygen at this point are stored in H2-T and O2-T tanks
respectively.
It was assumed that hydrogen and oxygen are produced by a
hydrogen generator with an efficiency of 70% (calculated in relation
to HHV) [26]. The pressure under which the products of the elec-
trolysis process, i.e. hydrogen and oxygen, leave the hydrogen
generator (generally 30e40 bar) allows them to be stored in H2-T
and O2-T, respectively, without using any additional compressors.
These gases are used by other subsystems after the storage stage. It
was assumed that the products were 100% pure. After the storage
stage, the hydrogen goes to the methanation unit, while the oxygen
is used as an oxidant for the fuel that is SNG, which is burned in the
SNGOCSs.
3.1.2. Methanation Sub-system
In addition to the hydrogen, the Methanation Sub-system (MSs)
receives a mixture of carbon dioxide and steam, which is the
product of the drying process of the flue gases obtained in the
process of the oxy-combustion of SNG. The MSs model was
developed in the Aspen Plus program. When building the model, a
case study in the literature [27] was used.
The MSs consists of three serially connected methanation re-
actors with a fixed bed R1-R3, together with the intercoolers HX1-
HX3 and HX5. Part of the gas stream leaving the cooling exchangers
section, built up after the first reactor, is recycled. The SNG-C1
compressor is located in the path of the recirculated gas. The HX4
cooler is located behind the SNG-C1 compressor. The HX1 gas
cooler, located after the R1 reactor, allows the mixture of substrates
directed to the MSs to be heated. Some of the installed gas coolers,
i.e. HX2-HX6, allow the air going to the MSs from the Compressed
Air Energy Storage Sub-system (CAESSs) to be heated. The HX7
cooler allows for the maximum possible cooling of the gas directed
to the SNG dryer (SEP1). After drying, the SNG is directed to the SNG
Oxy-Combustion Sub-system (SNGOCSs).
The basic parameters of the processes identified within the MSs
are the temperatures and pressures produced in the individual
reactors [28]. For calculation purposes, it was assumed that the
stoichiometric ratio of hydrogen and carbon dioxide is 4. According
to the literature [27] the reactants, after mixing, are heated in the
heat exchanger HX1 to t13 ¼ 202.5  C. The gases are then cooled to
200  C before being introduced into the subsequent reactors. In the
HX6 exchanger, the gas is cooled to a temperature of 125  C. The
thermal effectiveness of all the heat exchangers in MSs was
assumed at 90%. While hydrogen is introduced into the MSs at the
assumed pressure of 1.01 MPa, in the case of a mixture of carbon
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
dioxide and water vapor, an additional compressor (CO2eC1) is
required to raise the pressure to the appropriate level. The pressure
losses in the individual elements of the installation were assumed
to match the pressure profile to the appropriate profile for the
system analyzed in the literature [27]. The kinetics of the reactions
taking place were not included in the analysis. In order to deter-
mine the equilibrium composition of the products, depending on
the temperature and pressure of the process, the method of mini-
mizing Gibbs free enthalpy was used [27,29]. Based on the data
from the literature [28,29], the RKSMHV2 model based on the
Redlich-Kwong-Soave equation using the Huron-Vidal mixing rule
was used for the calculations. It was assumed that the temperature
of the gas entering the dryer SEP1 was 25  C.
The main functionality of the developed model is to determine
the operational characteristics of the methanation unit when fed
with oxygen and a mixture of carbon dioxide and steam, at different
proportions for the last two substrates. The proportion of water
vapor in the CAHES system mainly depends on the conditions un-
der which the drying process of the flue gases is carried out in the
Drying Sub-system, which were basically determined by the deci-
sion variables for which the CAHES systems were analyzed. Fig. 3
presents the proportions of the individual components in the
mixture constituting the final product obtained in the MSs
depending on the content of H2O and CO2 in the mixture directed to
the MSs from the DSs (point 11 in Fig. 2).
3.1.3. Compressed Air Energy Storage Sub-system
Parallel to the conducted electrolysis process and the metha-
nation process, a three-section air compressor (Air-C) operates in
the system, which is equipped with three compressed air cooling
sections: two exchangers built-in between the compressor sections
and one air cooling exchanger located at the inlet to the Com-
pressed Air Tank (CAir-T). The heat from the cooling process is
dissipated to the environment. The atmospheric air introduced into
the Air-C is characterized by a temperature of 15  C, a pressure of
101.325 kPa and humidity of 60%. The air is compressed to a pres-
sure of 4000 kPa. In the course of the analyses, the pressure value
was varied from 2000 kPa to 6000 kPa; each section has the same
pressure ratio. The internal efficiency of each compressor section is
88%, and the electromechanical efficiency of the compressor as-
sembly is 98%, the air in each cooler is cooled to 30  C. Compressed
air is collected in an underground tank, from which, after the
storage stage, it is directed to the heat exchangers, and then to two
parts of the air expender (Air-Ex). It was assumed that the CAir-T is
isobaric and the relative pressure losses in the path of the flowing
Fig. 3. Composition of the SNG produced in the MSs as a function of the H2O content in
the mixture with CO2 directed from the DSs [15].
5
air are 3%. Due to heat losses at the storage stage, the temperature
of the air leaving the tank is 25  C. Part of the stream is directed to
the MSs, where the air is membrane heated by using part of the
heat of the reaction from the methanation process. The second part
of the stream is directed to the HX11 exchanger, which is fed by the
high-temperature flue gas exiting the expander of the SNGOCSs. It
was assumed that the approach temperature at the cold end of the
HX11 exchanger is 50 K and its effectiveness is 90%. Each stream of
heated air is introduced into the individual part of the expander, the
internal efficiency for each group of expander stages is 90%. The
electromechanical efficiency of the expander is 98%. In each part of
the expander, the air is expanded to a pressure of 105 kPa. As the air
heated in the MSs is characterized by a lower temperature than the
air heated by the exhaust gas leaving the expander of the SNGOCSs,
its temperature after the expansion process may be much lower
than the ambient temperature. The low temperature obtained in
this way can be used in the DSs, where it can be used for more
efficient drying of the exhaust gases before they are directed to the
MSs.
3.1.4. SNG Oxy-Combustion Sub-system
The flue gases expander (FG-Ex) operates in the SNGOCSs,
powered by the flue gases generated in the combustion chamber
(CCH). SNG, which is a product of the MSs, is fed into the CCH. The
fuel is burned in a mixture of the flue gases recirculated from
behind the expander after the drying process, which are carried out
in the DSs; oxygen being the product of the electrolysis process.
Such use of the oxygen as a by-product of the electrolysis process in
an energy storage system was analyzed by Eveloy [30]. It was
assumed that the nominal pressure of the flue gas entering the
expander is 4000 kPa. During the analyses, the pressure was varied
in the range from 2000 to 6000 kPa. The nominal temperature of
the flue gases behind the CCH was assumed to be 950  C. This
temperature level is appropriate from the point of view of the
thermal resistance of the materials currently used in the produc-
tion of expander blades. During the analyses, the temperature of
the flue gases at the outlet of the CCH was varied in the range from
800  C to 1100  C. It was assumed that the flue gases expand to a
pressure of 600 kPa, which allows a high temperature of the flue
gases to be obtained at the inlet of the HX11 exchanger, where the
air directed to the expander of the CAESSs is heated. During the
analyses, the pressure of the flue gases at the outlet of the expander
was varied in the range from 400 to 800 kPa. The higher the
pressure, the lower the expander’s power, but also the lower the
auxiliary power of the CO2 compressor used in the SNGOCSs,
enabling the recirculation of part of the flue gases to the CCH. It was
assumed that the combustible components of SNG (CH4 and H2) are
subject to complete combustion, and the amount of oxygen intro-
duced into the CCH is minimal for stoichiometric combustion,
therefore oxygen is not part of the exhaust gas leaving the CCH. The
exhaust gas is therefore a mixture of two components, i.e. CO2 and
H2O. With these assumptions made, also regarding the ideal con-
ditions for conducting the methanation process, the amount of
oxygen required for the combustion process is exactly the same as
that produced by the hydrogen generator operating in the MSs.
Under real operating conditions, minor hydrogen or oxygen de-
ficiencies should be expected for all the processes carried out in the
CAHES system.
3.1.5. Drying Sub-system
In the DSs, the water vapor contained in the flue gases exiting
the FG-Ex is subject to condensation due to cooling below the dew
point. First, the flue gases are cooled to 30  C in the HX12 heat
exchanger. Further cooling of the flue gases is possible thanks to the
optional use of the low temperature of the air leaving the Air-Ex of
6 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088

the CAESSs. The effectiveness of the HX13 heat exchanger was
assumed to be 90%. The role of the SEP2 dryer is to separate the
condensed steam from the flue gases fraction; the separator was
assumed to be adiabatic and the relative pressure loss in dryer was
5%.
In the course of the analyses, a total of four operating parame-
ters of the CAHES system were changed, i.e.:
- the pressure of theflue gases at the outlet of the FG-Ex (p74), in
the range of 400e800 kPa,
- the temperature of the flue gases at the inlet of the FG-Ex (t73),
in the range of 800e1100  C,
- the pressure of the flue gases at the inlet of the FG-Ex (p73), in
the range of 2000e6000 kPa,
- the air pressure at the inlet of the CAir-T (p47), in the range of
2000e6000 kPa.
Regardless of the values adopted for the above-mentioned
quantities, the main task of the calculation algorithm was to
divide the assumed amount of electricity that is directed to the
CAHES system, i.e. always an assumed value of 100 MWh, for the
needs of the two sub-systems, i.e. HPSs and CAESSs. In the algo-
rithm for the unit productivity of the hydrogen generator, the unit
amount of air that allowed heat transfer within the heat exchangers
located in the MSs was determined, i.e. HX2-HX6, and the heat
exchanger HX11, located in the CAESSs, in accordance with the
assumptions presented in this section. In this way, the unit energy
demand for the Air-C was determined. Then, the specific unit de-
mand values were scaled to achieve a total demand of 100 MWh.
3.2. Evaluation indicators
The evaluation of the CAHES hybrid system was performed us-
ing energy storage efficiency as the metric. The general definition of
the efficiency of energy storage systems is as follows:
Eout
hESS ¼ ; (1)
Ein
where: Eout - the amount of electricity put out by the storage sys-
tem at the discharging stage, Ein - the amount of electricity put into
the storage system at the charging stage.
In the literature on the subject, deviations from the definition
according to equation (1) are very common. An example can be
diabatic CAES systems, for which efficiency definitions of various
forms have been used [31e33]. The difficulty in these cases is to
properly include the additional energy introduced into the storage
system at the discharge stage in the definition, which is the
chemical energy of the natural gas. This results in the difficulty of
using the storage efficiency values of diabatic CAES systems cited in
the literature to assess these systems by comparison with systems
representing e.g. adiabatic technology.
The CAHES system, which is the subject of this analysis, is an
adiabatic system, which does not cause difficulties in adapting the
general form of the definition (1). In accordance with this definition
and in accordance with the electricity flows marked in Fig. 1, the
efficiency of the CAHES system is defined by the relationship:
the electricity consumption of the air compressor.
The electricity consumption of the main auxiliary machines was
calculated as follows:
EAux ¼ ECO2
C1 þ ECO2
C2 þ ESNG
C1 þ ESNG
C2 ; (3)
where: ECO2
C1 e the electricity consumption of the CO2
compressor in the MSs, ECO2
C2 e the electricity consumption of
the CO2 compressor in the SNGOCSs, ESNG
C1 e the electricity
consumption of the SNG compressor in the MSs, ESNG
C2 e the
electricity consumption of the SNG compressor in the SNGOCSs.
3.3. Results of the analysis
The energy storage efficiency for the CAHES system for the
nominal assumptions, calculated according to the relationship (2),
was 0.3815. Fig. 4 presents diagrams showing the amount of indi-
vidual energy flows classified in three flow categories, i.e. main
electricity consumption (MEC), electricity generation (EG) and
auxiliary electricity consumption (AEC). Table 1 presents basic
parametres in the characteristic points of the CAHES system (ac-
cording to Fig. 2) for nominal assumptions, at mass flows for which
the demand for electric power of the system is 100 MW.
The energy supplying the Air-C accounts for a relatively small
proportion of the total energy supplying the CAHES system in the
charging stage. This reduces the demand for storage volume for the
compressed air and thus can be a way to adapt the solution in
places where there are no suitable conditions for the construction
of large underground tanks. While the energy supply of the Air-C
accounts for only 28.9% of the total amount of electricity directed
to the system in the charging stage, the energy production in the
Air-Ex is significantly higher than the energy production in the FG-
Ex in the system’s discharging stage, constituting a proportion of
the total production at the level of 69.9%. The direction of the en-
ergy flows within the system determine the described relation-
ships, and mainly the direction of the heat flow of the SNG cooling
in the MSs and the heat from the cooling of the flue gases leaving
the FG-Ex - the heat recovered within the subsystems directly
related to the hydrogen part is used to heat the air that is the energy

EAir
Ex þ EFG
Ex
EAux

hCAHES ¼ ; (2)
EHG þ EAir
C

where: EAir
Ex e the electricity production in the air expander,

EFG
Ex e the electricity production in the flue gases expander, EAux
e the electricity consumption of the main auxiliary machines, EHG Fig. 4. Diagram of the main energy flows in the CAHES system for the nominal
e the electricity consumption of the hydrogen generator,EAir
C e assumptions.
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088 7

Table 1
Thermodynamic parameters within the analyzed CAHES system for nominal assumptions.

Sub-systems No. m, kg/s p, kPa t,  C Contents, -

H2 CH4 H2O Ar N2 CO O2 CO2

a
Hydrogen Production 1 0.00 500 25 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2a 3.14
3a
4a
5a 0.35 4000 25 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
6a
7b 1013
8a 2.79 4000 25 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000
9a
10b 4124
Methanation 11b 1.92 1013 71.6 0.0000 0.0000 0.0051 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.9948
12b 2.27 1013 35.5 0.7995 0.0000 0.0010 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1994
13b 1010 202.5
14b 8.93 200.4 0.3790 0.1744 0.3515 0.0000 0.0000 0.0013 0.0000 0.0937
15b 960 487.0 0.1600 0.2653 0.5342 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0385
16b 930 439.1
17b 900 247.8
18b 870 200.0
19b 6.66
20b 1010 220.2
21b 1010 200.0
22b 2.27 870 200.0
23b 820 337.9 0.0457 0.3137 0.6291 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0114
24b 730 200.0
25b 680 237.0 0.0127 0.3275 0.6567 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0032
26b 635 126.8
27b 590 25.0
28b 1.55 400 0.0000 0.0011 0.9988 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0001
29b 0.72 400 25.0 0.0367 0.9461 0.0082 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0090
30b 1.76 4000 25.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0093 0.7805 0.0000 0.2094 0.0003
31b 4000 199.2
32b 4.92 3880 25.0
33b 3880 223.9
34b 2.54 4000 25.0
35b 4000 304.9
36b 13.91 4000 25.0
37b 4000 214.3
38b 23.13 3880 225.2
39b 3841 400.8
Compressed Air Energy Storage 41a 65.62 101 15.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0005 0.0093 0.7805 0.0000 0.2094 0.0003
42a 348 152.6
43a 345 30.0
44a 1187 174.7
45a 1175 30.0
46a 4040 162.1
47a 4000 30.0
48b 3880 25.0
49b 42.49
50b 3841 602.2
51b 23.13 3841 400.8
52b 105 14.2
53b 37.10 594 75.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.1026 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.8973
SNG Oxy-comb. 71b 0.72 6186 280.6 0.0367 0.9461 0.0082 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0090
72b 33.60 4124 202.1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0051 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.9948
73b 37.10 4000 950.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.1026 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.8973
74b 37.10 600 669.3
Drying 81b 37.10 588 30.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.1026 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.8973
82b 37.10 582 23.3
83b 35.52 588 30.0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0051 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0002 0.9948
84b 33.60 553 22.9
85b 1.92 553 22.9
86b 1.58 582 23.3 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

It was assumed that charging and discharging times are the same.
a
Charging period.
b
Discharging period.

carrier in the CAESSs (see Fig. 1). The basic energy demand in the of the recirculated flue gases before their introduction into the CCH,
CAHES system is the CO2eC2 compressor. The other auxiliary ma- constitutes 12% of the amount of energy produced in the system at
chines operating in the system have marginal energy needs. The the discharging stage and as much as 40% of the amount of energy
energy demand for the CO2eC2 compressor, i.e. raising the pressure produced by the FG-Ex.
8 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088

Figs. 5e8 present the characteristics of the main energy flows as

a function of the selected operating parameters of the CAHES sys-
tem. In the context of the energy consumption share of the Air-C,
the pressure of the flue gases at the inlet (p73 ) and outlet (p74 ) of
the FG-Ex do not have a significant impact on the energy con-
sumption of the CAHES system. However these quantities, unlike
the other two, are crucial in terms of the amount of energy pro-
duced within the Air-Ex and FG-Ex. Only the increase of the pres-
sure of the flue gases at the outlet of the CCH contributes to the
increase of the auxiliary power of the system - the energy demand
of the CO2eC2 compressor increases significantly. The auxiliary
power decreases with the increase of the value of the other vari-
ables that have been studied.
Fig. 9 shows the characteristics of the efficiency of the CAHES
system, determined in accordance with Eq. (2), as a function of all
the characteristic quantities that have been changed. The increase
in the temperature and pressure of the flue gases at the outlet of the

Fig. 7. Main energy flows in the CAHES system as a function of the pressure of the flue
gases at the outlet of the FG-Ex.

Fig. 5. Main energy flows in the CAHES system as a function of the pressure of the flue
gases at the outlet of the CCH.

Fig. 8. Main energy flows in the CAHES system as a function of the pressure of the air
at the inlet of the CAir-T.

CCH, in the tested range of values, contributes to the increase in the

efficiency value. A similar relationship occurs in the case of the air
pressure reaching the CAir-T. It is important to note here that while
the increase in the air pressure from the nominal to the maximum
value translates into a relatively small increase in efficiency (þ0.26
pp), lowering the value of the pressure to the minimum value re-
sults in a significant decrease in efficiency (
1.42 pp). In the case of
the pressure of the flue gases exiting the FG-Ex, the highest effi-
ciency in the tested range of values was obtained at a pressure of
about 620 kPa, i.e. at a value close to the nominal value.

3.4. Comparison with other large-scale energy storage technologies

The proposed CAHES system is a hybrid of two energy storage

technologies that have been widely discussed in the literature to
Fig. 6. Main energy flows in the CAHES system as a function of the temperature of the balance the energy in large energy systems, i.e. the CAES system
flue gases at the outlet of the CCH. and the Power-to-Gas-to-Power system. On the one hand, the
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088 9

(e.g. lithium) and their life span, the main disadvantage of the PHS
and CAES systems are the location restrictions dictated by geolog-
ical requirements, regarding the conditions for the construction of
storage tanks that are suitable for water or compressed air. In this
context, it can be expected that in the coming decades, the increase
in demand for storage capacity for electricity obtained from
renewable energy sources will force the diversification of techno-
logical solutions. In the light of this thesis, the CAHES system, in
terms of energy storage efficiency, can be compared to systems
characterized by the lack of indicated restrictions (P-t-G-t-P), or
systems that assume the use of various technologies.
As part of the analysis, the CAHES system was compared with
alternative energy storage systems. It was assumed that the alter-
native systems, in each case, are based on the use of the hydrogen
production subsystem. The alternative systems were:

Case A: Power-to-Hydrogen-to-Power System - an integrated

Fig. 9. Energy storage efficiency of the CAHES as a function of the characteristic
quantities.
system based on the use of hydrogen production and fuel cell
installations;
Case B: P-t-H2 þ D-CAES - two separate systems, one of which is
a system of hydrogen generators, from which the produced
hydrogen goes to the gas network, while the other is a diabatic
CAES powered by natural gas obtained from the gas network;
Case C: P-t-H2-t-P þ A-CAES - two separate systems, one of
which is a system compatible with Case A, while the other is an
adiabatic CAES.

The scheme of the system in Case A is shown in Fig. 10. It was

obtained values of the energy storage efficiency classify the CAHES
assumed that all the electricity intended for storage, i.e. 100 MWh,
system in this respect in the group of technologies with moderate
is used for hydrogen production, which, in the discharge stage, fully
efficiency. On the other hand, the CAHES system may have features
supplies the fuel cell installation. It was assumed that the efficiency
that may constitute investment arguments. It is possible here to
of the hydrogen generator system is 70%, while the efficiency of the
indicate the possibilities of the system’s high work flexibility in the
fuel cell installation is 42% (efficiencies were calculated using the
scope of load modulation of individual subsystems. This possibility
HHV) [38e40].
is mainly given by the HPSs, whose load can be changed in a wide
Fig. 11 shows the installation diagram according to Case B. In this
range of values and thus adapted to the current surplus in elec-
solution, the total amount of energy to be stored, i.e. 100 MWh, is
tricity production. The SNG’s characteristics, similar to those of
divided into two systems. The relevant part of this energy is used to
natural gas, may allow for the deficiencies in the SNG to be sup-
power hydrogen generators; the efficiency of hydrogen generators
plemented with gas from the gas network, which may result in
is 70%. The hydrogen produced goes to the natural gas transmission
increased system productivity during energy shortages in the po-
system. This manner of hydrogen transport is safer than the
wer system or the possibility of operation without starting the
transport of pure hydrogen over long distances [41]. The entire
subsystem responsible for SNG production. Hydrogen, which is the
natural gas transmission system is treated here as a reservoir with
main product of the electrolysis process, can be used for other
such a large capacity that the addition of hydrogen does not
purposes; which can be an extremely important argument in the
contribute to significant changes in the characteristics of the nat-
era of dynamically popularized hydrogen cell technology, the large-
ural gas. It was assumed that natural gas with the composition
scale use of which is planned in the automotive industry [34]. The
(CH4) ¼ 100%, in an amount corresponding to the energy equivalent
CAHES system is an ecological system that does not emit harmful
of hydrogen injected into the network, is used in the D-CAES
substances. Unlike large-scale CAES systems, adopting the concept
of a large-scale CAHES system does not have to require the orga-
nization of large-scale compressed air tanks - the required capac-
ities, while maintaining energy storage capacity, may be several
times smaller in this case. The limitation of the required capacity
means that, for example, appropriate mine excavations (corridors
and mine shafts) [35], or even above-ground reservoir systems can
be considered as reservoirs. This means that the location of the
investment in a system with relatively high storage potential can
take place in an area without salt deposits or aquifers.
An efficiency of almost 40% puts the CAHES system, in the hi-
erarchy of energy storage systems, undoubtedly below the energy
storage systems that use electrochemical methods (even over 90%),
pumped storage power plants (even over 80%), or adiabatic CAES
systems (declared efficiency of the systems that have been devel-
oped in the world are up to 75% [36,37]). While in the case of
electrochemical methods, the barrier to the construction of systems
Fig. 10. Scheme of the power-to-hydrogen-to-power system (case A), FCU e fuel cells
with a large capacity may be the limited availability of rare earths
unit.
10 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
Fig. 11. Scheme of the two separate systems: Power-to-Hydrogen System and Diabatic-CAES System (Case B).
system, where the high-pressure gas is burned in a CCH in an at-
mosphere of air. During the charging period of the energy storage
system, compressed air is collected in an underground tank thanks
to the use of a three-section compressor which uses intersection
coolers. The total sum of the amount of energy used to power the
hydrogen generator installation and the D-CAES air compressor is
100 MWh. It was assumed that the pressure of the stored air is
8 MPa, and that the storage tank is isobaric. It was also assumed
that each of the compressor sections have the same pressure ratio
and the same internal efficiency of 88%. The air is cooled in ex-
changers to 30  C. The relative pressure loss of the air leaving the
underground tank is 3%; the temperature of the air leaving the tank
is 25  C. Before introducing air into the CCH, the air is heated in the
regenerative heat exchanger, in which the heat source is the high-
temperature flue gases leaving the expander; the exchanger’s ef-
ficiency was assumed to be 90%. The temperature of the flue gases
at the outlet of the CCH is 950  C. Natural gas is introduced into the
CCH at a pressure 50% higher than the pressure of the introduced
air. The natural gas compressor works for the appropriate
compression of the natural gas from the pressure in the gas pipe-
line, i.e. 3 MPa. In Case B this is the only element of the system in
the analysis that determines the energy storage system’s auxiliary
power. For Case B the energy fluxes within P-t-H2 system, similarly
to the Case A, by using the black box model were determined. The
main energy and mass fluxes within D-CAES system were deter-
mined for above assumptions using GateCycle software.
Fig. 12 shows the system diagram according to Case C. The total
amount of energy intended to supply the hydrogen generators and
air compressor systems operating in the A-CAES system is
100 MWh. The division of the amount of the energy into the two
systems is analogous to the division that occurs in the CAHES sys-
tem (see Fig. 4). The efficiency of the installation of the hydrogen
generators are at a level of 70% and the efficiency of the installation
of the fuel cells at a level of 42% was adopted analogously to Case A.
The A-CAES system was not the subject of thermodynamic ana-
lyses. Based on the publications in the literature, three efficiency
Fig. 12. Scheme of the two separate systems: Power-to-Hydrogen-to-Power System and Adiabatic-CAES System (Case C), TES e Thermal Energy Storage system.
variants for this system were adopted, i.e. 65%, 70% and 75%
[12,36,37]. An example of an adiabatic system is the ADELE system
which is under construction [12]. This system assumes the use of a
two-section compressor with an intersection cooler. The heat from
the cooling process is dissipated in the environment and is waste.
The pressure ratios realized in the two sections of the compressor
were selected so that the air leaving the second section has a
temperature of 600  C. This temperature level is the limiting value
in terms of the thermal resistance of the materials used in the
construction of the compressor. High temperature air, before
entering the underground tank, flows through the ceramic filling of
the thermal energy storage (TES), heating the ceramic elements.
The cooled air goes to the tank and is kept there until the energy
storage system begins to discharge. The air flows again through the
TES, and is warmed from the heat from the filling process. The
heated air is then introduced into the expander and performs work
in it. The diagram shown in Fig. 12 shows the structure of the A-
CAES system, which is suitable for the ADELE system.
The characterized systems were evaluated using an indicator,
which is the efficiency of the energy storage. For Case A, the effi-
ciency was calculated as the product of the efficiency of the
hydrogen generator and the efficiency of the fuel cell system, which
can be written as follows [42]:
EFC
hESScaseA ¼ ¼ hHG hFC ; (4)
EHG
where: EFC - the amount of electricity generated by the fuel cell
system, hHG - efficiency of the hydrogen generator system, hFC -
efficiency of the fuel cell system.
For Case B, the efficiency of the energy storage system is
determined by the following equation:
EFG
Ex
EAux
hESScaseB ¼ : (5)
EHG þ EAir
C
The system, according to Case B, is a system that is the only one
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
among the analyzed systems that contributes to the emission of
harmful substances into the atmosphere; including mainly nitro-
gen oxides and carbon dioxide. This is due to the high-temperature
combustion of the natural gas taken from the gas pipeline in the D-
CAES system. Reducing the nitrogen oxide emissions requires the
use of low-emission combustion techniques or the installation of an
NOx reduction catalytic convertor. In order to reduce the carbon
dioxide emissions, gas separation and storage installations are
required [43]. An alternative definition of efficiency was used for
Case B; in this case the equivalent energy consumption, which is
required for the separation of an analogous amount of CO2 in the
reference separation technology was used. This efficiency is defined
as follows:
EFG
Ex
EAux
ECCS
hESScaseB * ¼ ; (6)
EHG þ EAir
C
where: ECCS - electricity consumption required for the separation
and storage of the emitted CO2.
The energy consumption related to the need for CO2 separation
and storage was calculated according to the relationship:
ECCS ¼ ðEFG
Ex
EAux ÞeCCS εCO2 ; (7)
where: eCCS - unit energy consumption of the CO2 separation and
storage process, εCO2 - CO2 emissions per unit of the net electricity
produced in the energy storage system at the discharge stage.
For the purposes of the analyses, the value of the eCCS indicator
was adopted at three levels, i.e. 0.2 (variant a), 0.3 (variant b) and
0.4 MWh/tCO2 (variant c). The specific emission factor εCO2 in the
course of the conducted analyses was set at 216.7 kgCO2/MWh.
For Case C, the efficiency of the energy storage was determined
according to the relationship:
EFC þ EFG
Ex
hESScaseC ¼ : (8)
EHG þ EAir
C
Due to the adopted values of the proportion of the hydrogen
generators and the air compressor in the energy consumption
intended for storage (the same proportions as for the CAHES system
shown in Fig. 4), the assumed value of the efficiency of the
hydrogen generators and the efficiency of the fuel cell installation
and as well as the adiabatic CAES system, the system efficiency
according to Case C can be calculated by the following relationship:
Fig. 13. Main energy flows for the compared energy storage systems.
11
 
EHG EHG
hESScaseC ¼ hHG hFC þ 1
h
EHG þ EAir
C EHG þ EAir
C A
CAES
(9)
In Fig. 13, the characteristics of the main energy flows for all the
analyzed systems that are an alternative to the CAHES system,
similar to Fig. 4, are shown and have been classified into three
categories. Fig. 14, in turn, shows the energy storage efficiency
values for all the analyzed systems.
The efficiency of the CAHES system is definitely higher than the
efficiency of the case with the typical P-t-H2-t-P (Case A) system,
consisting of two basic subsystems, i.e. the hydrogen generator
installation and the fuel cell installations; the difference between
the compared systems is 8.75 pp. The efficiency of the CAHES
system is lower than the efficiency of the systems according to
Cases B and C - mainly due to their own high requirements, and
here, mainly due to the high energy consumption of the CO2eC2
compressor, which allows for the recirculation of flue gases from
behind the FG-Ex to the CCH. If the definition of efficiency for
variant B takes into account the energy consumption of the carbon
dioxide separation and storage process, then the difference in ef-
ficiency is practically reduced to zero. Undoubtedly, the disadvan-
tage of the CAHES system is its structure’s high level of complexity.
In addition to the basic elements of the system, which also appear
in the other variants that have been compared, there are a large
number of reactors, separators, heat exchangers, compressors and
pumps to deal with. The advantage of the CAHES system, compared
to the systems in Cases A and C, is the elimination of the fuel cells
from the system which are still considered to be expensive com-
ponents and characterized by high operating costs. In the case of
the systems assuming technology integration (CAHES, Case B and
Case C) in Case B, in relation to the CAHES system and Case C, there
is a greater involvement of the generators and a smaller involve-
ment of the air compressor in the system’s charging stage to deal
with. This means that in this case there will be less demand for
underground air storage volume. Typical energy demand for the air
compression process for filling 1 m3 of the tank volume is about
175 MWh [44]. Therefore, using, for example, as a reservoir for
compressed air, a post-mine shaft with a common volume
60,000 m3, would allow the organization of a CAHES system with
total energy demand during the charging period of 1188 MWh, with
the compression process itself using 343 MWh of it. With a
compressor running for 8 h (typical night valley duration), its
12 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088

Fig. 14. Energy storage efficiencies for the compared energy storage systems.

Table 2
Assessment of selected features of the evaluated energy storage systems.

Evaluation criterion Energy storage system

CAHES Case A Case B Case C

Energy storage efficiency Medium Low Medium Mediumþ

Underground air storage Yes No Yes Yes
Hydrogen storage Yes Yes Optional Yes
Technology maturitya High High High Medium
The proportion of hydrogen generators in the consumption of electricity Medium High Mediumþ Medium
The proportion of fuel cells in the production of electricity No High No Medium
Injection of hydrogen to the natural gas network No No Yes No
Involvement of heat exchangers High No Medium Low
Heat storage No No No Yes
Harmful substances emission No No Yes No
a
Corresponding to the maturity of respective components.

average power would have to be about 42.9 MW (with hydrogen
generators at approximately 105.6 MW).
The contents of Table 2 are an attempt to assess selected features
of the compared systems, from the point of view of the key in-
vestment and operational process.
4. Conclusion
Undoubtedly, energy storage systems will be an indispensable
element of the energy systems of the future. The certainty about
this thesis confirms the globally observed change of direction in the
field of the transformation of the energy market, which comes
down to a gradual replacement of conventional systems, based
mainly on coal and natural gas, by systems based on renewable
energy sources, including mainly periodically available solar energy
and wind energy [45].
Ensuring energy security requires buffering of the excess energy
produced during periods of high energy potential in order to use it
in periods of low potential. The complete replacement of conven-
tional energy with renewable energy in highly developed countries
will require the installation of storage systems with very large ca-
pacities. In this case, the adaptation possibilities of a given energy
storage technology will be determined by not only such features as
capital expenditure, efficiency, reaction speed and productivity, but
also by access to materials, e.g. rare earths, or geological conditions.
In view of the above, global and local conditions will determine the
development directions of energy storage technologies. At the
same time, it should be expected that with the expected demand
for the capacity of storage systems, there will be a need to diversify
the solutions. Technology hybridization may be an interesting di-
rection for creating systems based on various technological solu-
tions. The paper presents an example of a system that integrates
two systems, i.e. an energy storage system using hydrogen and
compressed air. The CAHES system allows an efficiency of 38.15% to
be achieved, which is much higher than the efficiency of the Power-
to-Hydrogen-to-Power systems, although at the same time it is
lower than the efficiency of typical compressed air storage systems.
With regard to such systems, the CAHES solution can, however,
eliminate the need for natural gas combustion, which is the case in
diabatic systems and is a source of harmful substances emission, as
well as the need for high temperature heat storage, which is
appropriate for adiabatic systems.
The development of the idea of the CAHES system is the result of
searching technical solutions for the most efficient energy storage
systems, for which the adaptation of abandoned shafts of a coal
mine as compressed air tanks is envisioned, which have volumes of
up to 50,000 m3 [35]. In a paper in the literature [22] the authors
presented the results of the thermal integration of this type of
systems with coal-fired power blocks, which are very often located
in close proximity to mine shafts. How the work regime at which
such systems would work remains open. In order to fully assess the
CAHES hybrid system, appropriate economic analyses will be con-
ducted in the near future. Such analyses will be preceded by
technical analyses, assuming detailed hour-by-hour type
 Ł. Bartela / Energy 196 (2020) 117088
simulations, which are especially required for CAES systems [46].
More complex models will be required to perform this type of
analyses. The most important barrier standing in the way of
implementing a hybrid system may be the technical risk associated
with exploitation of the mine shaft. Only detailed numerical ana-
lyzes, followed by tests carried out with the use of demonstration
tanks will allow the determination of safe pressure levels at which
air can be stored in the volume of the shafts.
Acknowledgements
The scientific work is funded by the National Science Centre
within the framework of the research project no. 2017/27/B/ST8/
02270.
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