HSC Mathematics Advanced

Topic 1: Series and Sequences

Arithmetic Sequences Limiting Sum
Difference between successive terms is constant (common difference). If | r | < 1, then lim r n = 0, therefore
n→∞
• d = Tn − Tn−1 , n ≥ 2
lim
• n→∞ n T = 0
• Tn = a + (n − 1)d where a = T1 a
- Three numbers a , m , b form an AP when m − a = b − m, • S∞ = n→∞ lim Sn =
1−r
1 ∞
and thus when m = (a + b). a
a r n−1 converges to
2 ∑
i.e.
1−r
- m is the arithmetic mean of a , b n=1

Geometric Sequences Recurring Decimals

· ·
If we want to express 1.1037 as a fraction, simply write as GP:
Ratio between successive terms is non-zero constant (common ratio).
Tn 1.1 + (0.0037 + 0.0000037 + . . . . )
= r ,n ≥ 2 0.0037
• Tn−1 Inside the brackets we find a limiting sum: S∞ =
1 − 0.001
n−1 where a = T 1 149
• Tn = a r 1 ∴ S∞ = but we need to add 1.1 from before: =
b g 270 135
- Three numbers a , g, b form an GP when g = a , and thus
when g 2 = a b.
- g is the geometric mean of a , b Topic 2: Financial Mathematics
- 0 cannot be a term in a GP
Simple and Compound Interest
Summing Sequences • Simple interest I is calculated with I = PR n, an AP.
• Sn = T1 + T2 + T3 + . . . + Tn known as a partial sum. - P is principal, n is units of time, and R is interest rate per time.
- If calculating total amount, add back the principal in the end.
Sigma can also be used to represent sums (not necessarily AP or GP):
n • Compound interest is found by An = P (1 + R ) n, a GP.
∑
T = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + . . . Tn = Sn
• k=1 k - An is final amount after n units of time.
- To find only interest, subtract principal from final amount.
Sum of an AP • Depreciation is similarly An = P (1 − R ) n, a GP
Let l = Tn be the last term of an AP with T1 = a and difference d: - R is the rate of depreciation per unit of time.
Sn = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + . . . + (l − 2d ) + (l − d ) + l - To find only interest, subtract principal from final amount.
Sn = l + (l − d ) + (l − 2d ) + . . . + (a + 2d ) + (a + d ) + a
Adding the two equations gets 2Sn = n (a + l ) as there are n terms.
Annuities
1 - Compound interest investments from which equal payments are
• Sn = 2 n (a + l ) received on a regular basis for a fixed period of time.
Since l = Tn = a + (n − 1)d, we can derive an alternative formula: E.g. Minho deposits $200 per month at the start of each month in an
1 annuity which pays 6%p.a. for 20 years. How much will it be worth
• Sn = 2 n (2a + (n − 1)d ) and it is evident that: after the full 20 years?
n
After 1 month, the account has 200(1 + 0.005) dollars.
∑
Sn = (a + (k − 1)d )
• k=1 After 2 months, 200(1.005) 2 + 200(1.005)
After n months, we have 200(1.005n + 1.005n−1 + . . . + 1.005)
Sum of a GP 1.005(1.005240 − 1)
To find the sum of a geometric sequence: GP in the brackets: S20×12 = = 464.3511
1.005 − 1
Sn = a + a r + a r 2 + . . . + a r n−2 + a r n−1 Therefore, 464.3511 × 200 = $92870.22 in total after 20 years.
r Sn = a r + a r 2 + a r 3 + . . . + a r n−1 + a r n
Subtract the second equation from the first: Future Value and Present Value
∴ (r − 1)Sn = a r n − a - Future value (FV) is the total value of the investment at the end
a (r n − 1) of the term of investment, including all interest.
• Sn = r − 1 when | r | > 1 - Present value (PV) is the single lump of money that could be
For when | r | < 1, subtract first equation from second: initially invested to yield a given future value over a given period.
∴ (1 − r )Sn = a − a r n Eg. What is PV of annuity seen above and how much does he save?
a (1 − r n ) 92870.22 = P V (1.005) 240 → P V = $28055.74, if he pays in one
• Sn = when | r | < 1
1−r lump sum he saves 200 × 240 − 28055.74 = $19944.26.

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Loan Repayments Dilations
Loans are usually paid off by regular instalments, with compound - To dilate graph vertically by factor of a, replace y
y
interest charged on the balance owing at any time. with , i.e.
a
• An = principal plus interest − instalments plus interest
- The loan is paid off when An becomes zero. • y = f (x ) → y = a f (x ), where axis of
dilation is x-axis.
Example: Michael takes out $10000 to buy a car. He will repay the - To dilate graph horizontally by factor of a, Vertical and horizontal
loan in five years, paying 60 equal monthly instalments, beginning x dilation by factor of 3,
replace x with , i.e. respectively.
one month after he takes out the loan. Interest is 6%p.a. a
x
compounded monthly. How much is the monthly instalment M?
• y = f (x ) → y = f ( a ), where axis of dilation
A1 = 10000(1.005) − M
is y-axis.
A2 = (10000(1.005) − M )(1.005) − M = 10000(1.005) 2 − 1.005M − M - Enlargements are when both dilations are
A3 = (10000(1.005) 2 − 1.005M − M )(1.005) − M applied, thus, for an enlargement by factor of a,
= 10000(1.005)3 − M (1 + 1.005 + 1.0052 ) and then after a while, y = f (x ) → y = a f ( )
x
A 60 = 0 = 10000(1.005)60 − M (1 + 1.005 + . . . + 1.00559 ) a
10000(1.005)60 • Reflections are dilations with factor −1
GP inside brackets: M = = $193.33
1.00560 − 1
0.005
Transformations that Commute
- Two translations always commute, i.e. the translations on
- Using future value formula above (much faster):
y = x 2 → y = (x + 3) 2 − 4 can be applied either way.
An = 10000(1.005) n − M (1 + 1.005 + . . . + 1.005n−1)
- Two dilations always commute, i.e. the translations on
10000(1.005)60 = M (1 + 1.005 + . . . + 1.00559 )
x2 y2
1.00560 − 1 x2 + y2 = 1 → + = 1 can be applied either way.
GP in brackets: S60 = = 69.77 9 16
0.005
- Any two transformations with different axis commute (e.g
∴ M = $193.33
horizontal translation and vertical dilation, or vice versa)
- Any other two transformations do NOT commute.
Topic 3: Graphs and Equations • Two steps can be taken in any order to convert
y = f (x ) → y = k f (a (x + b)) + c :
Vertical and Horizontal Asymptotes 1
A. Dilate horizontally by factor of , then shift left b
a
- If the denominator of a function has a zero at x = a, and the
B. Dilate vertically by factor k, then shift up c
numerator is non-zero at x = a, then the vertical line x = a is an
asymptote. Transformation of Trig Graphs
- For rational functions (num. and den. both polynomials) dividing
• y = a sin x and y = a cos x both have amplitude a.
top and bottom by highest power of x in denominator reveals 2π
behaviour for large x: • y = sin n x and y = cos n x have period n
1 1 π
x −1 x − x2 • y = tan n x has period n
e.g. for y = →
x2 − 4 1−
4 - The initial phase angle (or phase) of a trig function is the angle
x2 when x = 0.
1 1 π π
x − x2 0 • y = sin(x + 3 ) has phase 3
lim = =0
x→±∞ 1 − 4 1 - The mean value of a wave is the mean of its maximum and
x2 minimum values.
∴ y = 0 is horizontal asymptote. • y = sin x + c has mean value c.
e x + e −x e x + e −x
e.g. for y = we wish to find lim
2e x ±
x→ ∞ 2e x
but we know lim e −x = 0 and lim e x = 0
x→∞ x→−∞ Topic 4: Graphing with Calculus
For x → ∞ divide by e x, for x → − ∞ divide by e −x
1 + e −2 x e2 x + 1
Sign of the Derivative
∴ lim and lim dy
x→∞ 2 x→−∞ 2e 2 x • If d x > 0 as x increases, the function is increasing.
1
Horizontal asymptote at y = (but reaches infinity for x → − ∞) dy
2 • If d x < 0 as x increases, the function is decreasing.
Shading Regions dy
• If d x = 0, the point is a stationary point, and the reverse is true.
- Draw the curve, dotted line if excluded, solid if included. Then
- At stationary points, the curve is parallel to the x axis.
substitute points not on any boundary into inequation to
determine where to shade.
- For ∪, only if both boundaries at a corner are unbroken is the
Local Maxima and Minima
- When function changes from decreasing to increasing (f ′(x )
corner point included.
- If ∩, if at least one boundary at a corner is unbroken, then the changes sign) at a stationary point, it is called a turning point.
- Turning points are classified as maxima or minima depending on
corner point is included.
whether it is above or below the curve around it, respectively.

A
- For A (a , f (a)) on y = f (x ):
Minimisation and Maximisation Problems
• A is local maximum if f (x ) ≤ f (a) for - Form an equation with two variables, in which one is the quantity
all x in some small interval around a.
to be maximised and the other is the quantity to be varied, then
• A is local minimum if f (x ) ≥ f (a) for all
find the global maximum or minimum.
x in some small interval around a.
Example: A cylinder has a volume (V) of 250cm3, find the ratio
- There is not necessarily a tangent at A.
between r and h that minimises the surface area (S) of the can:
- Discontinuities of y′ occur on y = f (x ) if 250
V = 250 = π r 2 h → h =
there is an asymptote at x = a, or if there is π r2
a cusp or vertical tangent at x = a 500
S = 2π r 2 + 2π r h = 2π r 2 +
r
Second Derivative and Concavity dS
= 4π r −
500
=
4π r 3 − 500
• If f ′′(a) > 0, the curve is concave up at x = a dr r2 r2
• If f ′′(a) < 0, the curve is concave down at x = a 4π r 3 − 500 5
To find stationary points, =0→r = .
- Points of inflection is where the tangent r 2 1
π3
crosses the curve, and also where the graph
d2 S 1000
of f ′′(x ) changes sign. Determine using Since = 4π + > 0 for r > 0, point is global minimum.
dr 2 r3
f ′′(x ) = 0 2
- We can test whether stationary points are 250 π 3
Therefore, h = × = 2r and thus the best ratio is 2 : 1.
maxima or minima by using f ′′(a) to see if it π 25
is concave up/down, revealing min/max.
y = x 3 has a stationary

Global Minima and Maxima

point of inflection at (0,0)
Topic 5: Trigonometry
- For A (a , f (a)) on y = f (x ):
• A is global maximum if f (x ) ≤ f (a) for all x in the domain.
Trig Limits for Small Angles
Let x be an acute angle as shown, within a circle of
• A is global minimum if f (x ) ≥ f (a) for all x in the domain.
- Global maxima/minima are also local maxima/minima. centre O and radius r. Let tangent A meet radius OB
- If the maxima/minima are open or ± ∞, they do not exist. at M. In △ O A M, A M = r tan x and it is evident
- To find global maxima/minima, simply examine the turning that area△OAB < area sectorOAB < area△OAM
1 2 1 1
points, behaviour of large x, and discontinuities of f ′(x ). ∴ r sin x < r 2 x < r 2 tan x and thus
2 2 2
Example 1: Find all min and max in specified domain: π
sin x < x < tan x for 0 < x < . Dividing by sin x,
y = x 4 − 8x 2 + 11, 1 ≤ x ≤ 3 2
x 1
Examining the graph, we see there is a local 1< < and as x → 0+, cos x → 1, so
sin x cos x
maximum at x = 1, global minimum at x = 2 and x x x
lim = 1 but since is even, lim− = 1 so
global maximum at x = 3. x→0+ sin x sin x x→0 sin x
Substituting into equation, we get local maximum sin x tan x sin x
lim = 1 and lim = lim =1
of 4, global minimum of -5, and global maximum of x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x cos x
sin x tan x 1
20. lim
• We have x→0 = lim = lim =1
4x x x→0 x x→0 cos x
Example 2: Sketch f (x ) = - In other words, for small values of x, we have:
2
x +9
36 − 4x 2 8x 3 − 216x • sin x ≈ x and cos x ≈ 1 and tan x ≈ x.
We can find f ′(x ) = and f ′′(x ) = and thus
2
(x + 9) 2 (x 2 + 9) 3
Trigonometric Derivatives
36 − 4x 2
stationary points are = 0 → 9 − x2 = 0 → x = ± 3 - To find derivative of sin x, we can use first principles:
(x 2 + 9) 2 d sin(x + h ) − sin x
sin x = lim . Using identity proved in Y11 (3U):
2 dx h→0 h
f ′′(3) = − < 0, therefore x = 3 is a maximum.
27 A +B A −B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos( )sin( ), we get:
2 2 2
f ′′(−3) = > 0, therefore x = − 3 is a minimum. 2x + h h h
27 2 cos( )sin( ) sin( )
2 2 = lim cos( 2 x + h ) × 2
8x 3 − 216x lim
h
Inflections: = 0 → x 3 − 27x = 0 → x = 0, ± 27 but h→0 h h→0 2
2
(x 2 + 9) 3
h
sin
since at those x values f ′(x ) ≠ 0, they are true points of inflection. = cos x × 1 as lim 2 = 1 as per small angle theorem.
4x 0 h→0 h
To find horizontal asymptote: lim = =0 2
x→∞ x 2 + 9 1
d d
∴ y = 0 is asymptote. • d x sin x = cos x and d x sin f (x ) = f ′(x )cos f (x )
- TIP: For an order to approaching curve sketching problems, π d π π
y = cos x = sin( − x) → sin( − x ) = − cos( − x )
imagine the devil saying to your friend Safs: Do SIn SAFS! 2 dx 2 2
- Do for Domain, S for Symmetry, In for Intercepts, S for Sign, d d
• d x cos x = − sin x and d x cos f (x ) = − f ′(x )sin f (x )
A for Asymptotes, F and S for 1st/2nd derivatives.
sin x dy cos 2 x + sin 2 x
y = tan x = → = and simplifying:
cos x dx cos 2 x
d 2 d 2
• d x tan x = sec x and d x tan f (x ) = f ′(x )sec f (x )
B
Reciprocal Trig Derivatives Topic 7: Integration
1 dy cos x
y = csc x = → =− and thus we get:
sin x dx sin2 x Primitive Functions
d d
• d x csc x = − csc x cot x and d x csc f (x ) = − f ′(x )csc f (x )cot f (x ) - If F (x ) is a function such that F′(x ) = f (x ), then it is called the
1 dy sin x anti-derivative or primitive of f (x ).
y = sec x = → = and thus we get:
cos x dx cos2 x - A function can have an infinite number of primitives, all differing
d d
• d x sec x = sec x tan x and d x sec f (x ) = f ′(x )sec f (x )tan f (x ) by a constant.
1 dy −sec 2 x −1 cos2 x n x n+1
y = cot x = → =
2
=
2
× , thus: • Primitive of x is n + 1 + C where C is a constant and n ≠ − 1
tan x dx tan x cos x sin2 x
d d d
n+1) = (n + 1)x n
2 2
• d x cot x = − csc x and d x cot f (x ) = − f ′(x )csc f (x ) - This rule is derived from d x (x
- C is usually only added at the final step, to avoid confusion.
(a x + b) n+1
Topic 6: Log and Expo Functions • Similarly, primitive of (a x + b) n is

dy
a (n + 1)
+ C, n ≠ − 1

n+1 = a (n + 1)(a x + b) n
Logarithmic Dominance - This is derived from d x (a x + b)
- In a graph of y = x ln x as x → 0+, x dominates ln x. This is also Indefinite Integrals
ln x
- ∫ f (x )d x denotes the integration of f (x ) with respect to x.
true for y = as x → ∞, with both limits = 0.
x
- In general, x k dominates ln x for k > 0.
x2
∫
ln x For example, (x + 6)d x =
+ 6x + C
lim x ln x = 0 and lim =0 2
• x→0+ x→∞ x
u4 u2
∫
Similarly, (2u 3 + u)d u =
Differentiation of Logarithms 2
+
2
+C
dx d
Let y = ln x, meaning x = e y →
dy
= ey = x
• In general, if d x F (x ) = f (x ) then ∫ f (x )d x = F (x ) + C
d 1 d f ′(x ) d n+1 = (n + 1) f ′(x )[ f (x )]n and rearranging,
• Therefore d x ln x = x and in general d x ln f (x ) = f (x ) - We know d x [( f (x )]
1 dy 1 dy
∫ n +1 ∫ dx
- To differentiate logarithms of non-e base, you can use change-of- f ′(x )[ f (x )]n = × → f ′(x )[ f (x )]n d x = ×dx +C
n +1 dx
base formula to convert to a multiple of a base-e logarithms, or y
∫
d 1 ∴ f ′(x )[ f (x )]n d x = + C and since y = [ f (x )]n+1
use the standard derivative loga x = : n +1
dx x ln a
[ f (x )]n+1
• We get ∫ f ′(x )[ f (x )] d x = n + 1 + C , n ≠ − 1
d d ln x 1 1 1 n
1. log3 x = ( )= × =
dx d x ln 3 x ln 3 x ln 3
d 1 - This is known as the reverse chain rule.
2. log3 x =
dx x ln 3 - No integral may cross an asymptote.
d f ′(x )
• Therefore, d x loga f (x ) = f (x )ln a in general. Logarithmic (Reciprocal) Integrals
d 1
Exponential Dominance - Since d x ln x = x ,
- In the graph of y = x e −x, e −x gets small as x → ∞ faster than x 1
gets large, and thus the graph as a whole gets small. • ∫ x d x = ln | x | + C as number in the log must be positive.
- i.e. e −x dominates x, and in general e x dominates x k for k > 0 x n+1
- Where before we had ∫ x d x = n + 1 + C for n ≠ − 1 we
n
• x→∞lim x k e −x = 0 and lim x k e x = 0
x→−∞
1
∫ ∫ x
now have a result for x −1d x = d x = ln | x | + C
1 1
• ∫ a x + b d x = a ln | a x + b | + C
f ′(x )
• ∫ f (x ) d x = ln | f (x ) | + C
y = x e −x

Exponential Integrals
d
a x+b = a e a x+b,
- Since d x e
Differentiation of Exponentials a x+b d x = 1 e a x+b + C and in general,
• ∫e a
d f (x) f (x)
• dxe = f ′(x )e
• ∫ f ′(x )e
as established in Y11. f (x) d x = e f (x) + C through reverse chain rule.
- To differentiate non base-e exponential functions, we know that
- Since a x = e x ln a, integrating both sides:
e loge a = a and thus a x = (e loge a ) x = e x loge a. 1
∫ ∫ ln a ∫
d x a x d x = e x ln a d x = (ln a)e x ln a d x therefore
Differentiating, a = loge a × e x loge a = (ln a)a x
dx ax
• ∫ a d x = ln a + C
d f (x) x
• In general, d x a = (ln a) f ′(x )a f (x)

C
Standard Trigonometric Integrals Definite Integrals
d d d 2 - We see a region contained between a curve
- Since d x sin x = cos x, d x cos x = − sin x, d x tan x = sec x
y = f (x ) and another curve y = 0, from
we naturally get:
x = a → b where a ≤ b. Both curves should be
• ∫ cos x d x = sin x + C continuous.
- To find the area of the shaded region, one
• ∫ sin x d x = − cos x + C approach is to cut up into infinite number of

• ∫ sec x d x = tan x + C
2 rectangles of infinitesimal width, the area of
which is ≈ f (x )δ x.
- If we wish to develop these by substituting x with a x + b: b
∑
d - Thus the area of region ≈ f (x )δ x however
∫
sin(a x + b) = a cos(a x + b) → a cos(a x + b)d x = sin(a x + b) x=a
dx
as the strips have curved edges, we want to
and then dividing by a (coefficient can be factored out of integrand),
1 make the widths as thin as possible
• ∫ cos(a x + b)d x = a sin(a x + b) + C and similarly, b
∑
- Area = lim f (x )δ x but instead we
1
• ∫ sin(a x + b)d x = − a cos(a x + b) + C
δx→0 x=a

1 replace δ x with d x, and use Leibnitz’s notation:

• ∫ sec (a x + b)d x = a tan(a x + b) + C
2 b
∫a
Area of shaded region = f (x )d x which is
•
Further Trigonometric Integrals known as the definite integral of the signed area under the curve.
cos x
- In the case of ∫ cot x, we can write as ∫ sin x d x, noticing that it - f (x ) is the integrand, x = a and x = b are called the lower
f ′(x ) and upper bounds of the integral.
is of the form , thus the integral is as follows: - Only works if f (x ) ≥ 0 for all x. If the curve ever goes under,
f (x )
you must find where the curve cuts x-axis and consider the
• ∫ cot x d x = ln | sin x | + C and substituting x with a x + b: regions separately.
cos(a x + b) 1 a cos(a x + b)
∫ ∫ sin(a x + b) a ∫ sin(a x + b) Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
cot(a x + b)d x = dx = dx
1
• ∫ cot(a x + b)d x = a ln | sin(a x + b) | + C
• For f (x ) that is continuous in interval [a , b],
b
∫a
f (x )d x = F (b) − F (a) establishing that taking areas and
- In the case of ∫ tan x, we use a similar approach to attain:
1 taking tangents are inverse processes.
• ∫ tan(a x + b)d x = − a ln | cos x | + C 5
- Since we found the reciprocal trig derivatives, these are apparent: - Therefore, when integrating e.g. ∫ (2 x − 3)d x we first find the
−1

• ∫ csc x d x = − cot x + C
2 primitive (without C), then substitute the bounds into F (x ) as
outlined in the fundamental theorem:
• ∫ sec x tan x d x = sec x + C 5 5
(2 x − 3)d x = [x 2 − 3x ] as F (x ) = x 2 − 3x
∫−1 −1
• ∫ csc x cot x d x = − csc x + C and substituting x with a x + b: 5
∴ [x 2 − 3x ] = (25 − 15) − (1 + 3) = 6
−1
∫
a csc 2 (a x + b)d x = − cot(a x + b) + C and dividing by a: x
∫a
A (x ) = f (t )d t is defined as the signed area
1 •
• ∫ csc (a x + b)d x = − a cot(a x + b) + C, similar for the rest,
2
function for f (t ), A (x ) can be seen on bottom.
1
• ∫ sec(a x + b)tan(a x + b)d x = a sec(a x + b) + C
- Since f (t ) is a parabola with axis of symmetry
1 x = b, and the areas marked B are all equal:
• ∫ csc(a x + b)cot(a x + b)d x = − a csc(a x + b) + C A (a) = 0, at [a , b] A (x ) decreases at an increasing
rate to −B, at [b , c] A (x ) decreases at a decreasing
∫
Example: find sin x cos4 x d x. This resembles reverse chain rule:
rate to −2B, etc.
[ f (x )]n+1 - A (x ) in (−∞, a ] is negative as you are finding the
∫
f ′(x )[ f (x )]n d x = + C with f (x ) = cos x and n = 4 a
∫−∞
n +1 integral f (t )d t which is increasingly negative.
d
∫ ∫
But cos x = − sin x, sin x cos4 x d x = − − sin x cos4 x d x
dx Example: Find area bounded by y = x (x + 1)(x − 3) and x-axis.
1 1
5∫
3
=− − 5 sin x cos4 x d x = − cos5 x + C.
∫0
5 Since (x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x )d x < 0 and we want area.

∫
2
Example 2: find sin x d x. Since there is no f ′(x ) anywhere we 0 3
∫−1 ∫0
∴ (x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x )d x − (x 3 − 2 x 2 − 3x )d x
must alter it using double angle formula (Y11 3U): 0 3
x4 2x3 3x 2 x4 2x3 3x 2
[ 4 2 ] [ 4 2 ]
1 − cos 2 x
cos 2 x = 1 − 2 sin2 x → sin2 x = = −
3
− − −
3
−
2 −1 0
1 − cos 2 x 1 1 x sin 2 x
∫ 4∫
∴ dx = x − 2 cos 2 x d x = − +C 71
= units2
2 2 2 4 6
D
Proving the Fundamental Theorem Areas Bounded by the y-axis
Proving Differentially: - To find the area bounded by x = f (x ) (or any function
A (x + h) − A (x ) of y) and the abscissae at y = c and y = d is found by
We know A′(x ) = lim and since
h→0 h
swapping the x and y variables:
x+h
∫x
d
A (x + h) − A (x ) = f (t )d t
∫c
Area = g ( y)d y
•
1 x+h
h→0 h ∫x
thus A′(x ) = lim f (t )d t Example: Find the area between y = x 2 + 1, y = 4x − 3 and y axis.
y +3
4x = y + 3 → x = and x 2 = y − 1 → x = y − 1
As per the diagram, we see f (t ) is 4
y 3 5 5
∫−3 4 ∫
increasing for [x , x + h] where the Total area is + )d y − ( y − 1d y
4 1
lower rectangle has height f (x ) and 5 y 3 2 53
∫−3 4 3 ∫1 2
upper rectangle is f (x + h). = ( + )d y − y − 1d y
4
x+h
∫x
∴ f (x )h ≤ f (t )d t ≤ f (x + h)h due to areas of rectangles. 5 3 5 8
y2
[ 8 4 ] 3[ ]
3x 2
= + − ( y − 1) 2 = units2
3
1 x+h −3 1

h ∫x
∴ f (x ) ≤ f (t )d t ≤ f (x + h) and since f (x ) is continuous
Areas of Compound Regions
1 x+h b
h→0 h ∫x ∫a
f (x + h) → f (x ) as h → 0 and thus lim f (t )d t = f (x ) If f (x ) ≤ g (x ) in [a , b], then area between is (g (x ) − f (x ))d x
•
d x
d x ∫a
Proving that A′(x ) = f (t )d t = f (x ) Example: find the shown area.
• Converting to functions of y:
Proving Integrally: x = y and x = y 2 , x > 0
x 2
∫a
We now know F (x ) and f (t )d t are primitives of f (x ) 2 y3 y2
∫1 [ 3 2 ]
Area = ( y 2 − y)d y = −
and because any two primitives differ only by a constant, 1
x a 7 3 5
− = u2
∫a ∫a
f (t )d t = F (x ) + C, subs. x = a, f (t )d t = F (a) + C = 0 =
3 2 6
x
Areas of Trig, Expo and Log Functions
∫a
∴ C = − F (a) therefore f (t )d t = F (x ) − F (a) and changing
Trig: Find the area between
b
y = cos θ and y = sin θ for
∫a
x = b and t = x gives: f (x )d x = F (b) − F (b) as seen last page
0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π

Properties of Definite Integrals Finding the intersections:

cos θ = sin θ,
a
∫−a
If f (x ) is odd, then f (x )d x = 0 ∴ tan θ = 1
• π 5π
a a Intersections at θ = ,
∫−a ∫0
If f (x ) is even, then f (x )d x = 2 f (x )d x 4 4
• π 5π 2π
∫0 ∫π ∫ 5π
4 4
b c b A = (cos θ − sin θ ) +
(sin θ − cos θ ) + (cos θ − sin θ )
• ∫a ∫a ∫c
f (x )d x = f (x )d x + f (x )d x no matter where c is. 4 4
π 5π
a b 2π
= [sin θ + cos θ ] 4 − [sin θ + cos θ ] π4 + [sin θ + cos θ ] 5π
• ∫b ∫a
f (x )d x = − f (x )d x as F (a) − F (b) = − (F (b) − F (a)) 0
4 4
b b b 2− 2+4+2+ 2 8
= 4 2u 2
• ∫a ∫a ∫a
( f (x ) + g (x ))d x = f (x )d x + g (x )d x = =
2 2
b b Expo: Find area between y = e 2 x − e −2 x and
• ∫a ∫a
k f (x )d x = k f (x )d x
y = 0 and x = 1.
b b 1 1 1
∫0 2 ∫0
(e 2 x − e −2 x )d x = (2e 2 x − 2e −2 x )d x
∫a ∫a
If f (x ) ≤ g (x ) in the interval [a , b], f (x )d x ≤ g (x )d x
•
1 2x 1 e2 e −2
2[
Example: Find the area of y = x (1 − x 2 )
2 2 = e + e −2 x] = + −1
0 2 2
Curve is symmetric around x and y axis, as subbing −y, −x yields the
= 2.76u 2(2dp)
same equation.
1 Log/Reciprocal: Find exact area between
x x
∫0
= 4 x 1 − x 2d x y = , y = as shown.
2
x +1 3
x x
−4 1 = → x = 0, ± 2
3 ∫0
= − 3x 1 − x 2 d x x2 + 1 3
2
( x2 + 1 3)
x x
3 1 ∫0
Area = −

3[ ]
4
=− (1 − x 2 ) 2
0 2
x2
2[ 3 ]
1 1
4 4 = ln | x 2 + 1 | − = ln 3− in exact form.
= − (0 − 1) = units2 3
3 3 0

E
Trapezoidal Rule Topic 8: Motion and Rates
1
- There are many integrals e.g. ∫ ln x d x, ∫ 4 d x for which
x +1 Derivatives and Motion
the result is still incalculable. For these we can only approximate.
- For x as the displacement of a particle from a fixed position, v its
- If f (x ) is a continuous function and
velocity and a as its acceleration,
f (x ) ≥ 0 for [a , b] then we can x 2 − x1 dx
b Aver. velocity = , instant. velocity v = = x·
•
∫a
approximate f (x )d x by dividing t 2 − t1 dt
- Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity,
v 2 − v1 dv
area into a number of trapezia Aver. acceleration = , instant. accel. a = = v·
(subintervals) of equal width. • t 2 − t1 dt
- If there is one subinterval, obviously the Example: Displacement of particle moving along x-axis is given by
approximation would be according to the x = 1 + 3t 2 − t 3, where x is in metres and t is seconds, t ≥ 0.
h a) Find initial position, velocity, accel. and explain the initial motion.
area of a trapezium: A = (a + b)
2 v = 6t − 3t 2, a = 6 − 6t when t = 0, x = 1, v = 0, a = 6
b b −a
• ∫a
f (x )d x ≈ ( f (a) + f (b)) Initially at rest from point 1m, about to move further right.,
2 b) Find a and x when it comes to rest again. What happens after?
b −a v = 6t − 3t 2 = 0 → 3t (2 − t ) = 0 → t = 2
- With two subintervals (three function points), h = 2
, and
∴ a = − 6, x = 5. Due to negative acceleration, will move to left.
b
2( ( 2 ) )
h a +b
• ∫a
f (x )d x ≈ f (a) + 2 f + f (b) c) What is the maximum velocity and when does it reach it?
When v· = 6 − 6t = 0 → t = 1 and a· = − 6, therefore concave
This trend continues until we can generalise the formula for n down. vma x = 3m/s
b −a
subintervals, where h = , a = x 0, and b = x n:
n Integrating Motion
b h
• ∫a
f (x )d x ≈ ( f (a) + 2 f (x1) + 2 f (x 2 ) + . . . + 2 f (x n−1) + f (b)) - When a particle is moving along a straight line,
2 dx
0.8 • v = dt , ∴ x = ∫vdt
∫0
Example: Use trapezoidal rule with 4 trapezia to find x e −x d x. dv
• a = dt , ∴ v = ∫adt
0.8 ÷ 4 = 0.2, each subinterval is 0.2. First creating a table of values:
Example: Acceleration of article moving along straight line at t
x 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 seconds is a = 5 − 2t cms−2. We know t = 0, x = 4, v = 0
a) Find v and x in terms of t.
f (x ) 0 0.164 0.268 0.329 0.359
∫
v = (5 − 2t )d t = 5t − t 2 + C but t = 0, v = 0 therefore
0.8
∫0
x e −x d x ≈ 0.1(0 + 2(0.164) + 2(0.268) + 2(0.329) + 0.359) 5t 2
∫
v = 5t − t 2 and x = (5t − t 2 )d t = −
2
= 0.1881 b) Shade distance travelled in first two seconds in the velocity-time
graph, and calculate this distance.
Velocity time graph is v = t (t − 5) for t > 0,

∫
and we shade in up to x = 2 as v d t = x:

2 2 3 2

[ 2 3 ]
5t t 22
∫0
(5t − t 2 )d t = − = cm
3
0

Integrating Related Rates

dQ
- If we know d t for a situation, the original function Q can be
found through integration.
dV
Example: If = 3e −0.02t represents the rate of water flowing out
dt
during the first t days after time zero.
a) Find V as a function of t.

드디어 끝났다!!!!! ∫ ∫
V = 3e −0.02t d t = − 150 − 0.02e −0.02t d t = − 150e −0.02t + C

but when t = 0,V = 0 as we know the question only starts at t = 0

and so 0 = − 150 + C, thus C = 150. ∴ V = − 150e −0.02t + 150
너무 피곤했다 x_x b) How much water will flow from well during first 100 days?
When t = 100, V = − 150e −2 + 150 ≈ 129.7ML
c) Find lim V and what % of total flow comes in the first 100 days.
t→∞
129.7
lim 150(1 − e −0.02t ) = 150 and thus ≈ 86.5 % .
t→∞ 150

F

Topic 9: Introduction to Data
Different Types of Data
- Categorical data can be grouped into categories.
• Nominal data has no special order, e.g. hair colour.
• Ordinal data has some kind of order, e.g. army rank.
- Numerical data can be counted or measured.
• Discrete data has a countable number of numerical values
(not necessarily whole numbers), e.g. ages of students.
• Continuous data has an infinite number of possibilities within
a particular range, e.g. heights of students.
- Categorical data is usually represented by pie graphs or bar
graphs, while numerical data is usually illustrated by histograms,
stem and leaf plots, box plots or scatterplots.
Representing Data
- Frequency tables and cumulative frequency tables used for
organising raw data, the latter of which is only for numeric data.
- Categorical data (sometimes discrete) can be represented by
Pareto charts, which are usually used to identify the most urgent
problems in a business.
• First arrange categories into descending order of frequency,
then add a cumulative frequency column.
• The Pareto chart contains both a frequency histogram with
columns arranged in descending order and a cumulative
frequency polygon,
with corresponding
axes on both sides.
This example shows that
the most salient issues are
crowded and late trains,
and that rectifying those
two problems will solve
approx. 80% of complaints
- Two-way tables (contingency tables) consist of two or more
related frequency tables put together. They are used for
conditional probability, and can be somewhat deceptive.
- Two-way tables can identify relations between two variables.
E.g. here we can see that
someone studying French
is more likely a boy, etc.
- Divided(/segmented) bar
graphs are rectangles divided
into lengths according to
proportion of each category,
including a key.
- Dot plots can be used for discrete and categorical data. Values are
written along horizontal axis, then dots
arranged vertically to represent the number
of each category.
• Good for identifying outliers.
• Not good for data with > 10 values or
frequencies.
- Stem-and-leaf plots display discrete data, without losing any
information.
- Typically the leaf contains the last digits of the
values while stem contains all other digits. Stem
is usually based on intervals of 10. Include a key
to indicate the decimal point at which you are
operating, e.g. this is a record of 100m times.
Grouping Data
- Grouping data reduces number of rows or columns on tables, and
reduces the amount of clutter on graphs.
• The class centre is the midpoint of the interval used in the
grouping.
• Grouping is a form of rounding, resulting in loss of detail and
approximations of the raw data.
- A frequency histogram is a way of
displaying frequency of numeric data.
• Each rectangle is centred on the value
or class centre.
• A frequency polygon is drawn starting
from the middle of the column before
the first, and joins the centres of the top of each rectangle,
ending on the horizontal axis at the middle of next column.
- Cumulative frequency histograms are drawn similarly to
frequency histograms.
• Rectangles pile on top of each other with
each cumulative step
• Cumulative frequency polygon (ogive)
starts at zero at bottom left of first
rectangle, passing the top right of each
rectangle, finishing at the top right
corner of the last rectangle.
Measures of Location (Central Tendency)
- Median is a measure of location, represented as Q2 (2nd quartile).
• For odd number of scores, median is middle score.
• For even number, median is average of two middle scores.
- Mode is the most popular score, the simplest measure of location.
• If 2,3 or more scores have same maximum frequency, we call
the data bimodal, trimodal or multimodal.
- Mean is the arithmetic average, 3rd measure of central tendency.
∑ni=1 x i
• For sample data, calculated with x = for singular
n
∑xf
values, and x = for values with frequencies.
∑f
∑ xm f
For grouped data, x = where x m is class centre.
• ∑f
- Here we see a negatively skewed,
symmetric, positively skewed
distribution respectively.
- In a skewed distribution, x is
further down the tail than m
(median), and in the symmetric distribution, x , m are close together
• Usually only IQR and median are referenced when talking
about shape of distributions, as x and s are affected by outliers.
• If there are no outliers, mean is the better measure of central
tendency, otherwise median is better.
- Quartiles subdivide data into four quarters (there are only 3
quartiles; they bridge 4 quarters): Q1, Q2 (median), Q3.
- Deciles subdivide into 10 equal parts, and percentiles 100.
G
 - Correlation means a statistical relationship, and can be identified
Measures of Spread
by looking at a scatterplot.
- Range is the simplest measure of spread, calculated Xma x − Xmin - Pearson’s correlation coefficient r can be used to quantitatively
• Only defined for numeric data. calculated the correlation of a set of two variables.
- In Year 11 we found the formula for sample variance:
f
• Data falls between −1 ≤ r ≤ 1, where 1 and −1 are perfect
s2 = (x − x ) 2 fr = x 2 fr − x 2 and substituting fr =
∑ ∑
, correlation (a single line increasing and decreasing respectively)
n
∑ (x − x ) 2 f ∑ x2 f • 1 ≤ r < 0 is negatively correlated, roughly following a line
2 − x2
• s = n
=
n
with negative gradient, while 0 < r ≤ 1 is positively correlated,
- However, the formula for standard deviation is usually: following a line with positive gradient.
• A horizontal line of points, or clusters in the shape of
∑ (x − μ) 2 f
σ = but for samples, horizontal lines tend to have 0 correlation.
• n - Data can sometimes be non-linearly correlated, such as when the
∑ (x − x ) 2 f trend follows a parabola, or exponential graph.
s = , shown on calculators as σn−1.
• n −1

∑ (x − x ) 2 f
0.6-0.4

- This is because s = n
usually underestimates
0.1-0
| r | = 1.0-0.6
the population standard deviation for smaller sample sizes.
0.4-0.1
- Interquartile Range (IQR) is found by Q3 − Q1, representing the
middle 50% of marks.
• For odd number of scores, omit the middle score, splitting list
into two sublists. Median of left and right list is Q1, Q3. Line of Best Fit
• For even number of scores, divide through middle. Median of - The line that correlated data best clusters around
left and right list is Q1, Q3, respectively. is called the line of best fit or regression line.
• Outliers are usually defined as a score that is • When plotting by eye, aim to have an equal
< Q1 − 1.5 × I Q R OR > Q3 + 1.5 × I Q R number of points on both sides, with the total
- The five-number summary is: minimum, Q1, Q2, Q3, maximum. distance of points from the line on each side
approximately equal.
Comparing and Analysing Data • Once an approximate line is produced, find y-intercept and
- Five number summary can be used gradient (by choosing two points) to attain the equation.
- Interpolation involves predicting further results within the range of
to draw a box&whisker plot.
the variables in the data, which can usually be deduced from the
• There must be a scale line
line of best fit.
underneath the box plot.
- Extrapolation involves predicting further results outside the range
• Whiskers should not extend to
of variables in the data, however the situation outside what is
outliers. Outliers are instead
recorded can differ drastically, and thus extrapolation is risky.
marked with a * or ∘
- Parallel box plots compare - If events A and B are related, one does not necessarily cause the
other. In most cases they are influenced by many external causes.
several box plots on the same
scale, and allows us to compare
Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient
skews of different data groups.
- A composite bar graph allows two data - The correlation coefficient can be calculated by (for data (x , y))
∑ (x − x )( y − y )
sets to be visually compared. For r = or, through use of standard
example, the graph on the right • ∑ (x − x ) 2 ∑ ( y − y ) 2
compares the same variable across two ∑ (x − x )( y − y )
genders, and is sometimes referred to as deviation formula, r = .
(n − 1)sx sy
a population pyramid.
- Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plots are • These values are not universal, but r values 0.6-10 represent a
strong correlation; 0.4-0.6 is moderate; 0.1-0.4 is weak and
able to compare two data sets by having a
0.0-0.1 is virtually none.
central stem with leaves moving away from the
• Outliers have a major impact on r and must be removed before
stem in either direction. Both sides should have
any calculation is done.
the lowest leaf values nearest to the stem, thus
the ordering is mirrored. Least Squares Regression Line
Scatterplots and Correlation - The least squares regression line is the line of best fit that
minimises the sum of squares of the vertical distances from each
- Where there are two variables, one variable may influence the
plot to the line.
other, e.g. height has an influence on weight. ∑ (x − x )( y − y )
- Scatterplots provide a visual representation of any trend in the y = m x + b where m = and b = y − m x
• ∑ (x − x ) 2
data, drawn by treating the bivariate data as a series of coordinate
pairs and plotting on axes. • This ensures the line passes through (x , y ).
sy
• x-axis for independent var., y-axis for dependent variable. m also found by m = r where r is correlation coefficient.
• sx
H
Topic 10: Continuous Probability Distributions Cumulative Distribution Function
Continuous Distributions and PDF - The CDF (represented as F (x )) can be thought of as the area
x
∫−∞
- When a variable can take any value in a particular interval, e.g. function of the PDF, that is, F (x ) = P (X ≤ x ) = f (x ) or
weight, height etc. x
∫a
- A continuous probability distribution is a probability more specifically f (x )d x for a PDF defined in [a , b].
distribution described by a probability density function.
- A continuous random variable is defined by its probability density • Conversely, f (x ) = F′(x ) in general.
function (PDF) over [a , b] (usually (−∞, ∞)), which is usually To calculate the corresponding CDF from a PDF, we simply find the
x

{ 0,
defined as a piecewise function with the following properties: , 0<x <4 2
antiderivative of the PDF: e.g. f (x ) = 16
• f (x ) ≥ 0 for all x. otherwise 
b
• ∫a
can be converted to its CDF counterpart for use for easily calculating
f (x )d x = 1
probabilities without having to integrate constantly:
• Probability is the area under the curve, i.e. x2
F (x ) = , 0<x <4 2
k 32
∫h
P (h ≤ X ≤ k ) = f (x )d x 0, otherwise 

- Probability stays the same regardless of whether ≤ or < is used, and thus it follows that the median P (X ≤ 0.5) can now be found
h x2
∫h
as P (X = h) = f (x )d x = 0 thus making no difference. with F (x ) = = 0.5, obtaining x = 4 as the median.
32
- If the density function is constant, the continuous distribution is The Standard Normal Distribution
uniform, and therefore if defined on [a , b] the distribution thus - Normal distributions are commonly referred to as bell-shaped
1 b
∫a
has the equation y = as f (x )d x = 1. curves, and every normal distribution can be obtained from every
b −a
other normal distribution by shifting and stretching.
Mean and Variance • The graph of the standard normal distribution is:
- The mean and variance of a continuous probability density 1 −z 2
ϕ (z ) = e 2
function is similar to that of a discrete one in that instead of 2π
summing all the values, we find the area underneath instead. - It is customary to use Z rather than X for the standard normal
b
∫a
μ = x f (x )d x random variable.
• ∞ 1 −z 2
∫
b Most importantly, e 2 d z = 1 and thus it is a PDF.
( ∫a )
2 •
σ2 = x 2 f (x )d x − μ 2 from E (X 2 ) − [E (X )] −∞ 2π
•
b
- When sketching ϕ (z ), note these particular features:
(x − μ ) 2 f (x )d x from E ((X − μ ) 2)
∫a
Alternatively, σ 2 = 1
y-intercept is ϕ (0) = ≈ 0.4
• 2π
b
( ∫a )
Naturally, σ = x 2 f (x )d x − μ 2 • ϕ (0) is a global maximum and therefore the mode.
•
• ϕ (z ) defined for x ∈ ℝ and ϕ (z ) > 0 at all times.
Example: A particular continuous random variable has the PDF • Even function, and thus μ = 0.
1
(81 − x 2 ), 0 < x < 9 • The z-axis is asymptotic in both directions.
f (x ) = 486 hence find μ , σ and Q2.
0, otherwise  −1 −1
e 2 e 2
9 Points of inflection at −1, and 1, .
9 x 81x 2 x4
[ 972 1944 ]
2π 2π
∫0 486
To find the mean: μ = (81 − x 2 )d x = − •
0
27 − 1 z2
= is the mean. d (e 2 ) − 1 z2
8 Proof for points of inflection: We know = − ze 2
b 9 x3 dx
∫a ∫0 486
Finding the variance, x 2 f (x )d x = (81 − x 2 )d x 1 −z 2 − 1 z2
And since ϕ (z ) = e 2 is a constant multiple of e 2
9 81 2π
[ 1458 ]
81 3 1 729
= x − x5 = and we know μ 2 = so:
2430 5 64 2
0 −z −z
81 729 1539 ϕ′(z ) = e 2 = − z ϕ (z ) and finding second derivative:
σ2 = − = = 4.809375 2π
5 64 320
∴ σ = 2.193 d
(−z ϕ (z )) = − ϕ (z ) − z ϕ′(z ) = ϕ (z )(z − 1)
ϕ′′(z ) = 2
m 1 1 dz
∫0 486
Median m is found by: (81 − x 2 )d x = as in half of all values are
2
Inflection points at ϕ′′(z ) = ϕ (z )(z 2 − 1) = 0, therefore at z = ± 1.
3 m
x3
486 [ 3 ] 486 ( 3 ) 2
1 x 1 1
before m. Thus we get 81x − = 81x − =
0
By testing values (questions in the exam most likely won’t involve
cubics and beyond so in the case of quadratics you could simply
solve), we get x = 3.1256 as the only solution within the boundaries,
and thus the median is 3.1256.

!I
Mean and Standard Deviation of SND General Normal Distributions
∞ - Should we want to dilate or translate the standard normal
- To find the mean, we first start with E (Z ) = ∫ z ϕ (z )d z
−∞ distribution y = f (x ), we can manipulate it similar to any other
however since y = z is an odd function and y = ϕ (z ) is even, we graph: replace x with x − h when translating h to the right, and
know y = z ϕ (z ) is odd, and therefore E (Z ) = 0. divide by b when dilating by b.
We can prove this more rigorously through the following method: - However, in the case of ϕ (z ), shifting h to the right brings μ to h
∞
∞
∫−∞
μ = z ϕ (z )d z = [−ϕ (z )] as ϕ′(z ) = − z ϕ (z ) proven above. as well, as it was previously 0, and similarly, dilating by b
−∞
multiplies the standard deviation by b (as it was previously 1).
We cannot substitute bounds of infinity, but we can calculate the - However, in order to keep the function a PDF, we must divide
∞
limits, and thus we get lim (−ϕ (z )) − lim (−ϕ (z )) but as the z-
∫−∞
z→∞ z→−∞ the whole by σ in order to even it out so that f (x )d x = 1
axis is asymptotic for large values of z, we get 0 − 0 = 0
∞ • Therefore, the general curve for a normal distribution PDF is:
- To find the variance, we find ∫ z 2 ϕ (z )d z as μ = 0.
1
x−μ 2
− 1( σ )
−∞ f (x ) = e 2 where μ is mean and σ is S.D.
We have proven z 2 ϕ (z ) = ϕ′′(z ) + ϕ (z ) above, and hence: σ 2π
∞ ∞ ∞
x−μ 2
∫−∞ ∫−∞ ∫−∞ e 2( σ ) d x = 1
z 2 ϕ (z )d z = ϕ′′(z )d z + ϕ (z )d z ∞ 1 −1
∫−∞ σ
Naturally, it follows that
∞ • 2π
= [ϕ′(z )] +1= 0+1=1
−∞ - For any normal distribution of this form, the mean, median and
• The variance σ 2 of ϕ (z ) is 1, and standard deviation σ is also 1. mode coincide, and points of inflection are at x = μ ± σ.
- Sometimes a continuous random variable with a normal
Estimating Probabilities on Normal Distribution
- The CDF of the standard normal distribution with mean μ and variance σ 2 may be written as
X ∼ N ( μ , σ 2 ), in which case the standard normal distribution
distribution is denoted Φ(z ).
- The curve y = Φ(z ) has two would be Z ∼ N (0,1).

asymptotes: y = 0 on the left and

Standardisation with Z-scores
y = 1 on the right, with point
- z-scores are useful for comparing results in different normal
symmetry in (0, 0.5)
distributions, essentially comparing how much each score strays
from the mean of their respective distribution in terms of standard
deviation.
x −μ
• To calculate a z-score: z = σ
• Consequently, to find a value from a z-score: x = μ + σ z
- z-scores are negative for scores below the mean.
- This table shows the value of Φ(z ) for the corresponding z values Example: On one test that followed the distribution X ∼ N (40,4)
Juan obtained 45, and on another that followed the distribution
up to 3.9, with the negatives omitted due to ϕ (z )’s even symmetry.
Y ∼ N (72,25) he obtained 85. On which did he do better?
Example: Find P (−1.7 ≤ Z ≤ 0.6).
X−μ 5
We wish to find Φ(0.6) − Φ(−1.7) His z-score for the first test is = = 2.5 while for the second
σ 2
But we know Φ(−1.7) = 1 − Φ(1.7) Y−μ 10
test = = 2 and therefore we can conclude that he did
Φ(0.6) − Φ(−1.7) = Φ(0.6) − 1 + Φ(−1.7) σ 5
≈ 0.6811. better on his first test, as his z-score is higher.
• This table uses the formula
1 z −z 2

2π ∫−∞
P (Z ≤ z ) = Φ(z ) = e 2 dz

which cannot be solved by what we know currently.

The Empirical Rule

- It is common to need the probabilities that a normally distributed
variable is within 1, 2 or 3 standard deviations of the mean. This
can be found easily as Z has σ = 1, and through using the table:
• P (−1 ≤ Z ≤ 1) ≈ 68 %
• P (−2 ≤ Z ≤ 2) ≈ 95 %
• P (−3 ≤ Z ≤ 3) ≈ 99.7 %

you’ve just finished the 2u course! good job!

!!