Introduction to Optical Fabrication and

Testing
Fall 2019
Aspheres (1)

Chris Evans

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 1

 Aspheric optics
• Highly desirable (to the optical designer)
– Additional degrees of freedom
• Smaller number of lenses (lighter)
• Lower aberrations, better image quality
• Optical functions not available from flats, spheres and
prisms
• Requires a different (capital intensive)
manufacturing process
• Typically more expensive (?)
• Freeform optics – a special case?
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 2
Aspheres play roles in both imaging
and non-imaging optics

• Key roles for imaging optics include

– Extending correction to a wider FOV
– Field flattening
– Reduced abberations

• Non-imaging optics
– Conics, concentrators, and other light
buckets offer efficient means of
collecting photons when wavefront
control is not required
– Illumination

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 3

Describing a general asphere*:

2
cr
z= + a r 4
+ a 6
2 ...
r
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c r ]
2 2 1/ 2 1

r = radius along x,y

c = curvature = 1/R
R = ROC at r=0
k = conic constant

* Rotationally invariant
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 4
Off–axis aspheres (or small tools)

Different curvature radially and azimuthally

(except at vertex)
No single tool shape can match different
radii on the surface!
– Contact tools
• Pressure function varies over part
• Gapping leads to scratches

D radius=f(x2+y2) 1/2

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 5

 2
cr
z=
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c 2r 2 ]1/2

200
k=0 sphere
180

160

140

120

Z, mm 100

80

60

40

20

0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 6

 2
cr
z=
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c 2r 2 ]1/2

200
k=0 Prolate
180 k=-0.5 ellipse
(same
160
vertex
140 curvature)

120

Z, mm 100

80

60

40

20

0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 7

 2
cr
z=
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c 2r 2 ]1/2

200
k=0
180 k=-0.5
k=-1 Parabola
160

140

120

Z, mm 100

80

60

40

20

0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 8

 2
cr
z=
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c 2r 2 ]1/2

200
k=0
180 k=-0.5
k=-1
160
k=-1.5 Hyperbola
140

120

Z, mm 100

80

60

40

20

0
-100 -50 0 50 100
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 9

 2
cr
z=
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c 2r 2 ]1/2

200
k=0
180 -0.5
-1
160
-1.5 Oblate
140 1 ellipse
120

Z, mm 100

80

60

40

20

0 Look at variation
-100 -50 0 50 100
Aperture, mm in curvature!!
Conics have (relatively) simple null tests
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 10
 Are conic sections enough?

• Conic sections do not provide (some) optical

designers with enough degrees of freedom
• Modern manufacturing methods allow
fabrication of “steep” spheres
• So far, no general solution for asphere
metrology … more about that in a few weeks.

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 11

Describing a general (even) asphere:

cr 2
z= + a r 4
+ a 6
2 ...
r
1 + [1 − (k + 1)c r ]
2 2 1/ 2 1

a1 r4
Patented litho a2 r6
lens element a3 r8
(Zeiss) a4 r10
a5 r12
a6 r14
Quick: a7 r16
What are the units??
How are they realized??
Can we tolerance each RoC = -68.248613899
one of these gems? k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 12

Departure from vertex sphere due to k=-1.3312

6
a1 r4
4 a2 r6
a3 r8
2
a4 r10
a5 r12
Z, mm

0
a6 r14
-2
a7 r16
-4

RoC = -68.248613899
-6
k = -1.3312
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 13

 Departure from vertex sphere

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
0
a5 r12
-2
a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 14

 Departure from vertex sphere

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
0
a5 r12
-2
a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 15

 Departure from vertex sphere

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
0
a5 r12
-2
a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 16

 Departure from vertex sphere

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
0
a5 r12
-2
a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 17

 Departure from vertex sphere

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
0
a5 r12
-2 a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 18

 Final aspheric departure

a1 r4
4
a2 r6
2 a3 r8
a4 r10
Z, mm

0
a5 r12
-2
a6 r14
a7 r16
-4

-6 RoC = -68.248613899
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
k = -1.3312
Aperture, mm

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 19

 Motivation for Forbes polynomials
– now in some optical standards
Current situation based on monomial degrees of freedom
a1 r4 • Current “standard”
a2 r6 – 76 significant digits in previous example
a3 r8 – Alternating signs
a4 r10 (sign polarity is Jurassic Park-Butterfly effect issue)
a5 r12 – Heavy “cancellation
a6 r14
a7 r16 – Numerical issues 6

2
RoC = -68.248613899
k = -1.3312 0

-2

-4

-6

-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 20

 Forbes polynomials
• Orthogonal polynomials, not simple power series
• Two basis sets:
– Best fit sphere or best fit conic

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 21

 (nm)
a1 r4
a2 r6
a3 r8
a4 r10
a5 r12
a6 r14
a7 r16

RoC = -68.248613899
k = -1.3312
•27 digits
•numerically stable
• tolerance coefficients
•rss coefficients to get mean squared slope

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 22

 Classical optical fabrication
• Pitch polishing after final grinding/lapping
• Typically full area contact between part and lap
– Full curvature match
• Makes spheres

• Aspheric optics fabrication

– Hand polishing by master opticians
– “Small” tool
• Or local control of curvature, pressure, velocity
– Displacement (SPDT) or load/time (MRF, IBF) control

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 23

 Context (optical manufacturing)
Load controlled Displacement controlled
One point tool Grating ruling Diamond turning
Many point tool Polishing Grinding
after A. E. Gee, personal communication with CE, 1985

Also dwell time controlled:

}
Magnetorheological finishing
Ion beam finishing “Metrology integrated” into process
Plasma assisted chemical etching to provide “hit map”
….

Diamond turning: a stand-alone machining process

: metrology loop integral to machine design
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 24
 Lathes in the optical fabrication
• Production of polishing tools
• Earliest lathe for aspheric
optics manufacture
(Maignan, 1648)

• Earliest aspheres?

Smethwick, telescope with 3 aspheric elements, 1667

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019

Trilobite crozonaspis eye http://www.trilobites.info/eyes.htm 25
Single point diamond turning

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 26

 History of diamond turning
• Older than MRF, IBF … new technology compared to classical optics
fabrication
• Diamond “shards” used for decorative machining on watch cases –
19th century
• Polycrystalline tools used in aluminum piston turning, boring in the
1940s
• Diamond turning of optics:
– Schmitt corrector plates during WW2 in US and at Philips, Eindhoven
– Microtome knives added to polar coordinate machine at Y-12 in 1962
– 1980s and 90s – dominated by defense applications
• Emerging consumer applications
– Today, dominated by volume consumer optics – molded cell phone camera
lenses, contact lens molds, DVD pick-ups, solar collectors, … etc
• Multi-axis machines
– Fast and slow tool servos
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 27
Delivered to Y-12 in 1973

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 28

Emerging non-defence applications (1980s):

• Scanner mirrors:
– Photocopiers, supermarkets,
etc
• Early Fresnels:
– Solar collectors
– Replicated films
• Scientific
– X-ray optics

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 29

 Lets go back to facing …
Spindle

Stator

Rotor
Part
z
Slideway
x Tool
post

Plan view Elevation

• Rotationally invariant parts

– On- or off-axis
– Integrated datums
– Large variety of materials

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 30

 Off-axis aspheres
machined on LODTM

Courtesy N. Marsillius
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 31
 Typical tool for turning ductile metals
Single crystal diamond
(natural or synthetic)

Multiple
“new” edges
For flats

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 32

Zoom in on a section of part:
(Plan view)

2-axis machine (lathe)

Part figure error cannot be less than
tool waviness over arc of tool used
Discuss:
Tool nose roundness & its measurement
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 33
 Part

Chip

Diamond

“clearance”

- 15o
15o

Negative rake: Positive rake:

Recommended for crystals Recommended for plastics
(-15 to -45o) (15 to 25o)

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 34

 What surface do you make with diamond turning?
(Facing)
Spindle
• Perfect machine, perfectly round tool nose
Stator
– phonograph

Rotor
Part

Slideway
x Tool Radial Power Spectral Density*
post

• PV = f2/8R

nm 2 mm
• f = feed/rev
• R = tool nose radius
• For R= 5mm, f= 10 micrometers/rev
PV = 25 nm
Spatial frequency = 100 mm-1
100 101 102
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 mm -1 35
* Squared magnitude of Fourier transform of height residuals
 Diamond turning:
Simplest form is facing on a lathe
Spindle

Stator

Rotor
Part
z
Slideway
x Tool
post

Plan view Elevation

• Commonly configured with two axes (x and z)

– Air bearing spindle
– Aerostatic or hydrostatic slides
– Computer numerical control
– ..etc Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 36
 Asynchronous error motions
(ie not a harmonic of spindle speed)
• Relative motion between tool tip (cutting
Stator edge) and part
– Spindle errors
Rotor
Part
– Structural vibrations
Slideway
x Tool
post

What do you expect?

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 37

 Asynchronous error motions
(ie not a harmonic of spindle speed)
• Relative motion between tool tip
Stator
(cutting edge) and part
Rotor – Spindle errors; Bearing porting instability
Part
– Structural vibrations
Slideway
– Roller bearing motion if used
x Tool
post
Radial Power Spectral Density

nm 2 mm
Broader “spike” in PSD

* Modulation of adjacent tool mark depth

and width
* Given tool mark will modulate depth and
width in each revolution 100 101 102
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 38
mm -1
 Synchronous error motion
• Spindle error motions at N times per revolution
– Manufacturing errors in bearing stator or rotor
– Balance
– Flexible coupling between spindle motor and bearing
Low
• Excessive misalignment
High
• Too stiff – “see” axial error due motor poles + +
– Consider a 6 pole motor
– 6 highs and 6 lows per revolution
– For pure axial motion, every radial trace the same + +
– Azimuthal trace is 6 cycle sinusoid

Radial error motion + +

Axial error motion

Rotor
Stator
Tilt Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 39
 Everybody

Run Out!!!

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 40

 Leadscrew errors
• Pitch errors
• “Drunkeness”
– Cause roll errors of slideway at thread pitch (driving tool in and out of part)
– 3 mm pitch leadscrew => 0.033/ mm spatial frequency

Radial Power Spectral Density

nm 2 mm

100 101 102

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 mm -1 41
 Other DTM slide drive mechanisms:

• Linear motors
– Dynamic performance, high frequency noise
• Traction drives
– Tolerances on drive bar
– Dirt and corrosion

Precision Engineering, 1979, 1(1) p15

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 42

 Other machine errors
• Thermal drift
– Machine structure slowly bends
=> low spatial frequency rotationally invariant error
• Air bearing supply pressure changes:
– Slow axial error motion of spindle
• Tool setting errors
• Tool wear
• Material effects
– Orange peel
– Inclusion dragging

J. M. Bennett and L. Mattsson, Introduction to

Surface Roughness and Scattering, OSA, 1989.
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 43
 Diamond turned surface
• Replicates all machine errors
• No averaging
• Tool wear, material effects add broad contribution to PSD
– “spikes “ in PSD for specific harmonics
• Squareness, straightness affect low order (figure) error
Radial Power Spectral Density

nm 2 mm

100 101 102

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 mm -1 44
 Other kinematic arrangements

• Mount tool post on rotary axis (B-axis)

– Enables tool normal machining
– Trade-off tool nose errors for B-axis motion errors
• Fly-cutting:
– Stationary part, diamond tool in spindle
• Commonly used for scanner mirrors
• Can be used for torics
– Add 3rd linear axis and high speed spindle
• Diamond micro-milling

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 45

 Other kinematic arrangements
• Mount tool post on rotary axis (B-axis)
– Enables tool normal machining
– Trade-off tool nose errors for B-axis motion errors

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 46

 Other kinematic arrangements
• Fly-cutting:
– Stationary part, diamond tool in spindle
• Commonly used for scanner mirrors, large flats
• Can be used for torics and other shapes
• Tilt spindle, program part motion in appropriate curve

lma.berkeley.edu/images/tools/kugler.jp

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 47

 Other kinematic arrangements
• Multi-axis micro-milling
• Fast tool servo
• Slow tool servo

precitech.com

www.iiviinfrared.com

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 48

Example: We have also designed and fabricated freeform optics
in brittle materials for numerous IR applications.
High speed machining of IR optics Tool error compensation strategies and
software

After Correction
Before Correction
Spherical Artifact 50300
nmnmPV PV
Error
Error
Numerous related IR applications developed
Military Infrared 4 mm
Threat
imaging mitigation
systems
3 mm

High-speed machining of IR Threat

transparent chalcogenide glass detection
systems
4 mm 49

Freeform Optics Courtesy M. Davies

 Large areas of micro optics
High Concentration Photovoltaic Arrays

microsharpsolar.com

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 50

 Some other applications:

• Microwave resonator cavities for chemical

analysis
• Lab on a chip (replication)
• Mounts for optics
– Snap together systems
• Targets for fusion research
• Lens molds
• …
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 51
 Advantages of diamond turning

• It can produce good optical surfaces clear to the edge of the optical element. This
is important, for example, in making scanners, polygons, special shaped flats, and
when producing parts with interrupted cuts.
• It can produce optical surfaces on soft ductile materials that are extremely difficult
to polish.
• It can easily produce off-axis parabolas and other difficult-to-lap aspherical shapes.
• It can produce optical elements with a significant cost advantage over
conventional lapping and polishing where the relationship of the mounting
surface—or other feature—to the optical surface is very critical. Expressed
differently, this feature of diamond turning offers the opportunity to eliminate
alignment adjustments in some systems.
• It can fabricate optical shapes such as axicons, facetted optics, and grazing
incidence X-ray optics that would be extremely difficult to fabricate by methods
other than diamond turning
• Slow or fast tool servo enables rotational asymmetry

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 52

What materials are diamond turned:
Metals Non-metals Plastics
Aluminum Calcium fluoride Polymethymethacrylate
Brass Magnesium fluoride Polycarbonates
Copper Cadmium telluride Polyimide
Beryllium copper Zinc selenide
Bronze Zinc sulphide
Gold Gallium arsenide
Silver Sodium chloride
Lead Calcium chloride
Platinum Germanium
Tin Strontium fluoride
Zinc Sodium fluoride
Diamond is the hardest
Electroless nickel KDP material known … why
KTP can’t it cut anything?
Silicon
Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 53
Germanium – 3x harder than CP titanium
~1000x less tool wear

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 54

“Diamond turnable” (c. 1990)

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 55

 Diamond wear
• Single point diamond turning
– High value tools
– More lore than science
• “Diamond turnable” as a materials property?
• Abrasion, fracture, or tribochemical mechanism?
– Cryogenic diamond turning
• Experimental demonstration of chemical effects
– For materials with “known” tool wear, good correlation with
structure (number of unpaired d-shell electrons), some
correlation with crystal structure and melting point
– Lanthanides
• Low melting points
• With and without unpaired d-shells
• Pyrophoric
• Cerium (1d, soft, low melting)
– Measurable diamond wear*

* Paul et al, Precision Engineering, 1996 Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 56
 Diamond wear

D-shell model widely cited but obviously inadequate:

1. Electron shell models apply to isolated atoms
2. Explanation for alloy wear inadequate (but better than nothing)
3. Based on “wear/No wear” data that pervades the literature

Current research at UNCC:

1. New methods to quantify diamond tool wear rates non-invasively
2. Conduction band models to investigate s- and p-shell “filling” of unfilled d-
shell
3. Equivalent d-shell model to predict wear transitions in alloys

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 57

Precision grinding

Int. to Opt. Fab & Test, Fall 2019 58