Dynamic analysis :-

For large or complex structures, static methods of seismic analysis are often deemed to be not accurate
enough and many authorities demand dynamic analyses for certain types an size of structure. Various
methods of differing complexity have been developed for the dynamic seismic analysis of structures.
They all have in common the solution of the equations of motion, as well as the usual statical
relationships of equilibrium and stiffness. The three main techniques used for dynamic analysis are:

(1) response spectrum techniques;

(2) normal mode analysis;

(3) direct integration of the equations of motion by step-by-step procedures.

Direct integration provides the most powerful and informative analysis for any given earthquake
motion. A time-dependent forcing function (earthquake accelerogram) is applied and the corresponding
response history of the structure during the earthquake is computed. That is, the moment and force
diagrams at each of a series of prescribed intervals throughout the applied motion can be found.
Computer programs have been written for both linear elastic and non-linear inelastic material
behaviour, using step-by-step integration procedures. Linear behaviour is seldom analysed by direct
integration, unless mode coupling is involved, as normal mode techniques are easier , cheaper, and
nearly as accurate. Three-dimensional non-linear analyses take the three orthogonal accelerogram
components from a given earthquake, and apply them simultaneously to the structure. In principle, this
is the most complete dynamic analysis technique so far devised, and is unfortunately correspondingly
expensive and laborious to carry out.

Normal mode analysis is a more complex and accurate form of dynamic analysis than the response
spectrum technique and a more limited technique than direct integration (discussed next), as it depends
on artificially separating the normal modes of vibration and combining the forces and displacements
associated with a chosen number of them by superposition. As with direct integration techniques, actual
earthquake accelerograms can be applied to the structure and a stress history determined, but because
of the use of superposition the technique is limited to linear material behaviour. Although modal
analysis can provide any desired order of accuracy for linear behaviour by incorporating all the modal
responses, some approximation is usually made by using only the first few modes in order to save
computation time. Problems are encountered in dealing with systems where the modes cannot be
validly separated, i.e. where mode coupling occurs. The most serious shortcoming of linear analyses is
that they do not accurately indicate all the members requiring maximum ductility. In other words, the
pattern of highest elastic stresses is not necessarily the same as the pattern of plastic deformation in an
earthquake structure. For important structures in zones of high seismic risk, non-linear dynamic analysis
is sometimes called for.