HSC English Advanced

Yuki’s English Advanced Technique List

Literary/Poetic Techniques (Amazing Great Okay Meh)

Common - Must Know
- ACCUMULATIVE LISTING / ACCUMULATION
• Mentioning a multitude of similar things in the same sentence, emphasising the common
qualities that each of the items hold. This can help audiences understand better the fundamental
qualities of a concept/idea through multiple examples.

- “What syllabus of intellectual pursuits was simultaneously possible? Snapshot photography,

comparative study of religions, …. contemplation of celestial constellations…”
- ADAGE / PROVERB / MAXIM
• Terse, memorable saying that is based on facts and has been passed on over many generations.
Proverbs are a subset of adages which are often used in everyday speech and contain more
practical applications, while adages contain general truths with universal applications. They both
make the reader aware of some truth of life, possibly handing out a moral lesson or wisdom.
Maxims are a subset of adage that pertain to a rule of conduct.

- “Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.”
- “All that glitters is not gold” is more a proverb than an adage (there is overlap).
- “It’s better to be safe than sorry.” is a maxim as it relates to moralistic values.
- ALLEGORY
• A type of extended metaphor involving a story/tale with two meanings. Second meaning often
acts as commentary on real world events or issues. Differs from conceit in that allegories don’t
explicitly acknowledge their metaphorical nature.

- Animal Farm is an allegory for communism.

- ALLITERATION
• When a number of words with the same first consonant sound occur close together. Effects and
can be adapted to suit most contexts.

- “The white foam flew through the furrow, following free” gives off a soft, ethereal sensation.
- “Tang! Two triangles trade their timbres.” evokes a metallic, thin sound.
- ALLUSION
• Subtle reference to event, person, place, etc. intended to be noticed by some readers, in order to
deepen the meaning of the text.

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- AMPLIFICATION
• When a sentence or statement is embellished by adding further information, increasing the
intensity/meaning of what is conveyed within. Brings readers’ attention to an idea, which they
miss otherwise.

- “If a person has ugly thoughts, it begins to show on the face. And when that person has ugly
thoughts every day, every week, every year, the face gets uglier and uglier until you can hardly
bear to look at it.”
- ANALOGY
• Two similar concepts or ideas to create a relationship or draw comparisons between the two.
Used to relate two concepts or explain another.
- ANAPHORA
• Repetition of a clause at the beginning of successive sentences in order to emphasise and
reinforce meaning.

- “Stay safe. Stay well. Stay happy.”

- ANASTROPHE / INVERSION
• A form of hyperbaton in which only one word is removed from the normal order to emphasise a
certain idea or feeling.

- “Tall he stood above the crowd.”

- ANECDOTE
• A short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident, often used to support or
demonstrate some point, or to engender discussion/rumination on the topic at hand.
- ANTI-CLIMAX / BATHOS
• An abrupt decline from the building narrative or rising tension, typically for comic effect. When
used intentionally, it devalues the subject, and creates contrast between the trivial nature of the
subject and the preceding ideas. When unintentional, it is known as bathos. For example, a
buildup of a serious conversation only to be interjected with a fatuous comment would be
bathos.

- “He lost his family, his job, and his house plants.”
- ANTHROPOMORPHISM
• Representation of animals or objects with human characteristics. Differs from personification in
that personification creates imagery, while anthropomorphism actually ascribes humanising
aspects to animals/objects to appeal to a wider audience, and make complex concepts more
approachable, making it good for political and social satires etc.

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- ANTITHESIS
• Using two sentences/clauses with contradictory/contrasting meanings close to one another, in
order to create strong contrast. Two sentences balance each other out through opposite
connotations, representing a whole idea. Usually used to show how an idea may be contradictory
but still whole.

- “Man proposes, God disposes”

- “Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit”
- APHORISM
• A saying that tersely expresses a moral principle or an observation about the world. Do not have
to be funny, and they always convey an idea that is supposed to hold some universal truth.
Aphorisms pack a punch in transmitting an idea.

- “You can’t always get what you want”

- “The truth is rarely pure and never simple.”
- APPROPRIATION
• A text that is a reinterpretation of a past text, removed from its original context, but retaining the
same character and rough plot. Audience can learn how context influences the events of the
plot, and the timelessness of certain concepts.

- West Side Story is an appropriation of Romeo and Juliet, adapted to a modern American
setting.
- ASSONANCE
• Vowel sounds that are repeated. Can sometimes be used to link with traditional chants etc., but
usefulness is circumstantial. Could be used to convey smallness in the case of “i”, “ee”, but use
varies by consonant (you can adapt it quite widely)
- ATMOSPHERE
• Feeling or mood evoked in the audience, created by a combination of sensory imagery and
diction. Use in conjunction with other techniques.
- BIAS
• Language that favours one side of an argument, not remaining impartial. This is usually
achieved through emotive language, connotation, modality, or various other literary devices.

- “I feel a strong urge to repudiate your baseless claims…”

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- CAESURA
• Rhythmical pause in a poetic line or sentence, denoted with or without punctuation (: or ; or ||
or —) May be used to break the monotonous rhythm of a line and force the reader to focus on
the meaning of the phrase preceding the pause.

- “I hear water lapping || with low sounds by the shore…”

- CARICATURE
• Where particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated to create a silly or comic effect. Effective as
a unique form of expression or derision against a subject, to possibly criticise a conflicting
ideology or societal problem etc.

- “Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a
good deal of train oil in his system.”
- CATACHRESIS
• Figure of speech in which mixed metaphors are used in an inappropriate way to create a unique
expression, usually of heightened emotions. Catachresis involves misusing words to convey
something completely different from their literal meanings, or paradoxical statements to create
strained metaphors. Can be used to illustrate a reference that did not exist, or illuminate ideas in
a unique and creative way.

- Hamlet - “Or to take arms against a sea of troubles”— a mixed metaphor.

- “The voice of your eyes is deeper than all roses—nobody, not even the rain, has such small
hands…” — illogical comparisons between the voice and roses and rain in order to express
the power of his lover over him.

• Another word for malapropism.

- CHARACTERISATION
• How characters are introduced, described and developed through their choices, interactions etc.,
along with their moral code, values and personality. This allows audiences to easily spot
inconsistencies in their actions, fomenting suspicion of possible influences.
- CLICHÉ
• A form of human expression (words, gestures etc.) which, due to repetitive use in social life, has
lost its original heuristic power. Thus, clichés are commonly used to stimulate behaviour while
avoiding reflection on actual meaning. Can be used to convey monotony and banality.

- “In the nick of time” — overused to the point of cliché.

- “A single tear trickled down her cheek”

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- CLIMAX
• Where successive (three or more) words, phrases, clauses are arranged in ascending order of
importance/intensity. Establishes a clear hierarchy, and enhances audiences’ understanding of
your point.

- “Let a man acknowledge his obligations to himself, his family, his country, and his God.”
- “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
- CONCEIT
• When two vastly different ideas/objects are linked together with the help of similes and
metaphors, developing a relationship that is seemingly unlikely yet rather surprising. These help
readers view things in a new way.

- “A broken heart is like a damaged clock”, the sheer dissimilarity forces the reader the ponder
the relationship in a new way, unlike similes which are comparatively direct.
- CONNOTATIONS
• Ideas, feelings, concepts associated with certain language beyond the literal meaning. This evokes
a particular atmosphere/tone.

- “Beauteous” may carry the connotations of old-fashioned-ness or a sense of abundance in

terms of beauty and elegance moreso than simply “beauty”.
- CONSONANCE
• Repetitive sounds produced by consonants in any part of a word. May be used to reiterate the
significance of an idea or theme, potentially able to underscore emotions which words cannot
convey or enhance imagery, deepening readers’ understanding.

- “Achille’s fickle chuckle” is consonant.

- CONTRAST
• Situation where two different/opposing things are presented together in order to highlight
differences. Can occur with ideas, settings, characters, objects, concepts, themes, etc. and seek to
make audience note that which makes them so different.
- DICTION
• Word choice. Refer to tone, register, modality, connotations, denotation, etc… use anything but
“diction”.
- DOUBLE ENTENDRE
• Phrase or figure of speech that has multiple senses, interpretation, understood in two different
ways (the second meaning often risqué). Can be used for insinuation or insult, or to put forward a
certain suggestion. Often employ puns or other word play.

- James Bond, when in bed with a Danish girl - “brushing up on a little Danish”.

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- DRAMATIC IRONY
• Audience is privy to some information the characters do not know, building audience tension,
suspense.
- ELLIPSIS
• Three dots (…) placed together to indicate omitted words, used to create tension or leave a
statement unspoken. Such steps can be taken to remove superfluity, or encourage cogitation on
the possible outcomes.

- “And then there were none…”

- EMOTIVE LANGUAGE
• Words that evoke a specific emotional response in the reader, often linked to the word’s
connotations. This may highlight a character’s strong emotion / reveal deeper motivations, etc.
- ENJAMBMENT
• The continuation of a sentence or clause over a line break, usually in poetry. This can create a
sense of natural motion, of progress etc.. May also be used to surprise the reader, or emphasise
the salience of an idea.

- “Another one
bites the dust.”
- EPIGRAPH
• Short quotation, phrase, or poem placed at the beginning of another piece of writing. This sets
their work in dialogue with the work referenced to convey a sense of relation, or to establish
themes/tone/context carried on from the cited text before reading.

- Ondaatje’s In The Skin of a Lion contains an epigraph, “I will let my hair grow…”
- EPIZEUXIS
• Repetition of the same word or short phrase many times in rapid succession in the same
sentence. Less refined than epiphora/anaphora, but more impact, as it brings much attention to
the repeated words.

- “It flowed down, down, down, without cessation.”

- ETHOS
• Proof deriving from the character of the speaker themselves, helping readers understand the
speaker’s credibility and ethical value. i.e., how the speaker convinces the audience that their
words are valuable and worth listening to.

- “Our businesses have experienced unprecedented success in all facets: customer satisfaction,
product quality and all.”

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- EUPHEMISM
• A decorous expression replacing one that is harsh, or otherwise offensive in order to diminish the
vulgarity. These are common when referring to topics of obscene nature.
- EXCLAMATION
• Sentence ending with ! or with a tone of shock/excitement used to express high emotion can
highlight peculiarities in personality, or reveal important discoveries or epiphanies.
- FALLACY
• Wide range of erroneous arguments dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. Effects
are multitudinous and varied.

- “How can you advocate for vegetarianism when you’re enjoying that steak?!” — ad hominem:
a very common fallacy in which a person and their character is attacked instead of their
argument.

- “Hitler was a veggie lover. Thus, I don’t trust vegans.” — association fallacy.
- “If the neighbour didn’t take my daily paper, who did?” (context: the paper is simply missing,
but the speaker erroneously accepts that the paper was stolen)

- “I know Frosted Flakes are amazing, it literally says so on the box” — taking evidence from
within the argument itself.

- “Torrential rain yesterday, and now hail? I swear tomorrow there’ll be shrimps falling from the
sky.” — slippery slope fallacy: the contention that one minor development will unavoidably
prompt a much more ludicrous event.

- “I drove over the curb and hit a tree stump, from which a raccoon jumped out, as if avoiding
me out of contempt. Raccoons are such bad luck.” — fallacy that relationship implies
causation.
- FLASHBACK / FLASH-FORWARD
• Interruption of the chronological sequence of an event of earlier/later occurrence, respectively.
Flashbacks can provide background or context to the current events, presenting insight into
motivations, incitations etc. Flash-forwards give logical explanations as to the actions of
characters. They may also increase readers’ interest in the current events, having already been
shown what is bound to happen.

- In Death of a Salesman, Willy Loman frequently experiences flashbacks of happy past

memories, demonstrating a character that is physically in the present yet mentally obsessed
with the memories and events of the past.

- In A Christmas Carol, Scrooge is depicted in a flash-forward scene as dead, from which many
people find comfort and happiness. As this flash-forward is diegetic (non-diegetic flash-
forwards are most definitely immutable), Scrooge takes it upon himself to prevent that reality
from materialising, vowing to become a better person.

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- FORESHADOWING
• Hint towards a future situation, event or action of great significance during a time when
audiences are not aware of its significance yet. Conveys dramatic suspense and tension, and
creates expectations of plot outcomes.
- FORM
• Construction and structure of a text, including language choices, sentence structures, writing
style, poetic styles (limerick, haiku). These can be influenced by the composer’s contextual
literary paradigm, or may be used to convey a certain feeling (e.g. a story told through episodic
vignettes (non-linear narrative) instils the idea that stories are created through patching together
multiple viewpoints)

- HOMONYM
• Words spelt the same way but with a different meaning and/or pronunciation. They create
comic effect when used together, and may increase the clarity of a text by playing with certain
words.

- “I have such a fit / when these words don’t fit!”

- HOMOPHONE
• Words pronounced the same but with a different meaning (can be spelt the same). Homophones
that extend over multiple words are oronyms. Effect is similar to homophone; can be used to
reveal the ingenuity of characters etc.

- “Sole owner am I of this sorry soul.”

- “Whenever the ice cream truck comes I scream.” - Oronym.
- HYPERBATON
• Altering the order of a sentence (two or more words) to emphasise a certain idea or feeling,
usually one associated with the words tampered with.

- “Some by sin fall, others by virtue rise.”

- HYPERBOLE / ADYNATON
• Purposeful over-exaggeration in order to create a more intense effect. Usually used in
conjunction with similes and metaphors to elicit a greater emotional reaction, and can
sometimes be used for humour if contrasted to an otherwise mundane setting. Hyperbole taken
to the extreme to the point of impossibility is adynaton.

- “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand?” is adynaton.

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- HYPOTHETICAL QUESTION
• Question based on supposition, opinion, belief, but not facts. Requires the questioner to arrange
imaginary parameters for the things they suppose. These questions elicit opinions from readers,
but if answered afterwards helps readers understand the perspectives and opinions of the writer.

- “What if you were trapped in a dark cell with 24 hours to live?”

- ICON
• An object, image or person that symbolises something larger, usually a complex concept or
theme. “Hero” characters, for example, represent their heroic ideas and values.

- Big Brother is an icon used by the Ingsoc Party in Nineteen Eighty-Four to symbolise their
power, omnipotence and total control over citizens.
- IDIOM
• A set expression or phrase that is not interpreted literally. These are used to convey subtle
meaning and make language more elaborate. Usually idioms express ideas more complex than
otherwise conveyable in the same amount of words, making the text more concise and coherent.

- “Every cloud has a silver lining”

- “If we play our cards right…”
- IMAGERY
• Descriptive language used to create an idea or mental image of something, ensuring audiences
have a very clear idea of what is happening or how it feels. Sensory imagery may enhance the
verisimilitude of a setting, or reveal a character’s attitude to a particular situation. Common
subtypes: vivid, olfactory, tactile, auditory, gustatory, visual, violent.
- INTERTEXTUALITY
• When one text makes reference to another text, through allusions or otherwise, in order draw a
conclusion or establish links between the two. Similar characters may be present in both texts,
from which we can compare and contrast their qualities and possibly how this links to context.
- INCLUSIVE LANGUAGE
• Use of plural first-person pronouns: “we”, “us”, etc. that make the audience feel included and
immersed.

- “We’re all in this together.”

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- INNUENDO
• Indirect or subtle observation about a thing or person, commonly critical, disparaging or
salacious in nature. They can be used to attack or critique somebody or some aspect of society,
serving as oblique allusions to reputation and character, without actually directly criticising them.

- “Graze on my lips, and if those hills be dry / Stray lower, where the pleasant fountains lie.”
- “Mark’s been spending a lot of time with Allison, if you know what I mean.”
- IRONY
• Verbal Irony (or sarcasm) is a disconnect between what is said and what is meant, usually
accompanied with an insulting, humorous or satirical tone. Situational irony is when the
outcome is unexpected, and in a way funny.

- “have a nice day” to a rude customer; a teacher making a mistake in their own test.
- JARGON
• Technical vernacular associated with a particular field or topic. These may convey hidden
meanings only understood in those fields. They are used to emphasise a situation or portray
something exotic, and in fiction to enhance verisimilitude.

- “The complaint sought damages and various forms of equitable relief, including an
injunctions barring the defendants from continuing the program.”
- JUXTAPOSITION
• Placing one idea, theme, object etc. parallel to another in order to compare AND contrast the
two. Encourages audiences to think about the two things in relation to each other and draw
conclusions about factors that influence their similarities and differences.
- LOGOS
• Reinforcement of the speaker’s argument through logical/statistical reasoning, convincing or
persuading the audience. As rationality and logic is valued in society, using logos are typically
more powerful than ordinary appeals.

- “You see, over the years I’ve noticed that male musicians are almost always bald. I haven’t met
Frank yet, but something tells me that he’ll be bald too.” —this type of two-step reasoning is
also known as syllogistic reasoning (syllogism).
- METER
• In poetry, the beat or rhythmic structure within the text, adding emphasis to certain beats and
the words that fall on them, or adding musicality. Iambic pentameter consists of five groups of
unstressed short + stressed long syllable pairs (iambs) per ten-syllable line.

- “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?” (Iambic Pentameter)

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- METAPHOR
• Comparing two things by saying that one “is” the other in order to draw stronger comparisons
that add a level of figurative meaning. Extended metaphors (conceits/allegories) are recurring or
large-scale metaphorical ideas that resurface multiple times in a text, used to establish even
deeper parallels between two concepts.

- Metaphor: “Time is money”

- Extended Metaphor: “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts.”
- METONYMY
• Referring to something not by its actual name but by a figurative name or something associated
with it. This establishes a connection between the two objects, and may be used in conjunction
with connotation, tone etc.

- “Show me your heart”, where the heart is used to figuratively represent someone’s emotions
or true desires etc.
- MODALITY
• The strength of one’s words. Speeches tend to use high modality, while low modality gives off a
more gentler feeling.
- MOOD / TONE
• How emotional feelings (as opposed to sensations) towards certain subjects or ideas are conveyed
in the text. Similarly to atmosphere, certain moods can also be achieved through tone, word
connotations and figurative language.

- “There was no moon, and everything beneath lay in misty darkness…” conveys a depressing
mood.
- MOTIFS / LEITMOTIF
• Idea, symbol, object, concept that is always present throughout an entire text, playing a
significant/symbolic role in the narrative. They tie into the central ideas of the narrative or may
reflect a certain message the author is trying to present. Leitmotifs are motifs that represent a
certain character.

- In Nineteen Eight-Four, the glass paperweight is a motif that represents past culture, as well as
the privacy of Julia and Winston in Mr Charrington’s room (and the fragility of this privacy).
- NARRATIVE PERSPECTIVE
• 1st person narratives are personal and may be self-absorbed or self-reflexive. 2nd person texts are
uncommon and address the audience directly, immersing the reader into the story. 3rd person
narration usually projects a more omniscient voice, although this is not always the case.
Additionally, 3rd person narratives carry a “detached” and “passive” feeling not in 1st person
narration.

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- NEOLOGISM
• Newly-created word that may be completely new or combinations of old and new words. The
words may reflect the context of the author/character and reveal more about the society they
live in (as neologisms tend to reflect priorities/values of their time period).

- “Dank meme”, “Banana Republic”, “Covidiot.”

- ONOMATOPOEIA
• A word that emulates the “sound” of what it represents, allowing the reader to hear what is
occurring. This can be used to establish certain qualities of objects, e.g. a “slow creak” from a
door may imply disrepair.
- OVERSTATEMENT
• A type of exaggeration where the effect of something is overstated to enhance meaning, to lay
emphasis and stress on the given idea, action, feature or feeling.

- “You’re the Nile, You’re the Tower of Pisa, You’re the smile Of the Mona Lisa…” —
metaphor employing overstatement to flatter his lover.
- OXYMORON
• Two contradictory words used together to create a strange or complex idea that still makes sense,
adding an extra level of meaning to the concepts discussed.

- Virtual reality, only choice, uninvited guest etc.

- PARADOX(ICAL STATEMENT)
• A seemingly contradictory statement that contains a truth or opinion upon deeper meditation,
inviting a reader to understand an underlying logic not obvious at first glance.

- “Youth is wasted on the young”.

- PARALLELISM
• When the grammatical elements of consecutive sentences/clauses are identical, intensifying a
comparison, emphasis or elaboration on an idea. Commonly used with other techniques
(asyndeton, epistrophe, antithesis etc.)

- “Give a man a fish, and you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish, and you feed him for a
lifetime.

- “Now soft on the sand, now loud on the ledge.”

- PARODY
• An imitation or mimicking of a text or style, especially using exaggeration for comic effect.

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- PATHETIC FALLACY
• Giving non-human objects or nature some kind of human feeling or senses. Or when nature
behaves in a way the supposedly represents human emotion, so as to represent an overall mood
or an ill omen.

- “Sudden from heaven like a weeping cloud/That fosters the droop-headed flowers…”
- PATHOS
• Emotions that the speaker induces in the audience to conjure up emotions of sympathy, pity and
sorrow. It is used to more effectively persuade listeners by developing an emotional connection,
bringing their ideas and themes more closer to life. Usually achieved through combination of
other techniques.

- “Darkies work on de Mississippi / Darkies work while de white folks play.”: the audience is
invited to feel pity for the African Americans through the contrast between “work” and
“play”, displaying the class disparity.
- PERSONIFICATION
• Attribution of human characteristics/actions to non-human objects, giving life/feelings to
inanimate objects. This is a type of metaphor, and helps readers better understand abstract ideas
and various concepts by attaching human qualities to them.
- PORTMANTEAU
• Where two or more words are blended together to coin a new word, whose meaning shares the
two original words’ meanings (as opposed to a compound word). E.g. telescreens, Medicare,
paratroops, motel. Portmanteaus may imply an association between the two joined words, but
mostly are used for purely creative purposes.
- PUN
• Words with similar or identical sounds used in phrases where they can be used to represent two
meanings, usually for humorous effect. However, they can also be used seriously to encourage
deeper reflection on the meanings of a phrase, expanding the reader’s interpretation

- “My dog has no nose” — “How does he smell?” — “Awful!”: wordplay on “how”.
- REGISTER
• The formality of language a character uses, developing a stronger sense of voice. For example,
having a character use dialectal/slang language creates a different effect than a character who
always uses formal language → adds to characterisation. Formality implies an authoritative
attitude, just as colloquial language is laid back and amicable.

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- REPETITION
• Repetition of words/syntax for emphasis and persuasion. A very weak technique to quote by
itself, you should try to dig much deeper and at least analyse the repetition in relation to the
theme/context of the text. Otherwise, use a different “repetition” technique if applicable
(anaphora, epiphora, antanaclasis etc.)
- RHETORICAL QUESTION
• Question asked without the intent of receiving an answer, forcing audience to come up with the
answer by themselves, or encouraging deeper thought about a specific idea.
- RHYME
• The repetition of a sound usually at the end of lines. Rhyme schemes are denoted by ABCD
patterns. Rhyme can be used to link rhyming words, create balance and relieve tension.

- Humpty Dumpty song first verse rhymes with the rhyming scheme of AABB.
- SATIRE
• When something is made fun of in an artful way to critique it or give commentary. It attempts to
create awareness and social change by employing tones of contempt, scorn, mockery, indignation
to highlight various facets of humanity (usually) that may be contradictory or arbitrarily unfair.

- The Simpsons is a satire on idealised images of family life, while commenting on the
sometimes ludicrous, excessive or idiotic state of contemporary American culture.
- SIBILANCE
• Alliteration involving the repetition of “s” within a phrase or sentence. Usually used either to
emulate a soft and flowing sound, or to evoke a cold and hissing sound.

- “Snakes sessile in sight”

- SIMILE
• A type of metaphor that draws comparison between two objects using the words “like”, “as if ”,
establishing connections between the two (usually) somewhat related concepts to illuminate each
other and enhance depth of thinking.

- “O my Luve’s like the melodie / That’s sweetly play’d in tune.”

- SOLILOQUY
• A speech performed by a character that is alone on stage. They may address the audience
directly. Usually the character reveals their inner intentions or motivations, and can serve as good
characterisation.

- Iago’s soliloquy(s) in Othello, where he solidifies his plot against Othello.

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- STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS
• Style of writing that tries to capture the natural flow of a character’s extended thought process,
often incorporating sensory impressions, incomplete ideas, chaotic syntax and rough grammar.
Good for representing chaos in a character’s thoughts, or emulating the process of thought itself.

- “Because I said If you wouldn’t keep on sawing and nailing at it until a man cant sleep even
and her hands laying on the quilt like two of them roots dug up…”

- “How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the
flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as I then was)
solemn…”
- SUPERLATIVE
• Adjective or adverb used to distinguish an object from three or more others of its type. Examples
include best, tallest, most difficult etc.. These express an extreme or unsurpassed level of emotion
or association.
- SYMBOLISM
• When an object, person etc. represents a more complex idea, concept or theme. Unlike icons,
symbols don’t necessarily represent something larger, and can represent relationships or
interactions etc.

- “Ling Bao, smiling and all, furtively handed me a Hong Bao”. Here the Hong Bao (red
pocket) symbolises fortune and prosperity, while smiles symbolise goodwill and friendship.
- SYNECDOCHE
• Using part of something to refer to the whole, sometimes the converse. Synecdoche creates
meaningful connections between the significant part and the whole, allowing authors to express
ideas in unique ways to create deeper meaning for readers.

- “Jenny turned up in brand-spanking-new wheels, after which I hit the sheets.”

- TAUTOLOGY / CONGERY
• The repetition of words/ideas/sayings with similar meaning in quick succession. Use may
communicate the narrator’s inept command of language, and conveys a sense of monotony and
sameness. However, can be used as a powerful tool to draw attention to a certain idea or aspect
of life. Congery is tautology but on a clausal level, repeating the same meaning in every phrase.
(Tautophrase is when the words are exactly the same).

- “Your writing is completely devoid of eloquence” is tautological as devoid means “completely

lacking” already.

- “He was so crestfallen, so dejected, his heart rent…” is congery.

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- TRUNCATED SENTENCES
• Sentences that are uncomfortably short. They may convey a brusque tone, or can be used to
push a major point/development in a crisp fashion, having grabbed readers’ attention through
their length.

- “It suddenly clicked. His axolotl. Johnny wept.”

- UNDERSTATEMENT / MEIOSIS
• A statement that undervalues something or someone, usually for comic or rhetorical effect when
an otherwise severe response is anticipated. Understatement can be used hand in hand to create
irony, etc. When the understatement is used to highlight a point or understate a response used to
enhance the effect of a dramatic moment, it can also be called meiosis.

- When the elevator to your 21st storey apartment malfunctions…“It’s only a few steps”
- Mercutio - “Ay, ay, a scratch, a scratch…” is meiosis as it enhances the drama of the scene.
- VERISIMILITUDE
• Using language to convey a sense of reality, even if the situation is far-fetched. This can help
readers to relate to exotic events and allows the reader a suspension of disbelief, as fictitious
worlds are injected with reality.

- “The white mares of the moon rush along the sky, beating their golden hoofs upon the glass
Heavens” — despite the far-fetched analogy between clouds and mares, the realistic portrayal
of horse movement gives the idea an air of reality.
- ZEUGMA
• When a word (usually verb/adj) applies to two words in different senses, blending grammatically
and logically distinct ideas. Good for embellishing expressions and adding artistic emphasis to
ideas, creating a dramatic effect and conciseness that may surprise readers.

- “John lost his coat and his temper.”

- ZOOMORPHISM
• A technique in which animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and
events. It is used to more effectively describe different characters and provide comparison.

- “I will rejoice in the shadow of your wings.”—God is represented as a bird, the wings
compared to the comfort and shelter he gives his people.

- “The sheep pushing their carts down the aisle”—mindless shoppers compared to sheep (also
implied metaphor).

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 HSC English Advanced

Fringe - Optional but Useful

- ANACHRONISM
• A person or thing placed in the wrong time period, and may appear out of place in a text. This
may produce an artistic effect in order to attract the attention of the readers, but usually is
unintentional. Sometimes used to appeal to modern readers’ tastes, or to establish the distinction
between different time periods.

- “The Lord’s servants chuckled loudly in the kitchen.”

- ANADIPLOSIS
• Repeating last word of a sentence at the beginning of the next one. Used to emphasise certain
words or drive home an idea.

- “When I give, I give myself.”

- ANTANACLASIS
• Inverse of zeugma. A word or phrase is repeated within a sentence, but means something
different each time it appears. This can be used for memorability, or to convince readers of an
argument. Also helps to contrast and emphasise the two different meanings of he repeated word.

- “Cats like Felix like Felix.” — here “like” is repeated with different meaning.
- “Just because a record has a groove don’t make it in the groove.” — distinction between
physical and musical groove to emphasise that not everyone can make a good record.
- ANTHIMERIA
• A word that is used in a new grammatical shape, often as a noun used as a verb. Anthimeria that
have made their way into everyday vernacular include “typing”, “texting” etc.. These words
evoke mild emotions of confusion, able to express ideas in a unique way that makes readers
think.

- “The parishioners about here are the laziest, gossipest, poachest, jailest set of any ever I came
among!”

- “Oh, so you’ve been Adioed? We tortured souls doing language subjects are Jin’d all the time.”
- ANTIMETABOLE
• Repeating a phrase in reverse order, in order to achieve artistic effect. A subtype of chiasmus,
antimetabole should be logically correct in both directions, and can thus convey a two-sided
message to readers.

- “I go where I please, and I please where I go”

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 HSC English Advanced

- ANTIPHRASIS
• When a phrase or word is employed in a way that is opposite to its literal meaning, in order to
create an ironic or sarcastic effect. It may also bring about additional meanings, helping readers
leverage their own imagination to understand the underlying meaning of the words and phrases.

- “I was awaked by the dulcet [soothing] tones of Frank, the morning doorman, alternately
yelling my name, ringing my doorbell, and pounding on my apartment door…”
- APHORISMUS
• Calling into question the way a word is used, in order to negate a point or question its
appositeness in a particular situation. Challenges preconceived ideas or something’s legitimacy
by pointing out that it doesn’t live up to its name.

- “How can you call yourself a hero?”

- “And such abomination in our so-called democracy is appalling…”
- APORIA
• Where speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt (usually feigned) about something, usually as a
way of proving a point, or garnering sympathy. Gives audience a chance to analyse and judge.

- “To be, or not to be: that is the question…”

- “…hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions?” — Shylock uses
aporia in the form of pretended doubt to assert his belief that Jews are just as human as
Christian.
- APOSIOPESIS
• When a sentences breaks off suddenly, leaving the author’s thought incomplete. This provokes
rumination over the omitted contents, and may hint at a hesitancy or unwillingness to reveal
information.

- “Unroll the sleeping ba–– .. oh good night.”

- APOSTROPHE
• Engaging in discourse with a deceased or absent character, or an inanimate object. This helps to
elucidate character intentions and/or further characterisation.

- “Work on, my medicine, work! Thus credulous fools / are caught.” - Iago refers to his deceit
as medicine (metaphor), addressing it although inanimate.
- ASYNDETON
• Omission of conjunctions between words, phrases or clauses. Unlike syndeton, asyndeton speeds
up the rhythm of the text. Often used to give emphasis to the concise text, pushing a certain
point that the readers must deduce by themselves.

- “He spent his days sleeping, working, drinking…”

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 HSC English Advanced

- CACOPHONY
• Combination of words that sound harsh or unpleasant together, usually with many plosive
consonants (T, P, K, CH, B). This is usually used to convey unrest, violence or chaos, possibly
even within the soul.

- “…Is stopped to the slap of belts on booming spools, spurred into the bulging bouillon…”
- CATALOGUE
• Carefully thought out list of people, places or ideas that commonly involve rhyme. These can
emphasise the variety of the listed item, allowing writers to portray their feelings, emotions etc.
in a logical sequence. Repetition of certain words strengthens the importance of ideas discussed.

- “Glory be to God for dappled things — For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow; For rose-
moles all in stipple upon trout that swim; Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; fiches’ wings; …”
- CHIASMUS
• The use of two clauses that are balanced against each other by an inversion of their structures.
Produces an artistic effect. Lays emphasis on the dichotomy of expression achieved by the
inversion of structure. Similar to antimetabole, however the words in each clause are not
necessarily the same.

- “We walked tiredly; drowsily, we ambled down the stone pavement."

- CIRCUMLOCUTION / PERIPHRASIS
• When the composer talks around the point, without stating it directly. Usually the verses become
soft and beautiful, and almost poetic in its portrayal of an idea, by forcing the audience to think
differently. Commonly combined with an extended metaphor.
- CONCESSION
• Where one acknowledges a point made by one’s opponent, indicating that the writer is a logical
and fair-minded person. This allows for multiple opinions to be presented before an argument is
put forward, usually amplifying the efficacy of the rebuttal, while demonstrating respect.

- “I agree that individuals all have the right to their own freedom, but medical evidence proves
that second-hand smoke is harmful. Nobody has the right to harm the health of another, and
smoking does just that.”
- DENOTATION
• The literal, dictionary definition of a word, as contrasted to the usually deeper connotative
associations. When only denotations of words are utilised, this may convey a sense of restriction
and ironclad thinking (1984 wink wink)

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 HSC English Advanced

- DIACOPE
• When a word or phrase is repeated with a small number of intervening words. It can convey
heightened emotion or more writing more persuasive and affecting. Since it is so broad, usually
occurs in conjunction with other devices such as epistrophe, epizeuxis, anaphora, etc..

- “Drill, baby, drill.” - vocative diacope (intervening word addresses someone).

- “The name’s Bond. James Bond. - elaborative diacope (adjective or other elaboration inserted
between repeated material.)

- “Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” - extended diacope (threefold repetition where
intervening words are before final repetition, augmenting the impact beyond a regular double
repetition.)
- DYSPHEMISM
• Opposite of euphemism. When one uses an exceedingly negative or unpleasant word to describe
something when a much milder one would do, usually for degradation, humiliation etc.
Expresses anger, social distance from a particular group, disapproval or contempt.

- “He’s nothing but a low-life douchebag.”

- ENTHYMEME
• Argumentative statement where one of the major or minor premises is omitted, not clearly
pronounced, or is implied, yet remains understandable. Makes the audience work out their own
conclusions, making them develop by themselves a clearer picture of a premise. May even
strengthen the argument through forcing the audience to take a final step.

- “Where there is smoke, there is fire.” — implies causation enthymemetically.

- EPANALEPSIS
• When the beginning of a clause or sentence is repeated at the end of that same clause or
sentence, with words intervening (the repeated material does not have to be 100% identical).
Conveys a sense of “bookending”. Places greater emphasis on a string of words or an idea.

- “The king is dead, long live the king!”

- “A minimum wage that is not a liveable wage can never be a minimum wage.”
- EPIGRAM
• A pithy witticism that conveys a single thought or observation, usually with a satirical twist. They
can also reinforce ideas by making them easy to remember, but some serve similar purpose to
aphorisms or proverbs.

- “The coldest winter I ever spent was a summer in San Francisco.”

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 HSC English Advanced

- EPISTROPHE / EPIPHORA / ANTISTROPHE

• Repeating the same word/phrase at the end of each sentence in order to draw striking emphasis,
as well as to appeal to readers’ emotions, making it a powerful persuasion device. Also makes the
text more pleasurable/memorable to read due to the consistency achieved with fixing the last
word/phrase.

- “Rain or shine, I’ll be there. Lividity or laughter, I’ll be there. In the end, I’ll be there.”
- EPITHET
• Literary device that describes a place, thing, or person in such a way that it helps in making its
characteristics more prominent than they actually are. They can sometimes be used to disparage
racially or for abuse, but are usually used in literature to describe characters/settings more
vividly in order to deepen meaning.

- “Sailing across the wine-dark sea to men…”— here “wine-dark” is used as an epithet to
explain the colour of the sea, enhancing the description.
- EPONYM
• An allusion that refers to a famous person, developing a link between a reference and the thing
being referred to, thus allowing furthering the meaning of the character/idea.

- Winston Smith in Nineteen Eighty-Four is probably an eponym for Winston Churchill, thus
assigning leader-like qualities to his character, albeit slightly diminished by his everyman
surname.
- EUPHONY
• Combining of words that sound pleasant together or are easy to pronounce, containing many
soft/muffled consonants (L,M,N, R, W, Y etc.). This is commonly achieved through combining
assonance and consonance, and is great for making an idea/thought seem pleasant or beautiful.

- “So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, / So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.”
- “When Zeus… stills the winds asleep in the solid drift…”
- FRAME NARRATIVE
• “Story within a story” where the main narrative is being told/remembered by someone in the
outside narrative. Such a setup underlines the contrast between the insider vs outsider’s points of
view.
- FOIL
• A character that specifically contrasts the main character in order to emphasise the main
character’s attributes. The foil may hold differing ideas or different ways of dealing with the
same situations and usually shares a similar background to the main character, as if being
portrayed as what the main character “could have been”.

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 HSC English Advanced

- FRACTURED SENTENCES
• Incomplete or broken-off sentences that build suspense, tension or a sense of urgency.
- “It was also finished. Just some more—“
- HALF RHYME
• AKA “Imperfect rhyme”, where the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the
preceding vowel sounds do not match. Gives a feeling of inharmony and imperfection, maybe to
signify some conflict or discord.

- “If love is like a bridge / or maybe like a grudge…”

- HYPALLAGE
• Inversion of the natural relations of two elements of a statement. When a modifier is applied to
the “wrong” word, it is known as transferred epithet. Can create metaphorical meaning, in that
e.g. for “he skipped along the jubilant path” a person may be experiencing a jubilance so
profound that even the path is influenced.

- “He ran a comb through his doubtful hair.” - the person is doubtful, not the hair.
- HYPOPHORA
• A figure of speech in which a writer raises a question, then immediately answers it. Creates
curiosity and interest among readers, as well as functioning as a way to introduce a new topic or
allow audiences to relate by raising questions they might already have on their minds.

- “What should young people do with their lives today? Many things, obviously…”
- IMPLIED METAPHOR
• A type of metaphor that compares two unlike things without actually mentioning one of those
things. Helps readers grasp complex phenomena and unfamiliar ideas, injecting deeper and
hidden meanings, broadening their imaginations.

- “Robert brayed his refusal to leave.” — compares Robert to a mule (and thus having a mule’s
stubbornness) without mentioning anything about mules.
- INTERROGATIO
• Employing a question as a way of confirming or reinforcing the argument one has just made.
Usually the answer is self evident, so as to reaffirm the speaker’s points by making the audience
think.

- “Isn’t that incredible? Aren’t you just dying to buy it?”

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 HSC English Advanced

- INVECTIVE
• Speech or writing that attacks, insults or denounces a person, topic or institution. Emphasises the
significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer. High invective typically uses creative and
formal language, conveying a sense of authoritarian integrity.

- “I cannot but conclude the bulk of your natives to be the most pernicious race of little odious
vermin that nature ever suffered to crawl upon the surface of the earth.”
- KENNING
• When two words are combined in order to form a poetic expressions that refers to something in
a new way. Breathes new life into ideas by using metaphorical language to change readers’
perceptions.

- “Couch potato” describes a lazy person, i.e. a potato that is stuck on a couch.
- “Bookworm” describes an avid reader of book worms, i.e. a worm that voraciously devours
books.
- KINAESTHESIA (KINAESTHETIC IMAGERY)
• Kinaesthesia is a type of imagery that gives a feeling of natural, or physical bodily movement or
action. This can include touch, physical movement, temperature, feelings. Kinaesthetic imagery
can be employed to describe vividly the actions or movements of characters and objects, helping
the imagination of a reader to envision the scene.

- “At this, through all his bulk an agony crept gradual, from the feet unto the crown, Like a lithe
serpent vast and muscular…”—simile with kinaesthetic imagery (crept, lithe) describes his
muscular agony.
- LITOTES
• A type of understatement that utilises negative wording to express a positive assertion, however
due to the negativity, this affirmative statement is attenuated and downplayed. I.e. you are
projecting an “absence of hate”. Can be used to gain readers’ attention and express meaning in
an understated way.

- “I’ll be honest, I don’t hate it.

- MALAPROPISM
• Use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word, resulting in a nonsensical and
humorous expression. Captures attention and interest of readers, while injecting personality into
characters that use them.

- “This does not portend [pretend] to be a great work of art”

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 HSC English Advanced

- NON SEQUITUR
• Statements, sayings and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and
reason, usually to create comic effect/absurdism, or suggest the irrationality of a character.

- “Maria drives a car. I bet she also drinks coffee”

- PARALIPSIS
• When an idea is deliberately suggested through a brief treatment of a subject, while most of the
significant points are omitted. The speaker pretends to hide what they exactly want to say, in that
the outline of a message is conveyed in a manner that seems to suppress the exact message.
Draws attention of readers toward a sensitive matter, while orator ostensibly remains detached
from it.

- “To those of you causing trouble, you know who you are. I won’t be naming names…Joshua.”
- “Let no man talk to me of other expedients: of taxing our absentees…of using neither
clothes, nor household furniture… of curing the expensiveness of pride…”
- PARALLEL (NOT TO BE CONFUSED WITH PARALLELISM)
• Setting up two characters, situations, settings or ideas to be parallel to one another, reflecting
each other but having different outcomes. So as to contrast the different choices and
characterisations and how they may have led to different outcomes. Similar to foil, however in
this case the character parallel is not intended to be antithetical to the other character.
- PARAPROSDOKIAN
• A figure of speech in which the latter part of a sentence, phrase or larger discourse is surprising
or unexpected in order to create humour or comic effect in the same vein as anticlimax. Can also
be used to create dramatic effect in some cases.

- “Trin Tragula… was a dreamer, a thinker, a speculative philosopher or, as his wife would have
it, an idiot…”
- PARATAXIS
• When words, phrases, clauses are set next to each other so that each element is equally
important. Parataxis can be syndetic or asyndetic. Common on advertising slogans to make them
memorable and straightforward. It can also add to the mystery of the text, or emphasise each
component, while projecting a sense of objectivity.

- “He was grey and he was woolly, and his pride was inordinate…”
- “The taste of real coffee. Exquisite. Smooth. Mellow.”
- PLEONASM
• Use of unnecessary words that are redundant to drive home meaning in a sentence. Reinforces
an assertion or idea, making it more clearer to understand.

- “Burning fire to roast the tuna fish”, “I myself saw it with my own eyes”

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 HSC English Advanced

- POLYPTOTON
• Repetition of different words that are derived from the same root or base word. It enhances the
meaning of a word dramatically and persuasively, and can provide rhetoric effect by better
articulating an idea.

- “The Greeks are strong, and skilful to their strength, fierce to their skill, and to their fierceness
valiant.” — here “strength”, “skill” and “fierce” are each used in two different forms.
- POLYSYNDETON (SYNDETON)
• Opposite of asyndeton, where there is copious use of conjunctions between each word, phrase or
clause in order to convey a sense of continuity. Can lay emphasis to the connected ideas.
Syndeton is when there is only one conjunction, but that is very weak.

- “We have ships and men and money and stores.”

- PROSTHESIS
• Addition of an extra sound or syllable to the beginning of a word, helping highlight it and
achieve a rhythmic effect. The extra syllable slows the pace of the text a bit, drawing readers’
focus.

- “I have bedimm’d the noontide sun.” (side-note: the omission at the end of the word is called
elision, but achieves little effect other than rhythmic aesthetics.)

- “Tearing of papers, breaking rings a-twain…”

- PYSMA
• Asking a series of questions in quick succession. They often require complex answers,
encouraging the reader to engage deeply. May convey a flustered mood, or reveal the character’s
inquisitive attitude.

- “Where was he? How did he get here? Who even was he anymore?”
- RUN-ON SENTENCE
• Combination of two independent clauses, joined together without a conjunction or punctuation
mark. This creates a sense of confusion, as it is seen as stylistically incorrect, however sometimes
can be used to repeat something important. Also seen in stream-of-consciousness writing styles.

- “I hate people that have always their poor story to tell everybody has their own troubles that
poor Nancy Blake died a month ago of acute pneumonia…”

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 HSC English Advanced

- SOLECISM
• Refers to the incorrect use of grammatical structures, intentional or unintentional. If
intentionally used, can help to establish a more holistic character by emulating a certain
vernacular.

- “I ain’t got no money.”

- “Or shall we on without a apology?”
- SYMPLOCE
• Combination of anaphora and epiphora in the same sentence. Highlights the contrast between
the different possibilities, adding a sense of balance that combines both the rhythmic consistency
of both epiphora and anaphora.

- “If they argue, we will resist. If they fight, we will resist. If they invade, we will resist.”
- SYNAESTHESIA
• When ideas, characters, places are presented in such a manner that they appeal to more than
one sense. This device is used to creatively communicate ideas to readers, making them more
vivid and adding more layers of meaning.

- “Back to the region where the sun shines a silent orange drone.” — visual and auditory.
- TAUTOPHRASE
• The use of tautology for phrases, where the (exact) same words repeat. Effect is similar to that of
tautology—emphasises the repeated words to drive home an idea or reinforce a point. If words
aren’t same but similar, refer to congery.

- “It ees what it ees.”, “What’s done is done.”, “You do you.”

- TMESIS
• Insertion of a word between the parts of a word to invoke emphasis or other emotional
significance. Stresses a point and forces readers to give more attention to the cut word.

- “Fan-bloody-tastic. Abso-bluffing-lutely fantastic.”

- TRICOLON
• A rhetorical technique consisting of three parallel clauses, phrases or words, which happen to
come in quick succession. Gives the statement a greater sense of roundness, completeness, and
wholeness. Makes the idea much more memorable and powerful.

- “Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired…”
- “And when the night grows dark, when injustice weighs heavy on our hearts, when our best-
laid plans seem beyond our reach…”

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 HSC English Advanced

- VERSE
• Verse describes the pattern in which a poem is written. You can use each style to reflect an extent
of “confinement” or to represent the presence or lack of freedom. There are three main types:

- Free verse is poetry without any strict meter or rhyme scheme, e.g. “The Love Song of J.Alfred
Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot has some rhyme, but there is no consistent scheme nor meter.

- Blank verse has strict meter but no rhyme scheme. e.g. almost all of Shakespeare’s plays are in
blank verse, as he employs strict iambic pentameter throughout.

- Formal verse is when the poem rhymes in a pattern while following a strict meter. E.g. many
of Dr. Zeus’ books follow this pattern (makes it easy for kids to read).

Visual Techniques (Amazing Great Okay)

Common - All are Worth Knowing
- ALLUSIONS
• References to other images/visual media,
including art, films, pop culture, religious
icons etc. sometimes as a parody. They
may also suggest links in subject matter/
themes between the two images. From
allusions viewers are made to ponder how
texts have been recontextualised.
- BODY LANGUAGE
• Facial expressions, posture and gestures
used to show characters’ attitudes, moods,
personality or emotional state.
- CENTRALITY
• Placing of main object in the centre of the
image in order to establish its integrality,
while the margin images are subservient.
Use this when talking about salience,
composition etc.
- CLOSE-UP SHOT
• When frame is mostly or entirely filled
with a character’s face, or an important
object. Suggests intimacy and indicates
significance. Commonly used to draw
attention to highly emotional facial
expressions.

- The work on the bottom alludes to/

parodies The Persistence of Memory by
Salvador Dali (top).

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 HSC English Advanced

- COLOUR SYMBOLISM - CONTRAST / JUXTAPOSITION

• Colour strongly ties in with our emotions,
and bears symbolic meaning, able to evoke
corresponding responses in audiences. The
brightness, intensity of colours can further
symbolise dullness/intensity of emotion.
• Placing things that are distinct/opposite
close to each other to contrast colour, size,
texture etc. to create complexity and
meaning. Contrasting details are also
highly salient as they stand out.

- The mismatched colours of the

buildings indicate his emotional unrest,
while the dull blue hue of the sky
conveys a sense of gloom and dread.
- DEMAND GAZE
Hot colours symbolise excitement,
happiness and anger, while cool colours
• When a figure in the image gazes directly
out of the page at the responder. This
represent harmony, peace and sombreness.
establishes a connection between subject
Red - anger, passion, danger, lust. and viewer.

Yellow - cheerful, joy, playfulness.

Blue - coolness, calmness, wisdom,

melancholy, seclusion, loneliness, distance.

Black - evil, mysterious, powerful, fear.

White - purity, innocence, mystique.

Purple - royalty, wealth, luxury

Green - health, fortune, youth, envy.

Grey - dull, plain, neutral.

- COMPOSITION
• What an image is made up of. Always
reference this technique in conjunction
with others (positioning, salience,
centrality), e.g. “The composition of a girl
projecting an offer gaze towards the
centralised dog.”
- FRAMING
• When elements in a layout are distinct/
disjunct and marked off from each other
(strongly framed). Framing can be achieved
by borders, discontinuities of colour and
shape. This can be used to illustrate
figurative disconnects and detachments.

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 HSC English Advanced

- HIGH ANGLE SHOT - OFFER GAZE

• A shot taken from slightly above • Refers to when the figure in the image is
something/someone, looking down on looking at another object in the image
them. Creates a sense of the subject being which may influence the viewer’s reading
weak, helpless, intimidated etc. path or emphasise certain objects.
- LIGHTING
• How a shot is lit or not lit, which has a
major impact on the mood and
atmosphere of an image. Includes natural
lighting and artificial light.

- The offer gazes of the two subjects

between themselves highlights the
conflict between them by making the
reader focus on their body language and
facial expressions.
- PERSPECTIVE / DEPTH
- In this picture, shadows are used • What is in the foreground, middle-ground
extensively to convey a sense of the and background and why have they been
unknown and unease, while strong light placed there? Objects in the foreground
is shone on the fleeing people to give are often considered more important than
emphasis. those in the background.
Shadows are fearful and full of despair, low
light is seedy, strong light is hopeful and
inspiring, soft light is intimate etc..
- LINES
• Different types of lines convey different
moods. Curvy lines are warm and safe,
while jagged and sharp lines indicate
excitement, yet also chaos and destruction.
They can also function as vectors.
- LOW ANGLE SHOT
- The screaming man, who is in the
• A shot taken from slightly below subject,
used to present them as being in a position foreground, is given more emphasis
of power, dominance or control. than the people in the background.

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 HSC English Advanced

- POSITIONING - SHAPE
• Where in the image’s 2D plane objects are • If an object is rounded, we associate it with
positioned. safety and calmness, while angular objects
engender sentiments of excitement or
Movement is expected from the left to right
confusion.
(which can symbolise progress), while
movement right to left may symbolise - SPACE
regression.
• Liberal use of space (lots of unused space)
Left is known, right is new or unknown. indicates isolation and emptiness, while a
densely packed image can imply chaos,
Upper is ideal, virtuous, high status,
energy or business.
powerful. Lower elements are realistic,
depraved, sad, sick, low status and
powerless.
- SALIENCE
• How much a section of an image draws
the viewer’s eyes. The viewer is usually
drawn initially to the most salient feature
of the image, which is always deliberate
- Here, an overabundance of space is
and used to express importance. Salience is
used to convey the loneliness and
achieved through size, colour, positioning,
isolation of city life.
distance etc. (must reference these!)
- SYMBOLISM
• Use of one image/object to represent an
idea or concept that is more complex than
it is. These can be used to more effectively
convey an idea without words.

- Here the most salient part is the iPad,

due to its centrality, and its dark colours
which contrast against the paler colours
of the surroundings.

For example, elements in the top left of an

image are very salient, as they are the first
thing viewers look at typically. Otherwise,
objects in the middle are usually initially
viewed.
- The main character is portrayed
trapped inside a bottle, which
symbolises her sense of loneliness and
alienation from her surroundings. The
overcast, stormy weather also symbolises
the scary nature of the outside world.

30

- TEXT
• Words within images to convey a literal or
figurative message. Consider the font,
colour, size, emotional weight, how often it
is used and other features of its inclusion.
Meaning can also be extracted through the
connotations of the words themselves.
- TEXTURE
• Connecting the sense of sight with the
sense of touch. Textures can create
different atmospheres in an image, e.g.
rough, uneven textures indicate unrest or
chaos while smooth textures signify peace
and placidity.
- Baker uses for each object a texture that
emulates its real life counterpart,
creating a realistic atmosphere, and
enhancing the verisimilitude of the text.
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HSC English Advanced
- READING PATH
• The lines or paths viewers’ eyes follow
when looking at an image. Generally,
reading paths move from the most salient
to least salient elements, influenced by
vectors along the way.
- Reading paths vary by person, but a
typical path for this picture would start
at the big pig’s face, from which an offer
gaze takes us down to the little pigs,
whose gaze redirects us back to the big
pig, from which we may notice the wolf
outside, and from there, other
miscellaneous objects around the room.
- VECTORS (VECTOR LINES)
• Lines (imagined or real) that lead your eye
from one element to another. Usually
vectors are deliberately created to lead the
eyes to a focal point or important feature.
- The salient offer gazes of the judges in
the top left draw our attention to the
accused man in the bottom right
through a vector line. Similarly, the
many people pointing at him each draw
a vector that redirects our focus to him.